Math Grade 11 Textbook Term 3

MATHEMATICS
Grade 11
Part - III
Educational Publications Department
i
First Print 2015
Second Print 2016
Third Print 2017
Fourth Print 2018
Fifth Print 2019
Sixth Print 2020
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ISBN 978-955-25-0311-5
Published by Educational Publications Department

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vi

Contents
Page
17. Pythagoras' Theorem 1

18. Trigonometry 12
19. Matrices 42
20. Inequalities 57
21. Cyclic Quadrilaterals 63
22. Tangents 79
23. Constructions 101
24. Sets 117
25. Probability 128
Revision Exercises 144
Logarithm Tables 149
Glossary 155
Sequence of the Lessons 158
vii
Message of the Board of Compilers
This textbook has been compiled in accordance with the new syllabus to be
implemented from 2015.
Textbooks are compiled for students. Therefore, we have made an attempt to

compile this textbook in a simple and detailed manner making it possible for you to
read and understand it on your own.

We have included descriptions, activities and examples to introduce the subject
concepts in an attractive manner and to establish them. Moreover, activities are
organized from simple to complex to develop an interest to do them.
We have used the terms related to mathematical concepts in accordance with the
glossary of technical terms of mathematics compiled by the Department of Official
Languages.
Some subject matter learnt during the earlier grades is necessary to learn the
subject content in the grade 11 syllabus. Thus, review exercises are included at the
beginning of each chapter to revise previous knowledge. You will be prepared by
them for the subject content of grade 11.
In addition, students may use the grade 10 book which you have if you need to
recall previous knowledge.
You will gain maximum benefit from this textbook by reading the chapters and
doing the review exercises of each chapter even before your teacher teaches them
in the classroom.
We hope that studying mathematics will be an interesting, joyful and productive

experience.
Board of Compilers
viii
17 Pythagoras’ Theorem
By studying this lesson you will be able to
² identify Pythagoras’ Theorem
² use Pythagoras’ Theorem in calculations and to prove riders
² identify Pythagorean triples.
Introduction
A P
K
L M
B C Q R
The triangles ABC, PQR and KLM in the above figure are respectively an acute
angled triangle, a right angled triangle and an obtuse angled triangle. These triangles
have been thus named, by considering the largest (one or more) of the interior
>
angles. Accordingly, the right angle PQR is the largest interior angle of the triangle
PQR. The side PR which is directly opposite this angle is the longest side of the
triangle. This side is called the hypotenuse, and the remaining sides, namely PQ and
QR, are known as the sides that include the right angle.
There is evidence to show that from ancient times, man knew about the geometrical
properties of triangles. The marvel of the pyramids made in Egypt around 3000
B.C. is accepted by us all. For such creations, knowledge of geometry, especially on
the characteristics of triangles is essential. In the “Rhind Papyrus” of around 1650
B.C. too, the main shape that can be observed is the triangle. Using this knowledge
on the geometry of triangles, in 600 B.C., the Greek mathematician Pythagoras
presented a special relationship between the lengths of the sides of right angled
triangles. Although there is evidence to show that this relationship was known by
early civilizations in countries such as China and India, Pythagoras is considered
to be the first to offer a geometrical proof of this relationship. Later on in 300 B.C.,
the mathematician named Euclid included this result as a theorem, together with its
proof, in his historical book called THE ELEMENTS.
for free distribution. 1

17.1 Pythagoras’ Theorem
F
P
E B
R Q A
C D
A part of a floor on which tiles of the same shape and size have been placed is
depicted in the above figure. The shape of each tile is an isosceles right angled
triangle. Let us consider the isosceles right angled triangle PQR. The square PQAB
has been drawn on the side PQ and the square RCDQ has been drawn on the side
RQ (regions shaded in blue) of this triangle. The square drawn on the side PQ has
an area equal to that covered by two tiles. Similarly, the square drawn on the side
QR also has an area equal to that covered by two tiles, while the square PREF
drawn on the hypotenuse PR has an area equal to that covered by four tiles.
Accordingly, for the squares lying on the three sides of the isosceles right angled
triangle PQR, it is clear that the following relationship holds.
Area of square PQAB + Area of square RCDQ = Area of square

PREF
This relationship can be established further by doing the activity given below.
Activity
Using a square ruled paper, cut out 3 square shaped laminas and 1 triangular shaped
lamina as follows.
(i) A square shaped lamina with side length equal to the length of 3 small squares
(ii) A square shaped lamina with side length equal to the length of 4 small squares
(iii) A square shaped lamina with side length equal to the length of 5 small squares
(iv) A right triangular shaped lamina, where the sides which include the right
angle are of lengths equal to the length of 3 small squares and 4 small squares
respectively.
Paste the right triangular shaped lamina on a white paper. Paste the squares on the
three sides of the triangle as shown in the figure given below.
2
A
A
B C B C
The area of the square on the side AB of the right angled = 16 small squares
triangle ABC

The area of the square on the side BC = 9 small squares
The area of the square on the side AC = 25 small squares
Accordingly, the sum of the areas of the squares on
the sides which include the right angle of the = 16 + 9 small squares
triangle ABC
= 25 small squares
The area of the square on the hypotenuse AC = 25 small squares
of the right angled triangle ABC

Therefore, in the right angled triangle ABC, the sum of the areas of the squares
on the sides which include the right angle is equal to the area of the square on the
hypotenuse of the triangle.
This relationship between the sides of a right angled triangle, which was known
from ancient days, can be expressed as a theorem as follows.
Pythagoras’ Theorem: In a right angled triangle, the area of the square drawn
on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares drawn on the
remaining sides of the triangle, which include the right angle.
3
In the right angled triangle KLM shown in the figure, KM is the hypotenuse while
KL and LM are the remaining sides which include the right angle.

Area of the square drawn on the side KL = KL2 K
Area of the square drawn on the side LM = LM 2

Area of the square drawn on the hypotenuse KM = KM 2
Therefore, according to Pythagoras’ Theorem, L M

KL2 + LM 2 = KM 2

Let us now consider how calculations are performed using Pythagoras’ Theorem.
Example 1
>
In the right angled triangle ABC, B = 90 , AB = 5 cm and BC = 12 cm. Find the

x
length of the side AC.
According to Pythagoras’ Theorem, A

AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2 5 cm

= 52 + 122

= 25 + 144
= 169 C 12 cm B
. . . AC = 169
= 13

. . . the length of side AC is 13cm.
4
Example 2
Find the length of CD based on the information given in the figure.
According to the figure, Pythagoras’ Theorem can be applied to the right angled
triangle ABC.

A 12 cm B
. . . BC 2 = AB + AC
2 2

= 122 + 92 9 cm

= 144 + 81
= 225 C 17 cm
. . . BC = 225
=15
D
Applying Pythagoras’ Theorem to the right angled triangle BCD,

CD 2 + BC 2 = BD 2

CD 2 + 152 = 172

CD 2 + 225 = 289
. . . CD 2 = 289 – 225
= 64
. . CD = 8 .
. . . the length of CD is 8 cm.
Now let us consider how Pythagoras’ Theorem can be used to solve practical
problems.
Example 3
One end of a wire is tied to a ring fastened at a point 1m below the top of a vertical
utility pole, while the other end is tied to a ring fastened on the ground, 8 m away
from the foot of the pole. The length of the wire between the two rings is 10 m. Find
the height of the utility pole. (Assume that the wire is stretched.)
Let us draw the figure according to the given information.
P
1m
R
As the pole PQ is vertical, it makes a right angle with the
10 m
>
horizontal ground. Therefore PQS = 90x.

Since QRS is a right angled triangle, according to
Pythagoras’ Theorem, Q S
8m
5

QR 2 + QS 2 = RS 2

QR 2 + 82 = 102

QR 2 + 64 = 100
. . . QR 2 = 100 – 64
QR2 = 36
. . QR = 6 .
. . . Height of the pole = QR + PR
= 6 + 1
= 7
. . . Height of the pole is 7 m.
Now do the following exercise using Pythagoras’ Theorem.

Exercise 17.1
1. Fill in the blanks using the information in the figure.
A
(i) M (ii) (iii) P Q (iv) A
E
T
B D B C D
N O C S R
MO2 = .... + .... BD2 = .... + .... PQ2 = .... + .... AB2 = .... + AC2
.... = AC2 + CD2 QR2 = .... + .... .... = AE2 + EC2
AB2 = AC2 + .... AD2 = AC2 + ....
2. Find the value of x in each of the right angled triangles given below.
(i) A (ii) (iii) K (iv)
x R 4 cm O
P
N
x 6 cm x 3 cm
12 cm 1 cm
R x P
5 cm M
B 8 cm C 13 cm
cm
Q 12
2 cm
L Q
3. In the equilateral triangle ABC, D is the foot of the perpendicular drawn from
the vertex A to the side BC. If the length of a side of the triangle is 2 cm, find the
length of AD (Express the answer as a surd.)
6
4. The location Q is reached from the location P on the horizontal ground, by
travelling 15m to the North from P and then 8m to the East.
(i) Draw a sketch based on the above information.
(ii) Find the distance PQ.
5. The lengths of the diagonals of a rhombus are 12 m and 16 m. Find the length of
each side of the rhombus.
1 cm 1 cm
6. The figure illustrates the special creation 1 cm 1 cm
Archimedes’ spiral. By considering the right d c
angled triangles in the figure, find the lengths 1 cm e b
a 1 cm
a, b, c, d, e, f and g, using the given f
measurements. (Express the answers in surd g 1 cm
1 cm
form)
17.2 Further applications of Pythagoras’ Theorem

Now let us consider how riders related to Pythagoras’ Theorem are proved.
Example 1
ABCD is a square. Prove that AC2 = 2AB2.

A B
>
Proof : ABC is a right angled triangle since ABC = 90x

Applying Pythagoras’ Theorem to the triangle ABC,
AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2

AC 2 = AB 2 + AB 2 ÂB = BC, sides of a square&
∴ AC 2 = 2AB 2

D C
Example 2
In the rhombus ABCD, the diagonals AC and BD intersect at O. Prove that

AC 2 + BD 2 = 4 AB 2.
Proof: Since ABCD is a rhombus, the diagonals bisect each other perpendicularly.
(See figure)
. . . AOB = 90x , AO = OC and BO = OD'
>
7
According to Pythagoras’ Theorem; in the right angled triangle AOB,
AO 2 + OB 2 = AB 2
A B

1 1 >

( AC)2 + ( BD)2 = AB 2

2 2 =
1 1 O
>>

AC 2 + BD 2 = AB 2
>>
4 4
=
1
(AC 2 + BD 2 ) = AB 2 D > C
4
. . . AC 2 + BD 2 = 4 AB 2

B
Example 3
X
>
In the triangle ABC, BAC is an obtuse angle.

A C
AX is drawn from A,
perpendicular to BC. Prove that AB 2 – AC 2 = BX 2 – CX 2
Proof:
In the right angled triangle AXB, according to Pythagoras’ Theorem

AB = AX + BX
2 2 2
1
In the right angled triangle AXC, according to Pythagoras’ Theorem,
AC 2 = AX 2 + CX 2 2
1 – 2 ; AB 2
– AC 2
= AX 2
+ BX 2 – (AX 2 + CX 2 )
= AX 2 + BX 2 – AX 2 – CX 2

= BX 2 – CX 2

Prove the riders in the exercise given below as illustrated in the above examples.
Exercise 17.2
A
1. AD is perpendicular to BC in the triangle ABC .

(See figure)
If AD = DC, prove that AB2 = BD2 + DC 2.
B D C
2. AD is perpendicular to BC in the triangle ABC . Prove that

AB2 + CD2 = AC 2 + BD2.
3. AD is perpendicular to BC in the equilateral triangle ABC. Prove that

4 AD2 = 3 BC 2.
8
A
4. AD is perpendicular to BC in the equilateral triangle ABC
in the figure. BC has been produced to E such that
DC = CE. Prove that AE 2 = 7 EC 2.
B D C E
5. The diagonals of the quadrilateral ABCD bisect each other perpendicularly at O.
Prove that AB2 + CD2 = AD 2 + BC 2 .
6. O is a point within the rectangle ABCD. Prove that AO 2 + CO 2 = BO 2 + DO 2
(Hint: Draw a parallel line through O to any side of ABCD.)
A
7. P is a point within the triangle ABC. The perpendiculars
E drawn from the point P to the sides BC, AC and AB
F meet these sides at D, E and F respectively.
P
Prove that,
C
D (i) BP 2 – PC 2 = BD 2 – DC 2 and
B (ii) BD 2 + CE 2 + AF 2 = CD 2 + AE 2 + BF 2
8. The two squares ABXY and BCPQ lie on the same side of the straight line ABC.
Prove that PX 2 + CY 2 = 3 (AB2 + BC 2 )
17.3 Pythagorean triples

A
c
a
B b C
In the right angled triangle ABC in the figure, if the lengths of the sides which
include the right angle are a and b units, and the length of the hypotenuse is c units,
then we know that a2 + b2 = c2 according to Pythagoras’ Theorem. Values of a, b
and c which satisfy the equation
a2 + b2 = c2 are known as Pythagorean triples.
Since 32 + 42 = 52, we obtain that (3, 4, 5) is a Pythagorean triple. Any multiple of
the triple (3, 4, 5) is also a Pythagorean triple.
Eg: Multiplying each value of the triple (3, 4, 5) by 2 we obtain (6, 8, 10).
Since 62 + 82 = 102, (6, 8, 10) is a Pythagorean triple.
9
Multiplying each value of the triple (3, 4, 5) by 3 we obtain (9, 12, 15). Since
92 + 122 = 152, (9, 12, 15) is also a Pythagorean triple.
There are Pythagorean triples apart from the multiples of (3, 4, 5).
Eg: Since 52 + 122 = 132, (5, 12, 13) is a Pythagorean triple.
Since 82 + 152 = 172, (8, 15, 17) is a Pythagorean triple.
A mathematician named Euclid introduced “parametric equations” to find

Pythagorean triples. Given any two numbers x and y, if a = x2 – y2, b = 2xy and
c = x2 + y2, then a2 + b2 = c2, and hence (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean triple.
Eg: x = 6, and y = 5, then a = x2 – y2 = 62 – 52 = 11

b = 2xy = 2 6 5 = 60
a c
c = x2 + y2 = 62 + 52 = 61 '
Therefore (11, 60, 61) is a Pythagorean triple.
b
Exercise 17.3
1. The following triples are the lengths of the sides of two triangles. Select the
triangle which is a right angled triangle and write down the corresponding
Pythagorean triple.
(i) (8, 15, 17) (ii) (14, 18, 25)
>
2. Based on the measurements given in figures (i) and (ii), show that BAC is a
right angle in each figure.

12 cm
B D A
9 cm
7.5 cm
17 cm 10 cm
6 cm
A
8 cm
C B D C
(i) (ii)
10
3. By completing the table given below, find the Pythagorean triples corresponding
to the given pairs of values. Verify your answers.
x y x2 y2 a b c Pythagorean triple
x – y2
2
2xy x + y2
2
2 1
5 4
4 3
6 5
7 5
Miscellaneous Exercise
1. The chord AB of the circle with centre O, which lies at a distance of 9 cm from
O, is of length 24 cm. Find the radius of the circle.
>
2. Construct the triangle ABC where AB = 2cm, BC = 3cm and B is a right angle.
Using the triangle you constructed, find the value of 13 to the first decimal
place.
3. Construct straight line segments of the lengths given below.
(i) 8 cm (ii) 10 cm (iii) 41 cm
4. ABC is an equilateral triangle. D is the midpoint of AB and E is the midpoint of

CD. Prove that 16 AE 2 = 7 AB 2.
A
>
5. In the triangle ABC, B is an acute angle. The foot of the

perpendicular dropped from A to BC is X. Prove that
AC2 = AB2 + BC 2 – 2 BC.BX
B X C
11
18 Trigonometry
By studying this lesson you will be able to,
² identify the trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and tangent,
² perform calculations related to triangles using the sines, cosines and
tangents tables,
² use the scientific calculator to examine the accuracy of the solutions to
trigonometry problems.
18.1 Right Angled Triangles
We know that we can use Pythagoras’ relationship to find the length of a side of
a right angled triangle (right triangle) when the lengths of the other two sides are
given.
Pythagoras’ relationship cannot be used to find the lengths of the remaining sides
of a triangle when the length of one side of a right triangle and the magnitude of an
angle other than the right angle are given. To identify a method to do this, let us first
see how the sides of a right angled triangle are named.
B C
>
>
The angle B of the right angled triangle ABC is a right angle. Therefore A and
>
C are acute angles. The side AC which is opposite the right angle B is defined as
>
the hypotenuse of the triangle. When the angle C is considered, then AB which
>
is directly opposite C is called the “opposite side”. Moreover, the side BC which
>
is one of the arms of the angle C , the other being the hypotenuse, is called the
>
“adjacent side”.
>
Accordingly, when A is considered, as above, we have that BC is the “opposite

side” and AB is the “adjacent side”.
12
Thus, for the triangle PQR in the figure, P
the hypotenuse = PR
when QRP is considered, the opposite side = PQ
>

the adjacent side = QR
Q R
when QPR is considered, the opposite side = QR
>
the adjacent side = PQ.
Exercise 18.1
1. Complete the following table using the given figures.
K Q U
N
L M O P R T S V W X
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Right angled Hypotenuse Angle Opposite Adjacent

triangle considered side side
(i) KLM KM
>
LKM
>
LMK
(ii) PNO
>
NOP
>
OPN
(iii) QRT
>
RQT
>
QTS TQS
(iv) UVX
>
VUX
UVW
>
UWV
13
18.2 Trigonometric Ratios
Do the following exercise to investigate the relationship between two sides of a
right angled triangle and an angle of the triangle.
Activity
>
² Draw the angle XOY (= 30x) such that the arms XO and OY of this angle are of
length 11 cm each.
² Mark the points A, B and C on the side OY at distances of 2 cm, 4 cm and 7 cm
respectively from O.
² Using a set square or by some other method, draw lines perpendicular to OX
through the points A, B and C and name the points that these perpendiculars meet
OX as P, Q and R respectively.
² Then you will obtain a figure similar to the one given below.
Y
C
B
A
O X
P Q R
² Measure the lengths of the sides of each of the right angled triangles that are
obtained and complete the following table. (Write down all measured values and
calculated values to the nearest first decimal place).
Right angled Hypot- Side Side Opposite side Adjacent side Opposite side
triangle enuse opposite adjacent to Hypotenuse Adjacent side
Hypotenuse
30 30
x x
AOP 1 1.7 1
2 = 0.5
1 1.7 2 2 = 0.9 1.7 = 0.6
BOQ
COR
According to the above table which was prepared based on the measurements that
were obtained from the activity,
for the angle 30x, from all three triangles we obtain
opposite side
= 0.5
hypotenuse
14
opposite side
= 0.6
adjacent side
adjacent side
hypotenuse = 0.9
Notice that the reason why a constant value is obtained for these ratios of sides
of the right angled triangles in the above figure, is because the triangles are all
equiangular. The above ratios which are defined for right angled triangles are called
trigonometric ratios. These trigonometric ratios are called the sine of the angle 30x,
the tangent of the angle 30x and the cosine of the angle 30x, depending on the sides
connected with them. “sin” is used for sine, “tan” is used for tangent and “cos”
is used for cosine. Accordingly, the sine of the angle 30x is written as sin 30x, the
tangent of the angle 30x is written as tan 30x and the cosine of the angle 30x is written
as cos 30x.
P
Now let us write the trigonometric ratios for the triangle PQR in
the figure using the notation given above.
x
Q R
opposite side PQ
In terms of x; sin x = = PR
hypotenuse
adjacent side QR
cos x = = PR
hypotenuse
opposite side
PQ
tan x = adjacent side = QR
Now let us see how calculations are done using these three trigonometric ratios by
considering some examples.
Example 1
>
In the triangle PQR in the figure, P is a right angle. PQ = 5 cm and PR = 12 cm'

>
PQR = θ'
15
R
(i) Find the length of the side QR.

(ii) Find the following values.
12 cm

(a) sin θ (b) cos θ (c) tan θ
θ
P 5 cm Q
(i) According to Pythagoras’ relationship,
QR2 = PQ2 + PR2

= 52 + 122
= 25 + 144
. . . QR = 169
= 13
. . . the length of the side QR is 13 cm.
PR PQ PR
(ii) (a) sin θ = QR
(b) cos θ = QR (c) tan θ = PQ
12 5 12
= 13 = 13 = 5
= 0.3846
= 0.9230 = 2.4

Example 2
1
If tan θ = , find the values of sin θ and cos θ.
2

1
If tan θ = , the side opposite θ is of length 1 unit and the side adjacent to θ is of
2
length 2 units.
Let us represent this information in a figure.
A
θ
B 2 C
16
Then, according to Pythagoras’ relationship,
AC 2 = AB2 + BC 2
= 12 + 22
=5
.
.. AC = 5
opposite side adjacent side
Then, sin θ = hypotenuse
cos θ = hypotenuse
1 2
= =
5 5

Exercise 18.2
1. Fill in the blanks under each figure, based on the information given in each of
the following figures.
(i) A (ii) 3 cm (iii)

A B
θ 5 2 cm
3 cm 5 cm 5 cm
4 cm
5 cm
x
B 4 cm C 5 cm
8
C

sin θ = ............ sin α = ............ sin x = ............
cos θ = ............ cos α = ............ cos x = ............
tan θ = ............ tan α = ............ tan x = ............
5
2. If sin θ = 13 , find the value of (i) tan θ (ii) cos θ .
3. In the triangle ABC in the figure, B is a right angle and C = θ.

>
>

A
>
(i) Express BAC in terms of θ.

(ii) Show that sin θ = cos (90x – θ)'
sin θ
(iii) Show that = tan θ' θ
cos θ B C
17
18.3 The trigonometric ratios of the angles of magnitude 30x, 45x
and 60x
By considering an equilateral triangle of side length 2a, the trigonometric ratios for
the angles 30x and 60x can be found.
A
30 30
x x
2a 2a
60 60
x x
B a D a C
The figure depicts an equilateral triangle ABC. Its vertex angles are each of
magnitude 60x. We know that when the perpendicular AD from the vertex A to
>
the side BC is drawn, D is the midpoint of BC and BAC is bisected by AD. Then
BAD = 30x .
>
Let us find the length of the side AD of the right angled triangle ABD in terms of a.
According to Pythagoras’ theorem;
BD2 + AD2 = AB2

a2 + AD2 = (2a)2
AD2 = 4a2 – a2

= 3a2
AD = 3a
If we consider the right triangle ABD,
AD BD AD
sin 60x = AB cos 60x = AB
tan 60x =
BD
3a a 3a
= a = =
2 2a a
3 1
=2 = 3
= 2
18
If we consider the right angled triangle ABD,

BD AD BD
sin 30x = AB cos 30x = AB
tan 30x = AD
a 3a a
= 2a = =
2a 3a
1 3 1
= = 2 =
2 3
Let us now use the isosceles right angled triangle PQR in the given figure to obtain
the trigonometric ratios for the angle 45x. Let us take the length of the sides of the
triangle that include the right angle to be x.
Then, according to Pythagoras’ theorem, P
45
x
PR2 = x2 + x2
2x
= 2x2 x
. . .
PR = 2x
45
x
Q x R
Accordingly,
PQ QR PQ
sin 45x = PR cos 45x =
tan 45x = QR
PR
x x x
= = =x
2x 2x
1 1 =1
= =
2 2
The trigonometric ratios obtained for the angles of magnitude 30x, 60x and 45x are
given in the following table.
30x 45x 60x
1 1 3
sin 2 2 2
3 1 1
cos
2 2 2
tan 1
1 3
3
19
Example 1
>
In the right angled triangle ABC, B = 90x , ACB = 30x and AC = 10 cm' Find the
>
lengths of AB and BC.
According to the figure,
A
AB 10 cm
sin 30x =
AC

1 AB
2 = 10 30x
B C
AB = 5
.
. . the length of the side AB is 5 cm.
BC
cos 30x = AC
3 BC
2 = 10
. . . BC = 5 3
. . . the length of the side BC is 5 3 cm'
Example 2
Find the length of the hypotenuse of the right angled triangle PQR.
P
QR
cos 45x = PR
1
= 5
2 PR
. . . PR = 5 2 45x
Q 5 cm R
. . . the length of the hypotenuse is 5 2 cm'
Example 3
A 5 m long ladder is kept leaning against a vertical wall such that the angle between
the ladder and the horizontal is 60x. At what height above the horizontal ground
does the top of the ladder touch the wall?
20
A
Since the angle between the vertical wall and the horizontal
ground is 90x, ABC = 90x in the figure.
>
In the right angled triangle ABC, 5m
AB
sin 60x = AC

60x
... 3 = AB C B
2 5
. . . AB = 5 3
2
= 4.325 ( By taking 3 = 1.73&
. . . the top of the ladder touches the wall at a height of 4.33 m above the ground.
Now do the following exercise by using the values in the table in section 18.3.
Exercise 18'3
1. Find the length x in each of the triangles given below using the information given
in the triangle.
(i) A (ii) D x E (iii) x

G H
60
x
2 cm
2 cm
x
cm
45
x
30 5
x
I
B C F
2. Find the value of each of the following expressions using the information in the
table in section 18.3.
a. sin 30x + cos 60x

c. sin 60x + cos 30x + tan 60x
b. sin 45 + cos 45 + tan 60x
x x
d. cos 60x + sin 30x + tan 60x
3. Verify the following.
(i) sin 30x cos 60x + cos 30x sin 60x = 1

(ii) cos 60x cos 30x – sin 60x sin 30x = 0

tan 60x – tan 30x
(iii) tan 30x =
1 + tan 60x tan 30x
21
A
4. Based on the information in the figure,

(i) find the length of AX.
(ii) find the length of AC.
^ Take 3 = 1.7& 45
x
60x
B 5 cm X C
D C
5. Find the length of the diagonal of the rectangle
ABCD in the figure if the length of the side BC is 12 cm
12 cm.
30
x
A B
6. To keep an antenna post vertical, one end of a stretched wire has been attached
to a point which is 50 cm below the top of the post, while the other end has been
attached to a wedge which is firmly fixed to the horizontal ground, 5 m away
from the foot of the post. The angle between the horizontal ground and the wire
is 30x .
(i) Represent this information in a sketch.

(ii) Find the height of the post by taking 3 = 1.7
18.4 The Trigonometric Tables

So far we have considered only the trigonometric ratios of the angles 30x, 45x
and 60x. However, there are trigonometric ratios for all angles from 0x to 90x. The
trigonometric ratios corresponding to these angles have been tabulated. Separate
tables have been prepared for sine, cosine and tangent. The “degree” which is a unit
of angles can be divided into a smaller unit called “minute”. One degree is equal
to 60 minutes. i.e., 1x = 60'. Trigonometric ratio values for angles in degrees and
minutes are provided in the trigonometric tables.
In all three tables, the sines, the cosines and the tangents, the first column has the
angles from 0 to 90x. The following is a part of the Tangents Table.
22
In the trigonometric ratios tables, the first column has the angles from 0x to 90x
(Since only a portion of the table is given here, only the angles from 0x to 4x are
shown). The parts of a degree which are minutes are given in the first row of the
table as 0', 10', 20' etc., and as 1', 2', ...9' in the Mean Differences column. When
finding the trigonometric ratio of an angle, the value in the relevant row and column,
and sometimes the value in the Mean Differences column is used as is done when
using the logarithms table.
Now let us consider each of the above mentioned trigonometric tables separately.
The Tangents Table
The ratios in the Tangents Table start with 0.0000, increase gradually, exceed 1.0000
and become extremely large as the angle approaches the magnitude 90x. Below is
another portion of the Tangents Table.
Let us first find the value of tan 43x. The value corresponding to tan 43x appears
in the row which contains 43x and the column which contains 0'. Accordingly,
tan 43x = 0.9325.
Now let us find the value of tan 48x 20'
23
We need to move along the row containing 48x until we arrive at the column
containing 20'. Take the value.1237 which is in this position. Since the whole
number part of the number 1.0117 at the top of the column containing 20' is 1, all
the numbers along that column should also have a whole number part equal to 1.
(The reason for writing the relevant whole number part only in the first row is to
preserve the clarity of the tables). Accordingly, the value of tan 48x 20' is 1.1237.
Let us find the value of tan 49x 57' similarly. Here the value of tan 49x 50' needs
to be found first.
tan 49x 50' = 1.1847
To find the tangent value corresponding to 49x 57', we need to add the value from
the Mean Differences column, corresponding to 7', which is 0.0048, to the value
1.1847 (as a convention, the mean difference is considered to be a value with four
decimal places with only the non-zero part given in the tables).
Then we obtain
tan 49x 57' = 1.1847 + 0.0048
= 1.1895
Example 1
(i) tan 34x 30' = 0.6873
(ii) tan 44x 42' = 0.9884 + 0.0011
= 0.9895
(iii) tan 79x 25' = 5.309 + 0.044
= 5.353
When it is required to find an angle using the tables when a trigonometric ratio of
the angle is known, a procedure similar to that followed in finding the antilog of a
value using the logarithms table is used.
Let us find θ such that tan θ = 1.1054
24
Find the value in the table which is closest to 1.1054 but less than it. This value
is 1.1041. From the table it can be seen that the angle corresponding to this value
is 47x 50'. We need to add 0.0013 to 1.1041 to obtain the value 1.1054. Therefore,
the number of minutes corresponding to 0.0013 (that is, the value 13 in the Mean
Differences column) has to be added to 47x 50' to obtain the correct angle. This is 2
minutes as highlighted in the table. Therefore, the angle of which the tangent value
is 1.1054 is 47x 50' + 2' = 47x 52'. Therefore, θ = 47x 52' .
Example 2
(i) If tan θ = 0.3706

θ = 20x 20'
(ii) If tan θ = 0.4774
θ = 25x 30' + 1'
= 25x 31'
(iii) If tan θ = 0.8446
θ = 40x 11'
The Sines Table

This table contains values from 0.0000 to 1.0000. As in the Tangents Table, the
first column contains the angles from 0x to 90x . In the first row right at the top of
the table, the minute values, namely 0' , 10' , 20' etc., and in the Mean Differences
column, the values 1' , 2' , ... 9' appear. This table is used in the same way that the
Tangents Table is used.
Note: Although the values in the Tangents Table start from 0 and increase to very
great values, the Sines Table contains only values from 0 to 1. The reason for this
is because the sine value of an angle in a triangle always takes a value from 0 to 1.
Let us find the value of sin 33x 27' using the table.
25
First note that sin 33x20' = 0.5495. To obtain the value corresponding to the
remaining7' , move along the row containing 33x and find the value corresponding
to 7' from the Mean Differences column. This value is 0.0017. Add this value to
0.5495 to obtain the value of sin 33x27' .
That is, sin 33x27' = 0.5495 + 0.0017 = 0.5512.
Example 3
(i) sin 75x 44' = 0.9689 + 0.0003
= 0.9692
(ii) sin 45x 34' = 0.7133 + 0.0008
= 0.7141
(iii) sin 39x 50' = 0.6406
Now let us use the table to find the angle corresponding to a given sine value. This
is also done in the same way that we found the angle corresponding to a given
tangent value.
Let us find the angle θ if sin θ = 0.5075. It appear in the raw 30x and 30' column.
accordingly if sin θ = 0.5075, the θ = 30x 30'.
Now let us find another angle using the table.

The angle θ if sin θ = 0.5277. Since 0.5277 does not appear in the table, consider
the value 0.5275 which is the closest value in the table that is less than the given
value. The angle corresponding to this is 31x 50' . Consider the values in the Mean
Differences column along the same row to find the number of minutes corresponding
to the remaining 0.0002. The number of minutes corresponding to the value 2 in
the Mean Differences column is 1'. ∴ The angle of which the sine value is 0.5277
is 31x 51' .
That is, if sin θ = 0.5277, then θ = 31x 51' .
Example 4
(i) If sin θ = 0.5831 (ii) If sin θ = 0.7036 (iii) If sin θ = 0.9691

then θ = 35x 40' then θ = 44x 43' then θ = 75x 43'
26
Cosines
Consider the following triangle.
C
90 – θ
θ
B A
>
The above triangle is a right angled triangle with ABC = 90x Let us take BAC = θ.
>
Then, since the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180x, ACB = 90x – θ.
>
The sum of the angles ACB and BAC is 90x' You have learnt previously that such
>
>
pairs of angles are called complementary angles.

If we consider the triangle ABC,
>
side adjacent to A AB
cos θ = =
hypotenuse AC '
This can also be written as,
>
side opposite to C AB
sin (90x – θ) = = '
hypotenuse AC
Accordingly, cos θ = sin (90 – θ).
This relationship can be used to find the cosine value of an angle in a triangle.
Example 1
Find the value of cos 58x .
=cos 58x = sin (90x – 58x) (according to the relationship that was obtained)
= sin 32x
= 0.5299 (according to the part of the table given above)
27
Example 2
Find the value of cos 56x 18'.
First let us find the value of 90 – 56x 18' . It is 33x 42' .
Therefore cos 56x 18' = sin (90 – 56x 18' ) = sin 33x 42'
= 0.5549
We can similarly find the angle when the cosine value has been given. Let us
consider an example.
Example 3
Find the value of θ if cos θ = 0.5175.

Let us write this as sin (90 – θ) = 0.5175.
Next let us find the angle of which the sine value is 0.5175. According to the table
it is 31x 10' .
Therefore, 90 – θ = 31x 10' .

The value of θ can be found by solving the above equation for θ.
Then θ = 90 – 31x 10' = 58x 50'
Note: The cosine value of an angle in a triangle, like the sine value of an angle in
a triangle, always takes a value from 0 to 1. Apart from the above method, the
cosine value of an angle in a triangle can also be found directly from the Sines
Table. Observe that in the Sines Table, just before the Mean Differences column,
there is a column with angle values which are obtained by subtracting the angle
values in the first column from 90x. The cosine values of angles in a triangle can
also be found by using the table values corresponding to the angle values in this
column. However, in this case, the values in the Mean Differences column need to
be subtracted instead of added.
Now let us consider how to use the table in relation to cosine values.
Let us find the value of cos 4x 20' using the table.
28
Example 4
We need to consider the row corresponding to 4x in the “degrees” column on the
right hand side and the column corresponding to 20' in the “minutes” column at
the bottom. The value in the table in the row containing 4x, (found to the left), and
in the column containing 20' is 0.9971.
Therefore, cos 4x 20' = 0.9971.
Example 5
Now let us find the value of cos 9x 26' .

We see that cos 9x 20' = 0.9868 and that the value corresponding to 6' is 0.0003.
Now to obtain the value of cos 9x 26' , the value obtained from the Mean Differences
column has to be subtracted from 0.9868.
Accordingly,
cos 9x 26' = 0.9868 – 0.0003
= 0.9865
Example 6
Now let us find the angle θ such that cos θ = 0.4374.
29
The value in the table closest to 0.4374 and less than it is 0.4358. The angle which
has this value as its cosine is 64x 10' according to the table. The value 0.0016 which
is the difference between 0.4374 and 0.4358 is found in the column corresponding
to 6’. This needs to be subtracted from 64x 10' .
64x 10' – 6' = 64x 4'
∴ the angle θ such that cos θ = 0.4374 is 64x 4' .
Exercise 18.4
1. Find each of the following values using the Tangents Table.
a. tan 25x b. tan 37x c. tan 40x 54'
2. Find the angle θ corresponding to each of the tangent values given below.
a. tan θ = 0.3214 b. tan θ = 0.7513 c. tan θ = 0.9432
3. Find each of the following values using the Sines Table.
a. sin 10 30'
x
b. sin 21x 32' c. sin 25x 57'
4. Find the angle θ corresponding to each of the sine values given below.
a. sin θ = 0.5000 b. sin θ = 0.4348 c. sin θ = 0.6437
5. Find each of the following values using the Cosines Table. Examine the accuracy
of your answers by using the Sines Table.
a. cos 5x 40' b. cos 29x 30' c. cos 44x 10'
6. Find the angle θ corresponding to each of the cosine values given below.
a. cos θ = 0.4358 b. cos θ = 0.6450 c. cos θ = 0.9974
18.5 Solving problems using the trigonometric tables

The types of problems that were solved earlier involving the angles 30x, 45x and
60x only can now be solved for any angle in a triangle. It is important to take the
following into consideration when solving problems related to trigonometry.
1' Consider a suitable right angled triangle.

2' Select a suitable angle in the triangle.
3' Use a suitable trigonometric ratio corresponding to the selected angle.
30
A
Now let us consider some examples.
Example 1 10 cm
Find the length of the side AC by using the information in
the triangle ABC in the figure.
The angle in the triangle that is given is C. The length that 57 32'
x
is given is of the side opposite this angle. The length of B C

the hypotenuse needs to be found. ∴The trigonometric ratio which involves these
two sides, namely the sine ratio needs to be used.
AB
sin 57x 32' = AC
10
0.8437 = AC
10
... AC = 0.8437
Let us Find this value using the logarithms table.

10
Let AC = 0.8437 .
10
Then, log AC = log 0.8437

= log 10 – log 0.8437
= 1 – 1.9262
= 1.0738
∴ AC = antilog 1.0738
∴ AC = 11.85
Therefore the length of AC (accurate to the second decimal place) is 11.85 cm.
Example 2

A
AD has been drawn perpendicular to the side BC of the 12 cm

>
triangle ABC. Find the magnitude of ACB using the

information in the figure. 46 58'
x
C 5 cm D B
31
>
Here, the right angled triangle that needs to be considered to find the angle ACB
is the triangle ADC. If the lengths of two sides of this triangle are known, then the
required angle can be found. The length of one of its side, CD has been given as 5
cm. We need to find the length of one more side. Note that we can find the length of
AD by considering the triangle ABD. Therefore, let us first find the length of AD by
considering the triangle ABD and using the sine ratio.
AD
sin 46x 58' = AB
AD
0.7310 = 12
12 0.7310 =AD
. . . AD = 8.7720 cm
AD
>
Now, considering the right triangle ACD, tan ACD = CD
8.7720
=
5
.
. . tan ACD = 1.7544
>

. . . ACD = 60x 18'
>

Exercise 18'5
1. Find the length denoted by an algebraic symbol in each of the following triangles.
10 cm 40 08'
x
(i) (ii) (iii)
33 27'
x
6 cm
12 cm b e
a
30 10'
x
(iv) (v) c
(vi) f
'
15
x
58 05'
x
20 cm
27
8 cm
15 c
x 48'
23
d
32
2. Find the angle denoted by an algebraic symbol in each of the following triangles.
(i) (ii) 7 cm (iii)

12 cm
r
5 cm
10 cm 5 cm
p q
8 cm
A
3. Based on the information in the given figure, find
(i) the perimeter of the triangle ABC. 40
x
(ii) the area of the triangle ABC.

32 22'
x
B D 5 cm C
A
4. Show using the information provided in the figure that
>
the magnitude of the angle ABC of the triangle ABC, is
12 cm
30 58' .
x
45
x
B 8 cm C D

P > Q
5. 15 cm In the trapezium PQRS, SR > PQ. If PS = 12 cm
12 cm
>
and QR = 15 cm, find the magnitude of QRS .
55
x
S > R
18.6 Angles in a vertical plane

A plane which is parallel to the earth (flat ground) is a horizontal plane. A plane
which is perpendicular to a horizontal plane is a vertical plane. A post which is
fixed perpendicular to the earth is a vertical post. Such a post is depicted in the
figure.
Vertical post
Horizontal ground
33
You learnt in grade 10 to determine locations using scale diagrams involving
angles of elevation and angles of depression. Now let us learn how to find using the
trigonometric ratios.
Let us consider the following example.
Example 1
A man is standing on the flat ground at a point C which is 20 m away from the foot
of a vertical pillar AB. The angle of elevation of the top of the pillar from this point
is 30x 22'. The man travels 15 m from this point along a straight path away from the
pillar to another point, and again observes the top of the pillar.
(i) Represent this information in a rough sketch.
(ii) Find the height of the pillar to the nearest metre.
(iii) Find the angle of elevation of the top of the pillar from the second
location.
(i) A
30 22
x
θ
B 20 m C 15 m D
(ii) Let us take the height of the pillar to be x metres.

Then, considering the right angled triangle ABC we obtain,
AB
tan 30 22' = BC
x
x
tan 30x 22' = 20

x = 20 tan 30x 22'
= 20 0.5859
= 11.718
Therefore, the height of the pillar is approximately 12 m.
(iii) Let us take the angle of elevation of the top of the pillar from D to be θ.
Then, considering the right angled triangle ABD we obtain,
AB
tan θ = BD
34
12
tan θ = 35
tan θ = 0.3428
. . . θ = 18x 55'
. . . the angle of elevation of the pillar from the second position is 18x 55''
Example 2
A person stands by a small window of a vertical building consisting of several
floors. The window is located at a height of 10 m above the flat ground. The person
observes a motorcycle which is parked on the flat ground a long distance from the
building. The angle of depression of the motorcycle from the window is 48x 23'.
The person now ascends to the topmost storey of the building and observes the
same motorcycle from another window. The angle of depression of the motorcycle
when observed from this window is 59x 50' .
(ii) How far from the building is the motorcycle parked?
(iii) Calculate the height of the window in the topmost storey of the building
from the flat ground, to the nearest second decimal place.
B > X
(i) 59 50'
x
C > Y
48x 23'
10 m
A D
x
(ii) ACD in the figure is a right angled triangle. Let us take the distance from the
building to the motorcycle to be x m.
>
>
Since YCD = 48x 23' , ADC = 48x 23' âlternate angles&

Therefore, by considering the right angled triangle ADC .
AC
tan 48x 23' = AD Finding the value of x using the logarithms
table
10 lg x = lg10 – lg 1.1257
tan 48x 23' = x
= 1 – 0.0515
10
... = x . . . x = antilog 0.9485
tan 48 23'
x
= 8.883
35
10
That is" x =
1.1257
= 8.883
.
. . the distance from the building to the motorcycle is 8.883 m.
>
(iii) In the right angled triangle ABD, ADB = 59x 50' .
AB
tan 59x 50' = AD
AB
tan 59 x
50' = 8.883

AB = 8.883 1.7205
= 15.28
.
. . the window in the topmost storey of the building is located at a height of
approximately 15.28 metres from the flat ground.
Do the following exercise according to the above examples.
Exercise 18.6
1. Draw a sketch based on the given information.
(i) A is located at the top of a vertical post AB. A person stands on the flat ground
at a distance of 20 m from the foot of this post. The angle of elevation of the
top of the pillar from the position of the eyes of the person is 55x 20' . The
person is 1.5 m tall.
(ii) A technician attending to repairs, seated at the top of a vertical

telecommunication pillar of height 35 m, observes a vehicle parked on the
flat ground a long distance from the foot of the pillar. The angle of depression
of the vehicle from the position of the technician is 50x .
(iii) A person on the second floor of a vertical building, observes a lighthouse at
a distance of 75 m from the building. The angle of elevation of the top of the
lighthouse from his position is 27x 35' and the angle of depression of the foot
of the lighthouse is 41x 15' .
(iv) The angle of elevation of the top of a utility post from the location where a
child stands is 30x. The child travels a distance of 25 m along a straight path
towards the utility post. The angle of elevation of the top of the utility post
from this position is 50x. (Nelect the height of the child).
36
2. A security guard looking out from a window at the top of a lighthouse of height
20 m observes a ship travelling in the sea. The angle of depression of the ship
from the top window is 30x 15'. Calculate the distance of the ship from the
lighthouse.
3. The angle of elevation of the top of a vertical post from a point on the flat ground
at a distance of 20 m from the foot of the post is 35x 12'. It is required to fix a taut
wire from a point on the flat ground at a distance of 20 m from the foot of the
post, to the top of the post to keep the post vertical. Find the length of the wire
required for this. (Assume that half a meter of wire is used up to tie the wire)
4. The angle of elevation of the top of a vertical utility post fixed to the flat ground
is 50x when observed from a point on the flat ground a certain distance from the
foot of the post. If the height of the post is 12 m, find the distance from the foot
of the post to the point of observation. (Neglect the height of the observer).
5. Two vertical posts A and B are fixed to the flat ground, a distance of 200 m from
each other. The angle of elevation of the top of B, from the top of A is 4x 10' , and
the angle of depression of the foot of B from this location is 8x 15' .
(ii) Find the heights of the two posts A and B to the nearest metre.
(iii) Find the angle of elevation of the top of B from the foot of A.
6. A person stands right at the centre, between two vertical posts which are at a
distance of 20 m from each other. The angle of elevation of the top of one post
from this position is 60x while the angle of elevation of the top of the other post
is 30x (neglect the height of the person).
(i) Find the heights of the two posts.
(ii) A taut wire has been drawn from the top of one post to the top of the other
post. Find the length of the wire.
18.7 Angles in a horizontal plane
You have learnt earlier that bearings are used to indicate directions in a horizontal
plane. Bearings provide a measure of an angle that is measured starting from the
North and moving in a clockwise direction. Bearings are given using three digits.
In modern measuring instruments the distance is also given with the bearing.

The point A which lies to the East of P, is located at a distance of 225 m from P on
a bearing of 090x. This can be represented in a figure as follows.
37
N
090
x
P 225 m A
Let us see how calculations involving bearings are performed using trigonometric
ratios by considering the following example.
Example 1
A straight road runs from the South to the North. When observed from a point A
on this road, point C is located at a distance of 250 m on a bearing of 220x. When
observed from another point B on the same straight road, C is located on a bearing
of 300x .
(i) Represent the above information in a sketch.
(ii) Find the distance from C to the straight road.
(iii) Find the distance AB.
(i) A
220
x
40
x
0m
25
C D
60
x
B
300x
(ii) Since the bearing of C from A is 220x, DAC = 220x – 180x

>
= 40x
CD
Then by considering the right triangle ACD we obtain, sin 40x = AC .
AC sin 40x = CD
CD = 250 sin 40x
= 250 0.6428
= 160.7000
. . . the shortest distance from C to the straight road AB is 160.7 m.
(iii) The length of AB = AD + DB
AD
By considering the right triangle ACD, we obtain cos 40x = AC
38
AD = AC cos 40x
= 250 0.7660
= 191.5000
= 191.5 m
CD
By considering the right triangle BDC, we obtain tan 60x = DB

CD
DB =
tan 60x
160.7
= 1.732
= 92.78 m
.
. . the length of AB = 191.5 + 92.78 m
= 284.28 m
Exercise 18.7
1. Represent the following information in a sketch.
(i) B is located at a distance of 12 m from A on a bearing of 080x .
(ii) Q is located at a distance of 50 m from P on a bearing of 120x, and R is
located at a distance of 25 m from Q on a bearing of 040x.
(iii) Y is located at a distance of 30 m from X on a bearing of 150x, Z is located
at a distance of 100 m from Y on a bearing of 200x and A is located at a
distance of 50 m from Z on a bearing of 080x.
2. A motorcyclist who starts a journey from a location A, travels 8 km to the East
and then turns to the North and travels a further 6 km till he reaches the location
B.
(ii) Find the bearing of A from B.
(iii) Find the shortest distance between A and B.
3. A ship leaves harbour A and travels a distance of 150 km on a bearing of 040x
until it reaches harbor B.
(i) How far towards the North is harbor B from harbour A?
(ii) How far towards the East is harbor B from harbour A?
4. A student who is trying to measure the breadth of a river which has straight
parallel banks on the two sides, sits on one bank of the river and observes a
tree, located directly in front of him on the opposite bank; the direction of the
tree from the boy being perpendicular to the river banks. When the boy travels
a distance of 75 m along the bank, he observes that the bearing of the tree from
this location is 210x. Represent this information in a sketch and find the breadth
of the river to the nearest metre using trigonometric ratios.
39
5. A group of forest conservationists observes from a distance that a fire has
commenced in a forest. Using information they received on the location of the
fire, starting from their camp C, they travel 2.5 km along a main road A on a
bearing of 070x to the location P, and then from P by travelling 1.5 km on a
bearing of 340x, they reach the location F of the fire.
(i) Represent this information in a figure.
(ii) Show with reasons that the group of conservationists was able to reach the
location of the fire as quickly as possible, due to turning off the main road
at P.
(iii) On what bearing would the conservationists have first observed the fire
from their camp?
18.8 Using the calculator to find trigonometric ratios

When performing calculations involving trigonometric ratios using a scientific
calculator, first the MODE key should be used to display “DEG” on the screen.
Let us see how these calculations are performed by considering some examples.
Example 1
Express using a flowchart how the keys of a calculator need to be activated to
obtain the following values.
(i) tan 35x (ii) sin 35x (iii) cos 35x
(i) tan 35x ON tan 3 5 = 0.7002

(ii) sin 35x ON sin 3 5 = 0.5736
(iii) cos 35x ON cos 3 5 = 0.8192
Example 2
Calculate the value of θ in each of the following cases.

(i) tan θ = 1.2131 (ii) sin θ = 0.7509 (iii) cos θ = 0.5948
(i) ON SHIFT tan 1 . 2 1 3 1 = 50.5x

(ii) ON SHIFT sin 0 . 7 5 0 9 = 48.66x
(iii) ON SHIFT cos 0 . 5 9 4 8 = 53.5x
40
Note: Observe that the value of each angle is obtained only in degrees.
For example 50.5x = 50x 30'
Exercise 18.8
1. Write down the order in which the keys of a calculator need to be activated to
obtain the (i) tan value (ii) sin value (iii) cos value of the following angles.
a. 40x b. 75x c. 88x d. 43x
2. Express using a flowchart how the keys of a calculator need to be activated to
obtain the value of θ in each of the following cases.
a. sin θ = 0.9100 d. cos θ = 0.1853 g. tan θ = 0.5736
b. sin θ = 0.7112 e. cos θ = 0.7089 h. tan θ = 0.7716
c. sin θ = 0.1851 f. cos θ = 0.4550
i. tan θ = 0.9827
1. Two ships P and Q leave a harbor simultaneously. Both ships travel at the same
uniform speed of 18 kilometres per hour. P travels from the harbor on a bearing
of 010x while Q travels on a bearing of 320x. Find the distance between the two
ships after an hour.
2. Two tall buildings are located on opposite sides of a road. One building is
9 m taller than the other. The angle of elevation of the top of the shorter building
from the foot of the taller building is 42x 20' If the shorter building is of height
15 m, determine the following. (Neglect the height of the observer)
(i) The distance between the two buildings.

(ii) The angle of elevation of the top of the taller building from the foot of the
shorter building.
>
3. AB = 10 cm, BC = 7cm and ABC = 30x 26'. The perpendicular drawn from A to
BC is AX. Find the area of the triangle ABC.
4. Two flagpoles have been fixed on flat ground. Two points A and B are located
along the straight line joining the feet of the two flagpoles. The angles of elevation
of the two flagpoles from A are 30x and 60x , and from B are 60x and 45x. The
distance between A and B is 10 m.
(i) Find the heights of the two flagpoles.

(ii) Find the distance between the two flagpoles.
41
19 Matrices
² identify a matrix
² identify the elements and the order of a matrix
² add and subtract matrices
² multiply a matrix by an integer
² multiply two matrices
² solve problems related to matrices.
19.1 Introducing Matrices

The idea of matrices was introduced in 1854 by the British mathematician Arthur
Cayley. Let us identify matrices using a simple example.
The marks obtained by Wimal, Farook and Radha in a term test, for the subjects
Mathematics and Science are shown in the table below.
Mathematics Science
Wimal 75 66
Farook 72 70
Radha 63 81

The numbers in the table given above can be represented in a matrix as follows.
75 66
72 70
63 81
Here the columns indicate the subjects while the rows indicate the students. This
information can also be represented in a matrix as follows.
75 72 63
66 70 81
Here the columns indicate the students while the rows indicate the subjects.
42
An array of numbers organized in rows and columns is known as a matrix.
Given below are several examples of matrices.
(i) 3 2 1 (ii) 3 2 1 (iii) 4

1 2 1 3
2
(iv) – 2 3 (v) 1 4 3 (vi) –5 4

2 0 2 6 1 9 –1
5 2 2 0 4
The numbers in a matrix are called the elements of the matrix. The elements of a
matrix, apart from being numbers may also be algebraic symbols or expressions
which stand for numbers.
Matrices are named using capital letters of the English alphabet. In instances when
elements are expressed in terms of algebraic symbols, simple letters of the English
alphabet are used.
Example 1
Three matrices which are named are shown below.
5 4 3 3
2 1 2 0 2 c
A= B= P=
1 1 2 5 a b
Example 2
In a Cartesian plane, the coordinates of the points A and B are (0, 5) and (4, 3)
respectively. Represent this information in a matrix. Name it P.
In a table,
A B
x 0 4
y 5 3
As a matrix,
0 4
P=
5 3
43
Order of a Matrix
3 1 4
Consider the matrix A= 2 2 0
The number of rows in A is 2 and the number of columns is 3. Using the number of
rows and number of columns, we write the order of the matrix as 2 × 3. A is known
as a “two by three” matrix.
Accordingly, A is sometimes written as,
3 1 4
A= 2 2 0
2 × 3.
Example 1
Write the order of each of the matrices given below.
(i) 3 2 (ii) 3 2 4
2 1
1 3 Number of rows =1
Number of columns = 3
Number of rows in the matrix = 3 Order of the matrix = 1 × 3
Number of columns in the matrix = 2
Order of the matrix = 3× 2
2 a c
(iii) (iv)
4 b d
Number of rows = 2 Number of rows =2
Number of columns = 1 Number of columns = 2
Order of the matrix = 2 × 1 Order of the matrix = 2 × 2
Row Matrices, Column Matrices and Square Matrices

Matrices with only one row are known as row matrices, matrices with only one
column are known as column matrices and matrices which have an equal number
of rows and columns are known as square matrices. Since the number of columns
44
and the number of rows of a square matrix are equal, the order of a square matrix
with two rows and two columns is known as a square matrix of order 2 and a matrix
with three rows and three columns is known as a square matrix of order 3 etc.
For example,
A = 3 2 5 is a row matrix.
5
B = 2 is a column matrix.
1
5 2 1
C = 3 1 3 is a square matrix.
0 4 0
Identity Matrices and Symmetric Matrices
3 2 4
P= 6 5 1
2 1 0

In the square matrix given above, the main diagonal is highlighted. The string of
elements from the top leftmost corner to the bottom rightmost corner is the main
diagonal.
Note: The main diagonal is defined only for square matrices. Most often, the
main diagonal is known simply as the diagonal.
The main diagonal of a square matrix of order two is highlighted below.
Q = 2 4
1 3
Given below is a special square matrix.
1 0 0
A= 0 1 0
0 0 1

45
The main diagonal of A consists of only the number 1. Apart from the diagonal
elements, all the other elements are 0. This type of matrix is known as an identity
matrix. The matrix A is the identity matrix of order 3 × 3. Given below is the
identity matrix of order 2 × 2.
1 0
B=
0 1

When naming identity matrices, the letter I is used. The identity matrix with n rows
and n columns is written as I n × n . Accordingly,

1 0 0
1 0
I 3 × 3 = 0 1 0 , I 2 × 2 = 0 1 '
0 0 1
Can you identify the special feature in the matrix given below?
3 2 1
X= 2 0 4
1 4 5

Consider the elements around the main diagonal of X. The elements around the
main diagonal which are equal to each other are placed symmetrically about the
main diagonal. Such matrices are called symmetric matrices.
1 5 1 0
Y= Z=
5 3 , 0 1
The elements around the main diagonals of Y and Z which are equal are placed
symmetrically about the main diagonal. Therefore these are symmetric matrices
too.
Note: Symmetric matrices are defined only for square matrices.
Exercise 19.1
1. Sarath bought 2 oranges and 3 mangoes, Kamal bought 4 oranges and 1 mango
and Raju bought 1 orange and 5 mangoes from a certain fruit stall.
(i) Express the amount of fruits bought by Sarath as a row matrix.
(ii) Express the amount of fruits bought by Kamal as a row matrix.
(iii) Express the amount of fruits bought by Raju as a row matrix.
(iv) Construct a matrix with quantities of fruits Sarath, Kamal and Raju
bought respectively as its rows.
46
2. Write the order of each of the following matrices.
3 2 2 3 0 2
(i) A = 5 1 (ii) B = 1 2 2 (iii) C =1
4 3 5
(iv) D = 0 4 (v) E = 5 8 3 (vi) F = a b
c d
3.
From the matrices given below, select the row matrices and the column matrices.
2
(i) P = 3 0 2 (ii) Q = 3 (iii) R = 4 3
2
(iv) S = 0 (v) T = 1 1 1 (vi) U = 3 0
1 0
1
4. From the following matrices, select and write down the

(i) square matrices
(ii) symmetric matrices
(iii) identity matrices
Highlight the diagonals of the square matrices.
1 2 2 2 1 1 0 0
1 2 , , D = 0 0 0
A= B = 2 3 , C= 4 0 4
2 0 2 2 1
3 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
E = 0 1 0 F = 0 1 0 G = 1 1
0 0 1 , 1 0 0 ,
19.2 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

We have learnt how to add, subtract and multiply numbers. We have seen how easily
we can solve problems by using these mathematical operations. We can similarly
define mathematical operations on matrices too. Let us first consider how to add
matrices.
Consider the two matrices A and B given below.
4 1 1 6
A= 2 0 B= 3 9
9 5 2 8

47
Both these matrices have the same order, 3 × 2. The addition of A and B is defined
as the matrix which is obtained when the corresponding elements of A and B are
added together.
Accordingly,
4 1 1 6 5 7
A+B= 2 0 + 3 9 = 5 9
9 5 2 8 11 13

By corresponding elements we mean the elements which are in the same position
of the matrix. For example, the element in the first row and second column of the
matrix A is 1. The corresponding element in matrix B is 6; that is the number in the
first row and second column of B.
Now let us consider an example with algebraic symbols.
x x y1 y2 x1 + y1 x2 + y2
If X = x1 x2 and Y = y3 y4 then" X + Y = x4 + y4
3 4 x3 + y3
The addition of matrices is defined only for matrices of the same order. Accordingly
addition of matrices of different orders is not defined.
Now let us consider how the addition of two matrices is used through an example.
Even though this example is a very simple one, it shows clearly how matrices can
be used in practical situations.
Example 1
Praveen and Tharindu are two bowlers in the school cricket team. The number of
wickets they took in the years 2014 and 2015 in one day and two day matches are
shown in the tables given below.
2014 2015 2014 2015

Praveen 21 23 Praveen 14 16
Tharindu 15 16 Tharindu 9 19

Wickets taken in one day matches Wickets taken in two day matches
48
Let us name the matrix which has the information on the one day matches as A and
the one with the information on the two day matches as B.
21 23 14 16
Then we can write A = and B =
15 16 9 19
In these matrices the columns represent years while the rows represent wickets. Let
us find A + B.
35 39
A+B = 24 35

Think about what the matrix A + B represents. It shows the total number of wickets
Praveen and Tharindu took in 2014 and 2015 in both one day and two day matches.
It can be represented in a table as shown below.
2014 2015
Praveen 35 39
Tharindu 24 35

Total wickets taken
The subtraction of one matrix from another is also defined similarly. Here, the
corresponding numbers are subtracted. For subtraction too, the orders of the two
matrices should be equal. As an example,
5 9 and B = 1 4 4 5
A= then" A – B = '
2 3 6 0 – 4 3

Let us consider another example.
If X is the 3 × 3 matrix with all the elements equal to 2 and Y is the 3 × 3 identity
matrix, then find the matrix X – Y.
2 2 2 1 0 0
X= 2 2 2 and Y = 0 1 0 '
2 2 2 0 0 1

49
Therefore,
2 2 2 1 0 0 1 2 2
X – Y = 2 2 2 – 0 1 0 = 2 1 2
2 2 2 0 0 1 2 2 1

Equality of two matrices
Let us consider what it means when we say that two matrices are equal.
A= 2 3 B= a b
10 9 c d
For A and B to be equal matrices a = 2, b = 3, c = 10 and d = 9.
That is, for two matrices to be equal, their orders should be equal and the
corresponding elements of the two matrices should be equal.
Exercise 19.2
1. Simplify the following matrices.
(i) 2 3 2 4 (ii) 3 – 2 3 + 2 – 2 – 4
+
1 4 3 5
6 2 – 2 3
(iii) + (iv)
4 – 4 0 + 1
3 –2
2 – 2 3 – 1 3 – 2 – 2 2
(v) 3 2 + – 2 1 (vi) +
1 0 – 1 1
3 4 2 – 2
(vii) 2 5 – 1 0 – 4 4 (viii) 5 4 2 2 3 5
+
3 4 6 + – 4 0 1 2 3 – 3 5 3 10
2 4 1 1 3 0
(i) 4 3 2 2 (ii) –3 3
2 5 – 1 2 5 – 8
6 7 2 1 8 2
(iii) 3 2 – 2 3 (iv) 5 – 3 – 2 – 2 – 4 – 2
–
–1 4 5 2
50
(v) 5 3 4 3 (vi) 6 3 2 3 2 – 2
–
– 2 4 – 2 1 4 3 5 – 2 0 2
3 – 2 1 1 – 5 –4
3. If 2 3 1 + 2 –1 3 = a b c find the values of a, b and c.
4. If 3 2 5 4 a b , find the values of a, b, c and d.

– =
4 1 3 2 c d
5. If 5 3 2 x 2 –1 8 5 1 find the values of x, y and z.

+ =
4 1 2 y 1 z 2 2 3
6. If 2 – 3 – x 3
=
1 0 find the values of x and y.
1 2 y 1 0 1
19.3 Multiplication of a matrix by a number

Now let us consider what it means to multiply a matrix by a number. Multiplying a
matrix by a number means multiplying each element in the matrix by that number.
The matrix obtained by multiplying matrix A by the number k is written as kA. Let
us only consider multiplying by an integer. For example, let
3 1 0
A= – 2 8 1

When A is multiplied by 5 the matrix obtained is,
5 × 3 5×1 5×0 15 5 0
5A = =
5 × (– 2) 5 × 8 5×1 –10 40 5
.
When A is multiplied by – 3 the matrix obtained is,
– 3 × 3 – 3 × 1 –3×0 – 9 – 3 0
– 3A = =
–3×–2 –3×8 –3×1 6 – 24 –3
.
Note: The matrix obtained by multiplying matrix A by a number k has the same
order as A.
2 4 5 –2
Example: If X =
1 0
and Y = 2 1 , then find the matrix 3X – 2Y .
51
2 4 5 –2
3X – 2Y = 3 + (– 2)
1 0 2 1
6 12 –10 4
= +
3 0 – 4 – 2
– 4 16
=
– 1 – 2
Exercise 19.3
3 1 2 2 –1 3
(i) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) 3
2 4 3 –3 1 2
2 1 0 – 2 3 – 2
(iv) 2 (v) 3 3 – 1 2 (vi) – 2 – 4 1
0
3 –3 2 0
2. Find a, b, c and d if 3 4 – 1 = a c
2 3 b d
x 8
3. Find the values of x, y and z if 4 –12
y =
z 2
5 x y –5 5 5
4. Find the values of x , y, a and b if 2 –3 =
– 2 9 4 a b 0
19.4 Multiplication of Matrices

From the above definitions you may have realized that addition and subtraction of
matrices as well as multiplication of a matrix by a number are carried out as for
numbers. However, multiplication of two matrices is done in a different way. This
is shown below.
Initially let us look at how to multiply a row matrix and a column matrix. If A is a
row matrix of order 1 × m and B is a column matrix of order m × 1, then the matrix
AB is defined and is of order 1 × 1 . To describe how matrix multiplication is done
in this case, let us consider an example.
52
Let us assume that A = a1 a2 and B = b1
b2
Accordingly, the order of A is 1 × 2 while the order of B is 2 × 1. Then AB is defined

as,
AB = (a1b1 + a2b2) 1 × 1
Example 1
Find AB if A = 5 2 and B = 3
1
AB = (5 × 3 + 2 × 1) = (17)
We learnt earlier that any matrix can be multiplied by a number. We also learnt that
addition and subtraction of matrices however can be done only if the matrices are
of the same order. Multiplication of matrices too can be done in some cases only.
Above we saw how to multiply a row matrix and a column matrix. We can multiply
matrices which are of different orders too. In general, AB is defined if the order of
A is m × n and the order of B is n × p; that is, if the number of columns of A is equal
to the number of rows of B. In this case we get a matrix of order m × p, which is the
number of rows of A into the number of columns of B. Let us now consider how
such products of matrices are found.
2 4 1 8
As an example, let us see how to find AB if A = and B =
3 5 6 7
2×2 2×2
When multiplying the above two matrices, multiply each row of A by each column
of B, in the same way that we multiplied a row matrix by a column matrix.
1 8
(2 4) 6 (2 4)
7 2 × 1 + 4 × 6 2×8 + 4×7
= =
1 8
(3 5) (3 5) 3 × 1 + 5 × 6 3×8 + 5×7
6 7

26 44
= (by finding each product)
33 59
53
The way the above matrix AB was obtained can be explained as below.
² The element in the first row and first column of AB is obtained by multiplying
the first row of A (row matrix) by the first column of B (column matrix).
² The element in the first row and second column of AB is obtained by multiplying
the first row of A (row matrix) by the second column of B (column matrix).
² The element in the second row and first column of AB is obtained by multiplying
the second row of A (row matrix) by the first column of B (column matrix).
² The element in the second row and second column of AB is obtained by
multiplying the second row of A (row matrix) by the second column of B
(column matrix).
Any two matrices for which the product is defined (that is, the number of columns
of A is equal to the number of rows of B), can be multiplied as above. Let us look
at a few more examples.
Example 2
4 6 1
If X = and Y = then show that XY is defined and find it. Is YX
2 3 7
defined?
Number of columns in X = 2 and the number of rows in Y = 2. As the number of

columns in X and the number of rows in Y are equal, XY is defined.
Now,
4 6 1
XY = 7
2 3
By multiplying each row of X by each column of Y we obtain,
1
(4 6) 7 4×1+6×7
= =
1
(2 3) 2×1+3×7
7
46
=
23

54
Now let us see whether YX is defined.
The number of columns in Y is 1 while the number of rows in X is 2. As the number
of the columns in Y is not equal to the number of rows in X, YX is not defined.
2
Let P = and Q = 6 3 . Under this section on matrix multiplication
–1
we first defined the product of matrices of the form QP. This product can be found
by using the above definition too. That is, by multiplying each row in Q by each
column in P.
2
QP = 6 3
–1 = (9).
This is a matrix with just one element. A matrix with only one element can be
considered as a number. Therefore we write QP = 9.
Furthermore PQ is also defined. The product of the matrices P and Q, namely PQ,
is a 2 × 2 matrix.
2 2×6 2×3 12 6
PQ = 6 3 = =
–1 (–1) × 6 (–1) × 3 –6 –3

Exercise 19.4
(i) 3 (ii) 3 2 × 2
3 2 ×
2 4
2 – 1 2 2 1
(iii) × (iv) 1 5 ×
0 –2 1 2 0
(v) 2 4 3 (vi) 3 2 1 –2
× ×
1 1 2 – 2 1 2 1
2 0 1 0
(vii) × (viii) 1 0 ×
3 1
0 2 0 1 0 1 2 2
(ix) 2 2 1 2 (x) 2 –3 × 3 –2
× 2 1 – 2 3
55
3 0
2. Find a and b if 2 3 × = a b
1 2
3. A, B and C are three matrices. A × B = C. Fill in the blanks in the following table.

Order of matrix A Order of matrix B Order of matrix C
1× 2 2 ×1 ............
2×2 .... × 1 ............
....× 2 .... × 1 1×1
.... × .... 1 × ..... 2×2
.... × 1 .... × 2 1 × .....
2 –1 2
4. If P = 2 –1 , Q = and R = .
1 2 1
find,
(i) P × Q
(ii) P × R
(iii) Q × R'
2 0 3 2
5. If A = , B=
0 2 1 1
(i) Find AB '
(ii) Find BA '
(iii) What is the relationship between AB and BA?
6. C = 3 2 , D = 4 3
1 4 2 5
(i) Find CD .
(ii) Find DC .
56
20 Inequalities
² solve inequalities of the form ax + b cx + d and represent the solutions on

a number line,

² express problems related to day to day activities as inequalities and solve them.
Do the review exercise given below to recall what was learnt in grade 10 about
solving inequalities of the form ax + b c
Review Exercise
1. Solve each of the inequalities given below.
x
a. 3x – 2 > 4 b. 2 + 5 ≤ 7 c. 5 – 2x > 11
x 5x
d. – 2 + 3 ≤ 5 e. 6 + 4 ≥ 14 f. 3 – 2x ≥ 9
20.1 Solving inequalities of the form ax + b cx + d

Let us now consider how to solve inequalities of the form ax + b cx + d
algebraically and represent the solutions geometrically on a number line.
Example 1
Solve the inequality 3x – 2 > 2x + 1 and represent the solutions on a number line.
When solving the inequality, all the terms with x should be carried to one side and
the numerical terms should be carried to the other side (as in solving equations.)
3x – 2 > 2x + 1
3x – 2 + 2 > 2x + 1 + 2 (adding 2 to both sides)
3x > 2x + 3
3x – 2x > 2x + 3 – 2x (subtracting 2x from both sides.)
x>3
57
This is the solution of the inequality. In words we can say that the solutions of the
inequality are all real numbers greater than 3. This can be represented on a number
line as shown below.
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
To represent the fact that 3 is not a solution, a small un-shaded circle is drawn
around the point denoting 3.
Example 2
Solve the inequality 5x + 3 ≤ 3x + 1 and represent the solutions of x on a number

line.
5x + 3 ≤ 3x + 1
5x + 3 – 3 ≤ 3x + 1 – 3 (subtracting 3 from both sides)
5x ≤ 3x – 2
5x – 3x ≤ 3x – 2 – 3x (subtracting 3x from both sides)
2x – 2
≤ (dividing both sides by 2)
2 2
x ≤ – 1

Accordingly, the solutions of the inequality are all real numbers less than or equal
to –1. The integral solutions of the inequality are all integers which are less than
or equal to –1. That is –1, –2, –3 etc. This can be represented on a number line as
shown below.

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
Note: If the integral solutions of the inequality are not asked for specifically, then
all real numbers satisfying the inequality should be given as the solution.
Example 3
Solve the inequality 2x – 5 ≥ 4x – 4 and represent the solutions of x on a number

line.
2x – 5 ≥ 4x – 4
2x – 5 + 5 ≥ 4x – 4 + 5 (adding 5 to both sides)
2x ≥ 4x + 1
2x – 4x ≥ 4x + 1 – 4x (subtracting 4x from both sides)
– 2x ≥ 1
– 2x 1
–2 ≤ – 2 (dividing both sides by –2)
x ≤ – 1
2
58

–4 –3 –2 –1
0 1 2
Note: Remember that when you divide by a negative number the inequality sign
changes. Consider how to solve this problem without having to divide by a
negative number.
Exercise 20.1
1. Solve each of the inequalities given below. Represent the integral solutions of
each inequality on a number line.
a. 3x – 4 > 2x b. 6x + 5 ≥ 5x
c. 2x – 9 ≤ 5x d. 8 – 3x > x
e. 5 – 2x ≤ 3x f. 12 – x > 3x
2. Solve each of the inequalities given below, and for each inequality, represent all
the solutions on a number line.
a. 2x – 4 > x + 3 b. 3x + 5 < x + 1
c. 3x + 8 ≥ 3 – 2x d. 5x + 7 ≥ x – 5
e. 3x – 8 ≤ 5x + 2 f. 2x + 3 ≥ 5x – 6
g. x – 9 > 6x + 1 h. 5x – 12 ≤ 9x + 4
i. 3x + 2 > x + 3 j. 2x – 5 ≤ 3x – 4
2 –2
20.2 Solving problems using inequalities
Example 1
Eight tea packets of the same mass and three 1kg packets of sugar are in a shopping
bag. The maximum mass the bag can hold is 5kg.
(i) Taking the mass of one tea packet as x grammes, write an inequality in
terms of x.
59
(ii) Solve the inequality and find the maximum mass that a tea packet could
be.
It is easier to work this problem out if all the masses are converted to grammes.
(i) Mass of a tea packet in grammes = x
Mass of 8 tea packets in grammes = 8x
Mass of sugar in grammes = 3 × 1000
= 3000
Maximum mass the bag can hold in grammes = 5 × 1000
= 5000

According to the information given, 8x + 3000 ≤ 5000
This is the required inequality.
(ii) 8x + 3000 ≤ 5000
8x + 3000 – 3000 ≤ 5000 – 3000
8x
≤ 2000
8 8
x ≤ 250

∴ the maximum mass of a tea packet is 250g.
Example 2
Sarath bought 5 exercise books and 3 pens while Kamani bought 3 exercise books
and 11 pens. The amount spent by Sarath was greater than or equal to the amount
spent by Kamani. Moreover, the price of a pen was Rs 10.
(i) Taking the price of an exercise book as Rs x, write an inequality in terms

of x.
(ii) By solving the inequality, find the minimum price of an exercise book.
(i) Price of the exercise books Sarath bought = Rs 5x

Amount Sarath spent = Rs 5x + 30
Similarly, the amount Kamani spent = Rs 3x + 110
60
According to the information given,
5x + 30 ≥ 3x + 110
This is the required inequality.
(ii) 5x + 30 ≥ 3x + 110
5x + 30 – 30 ≥ 3x + 110 – 30
5x ≥ 3x + 80
5x – 3x ≥ 3x + 80 – 3x
2x
≥ 80
2 2
x ≥ 40

∴ the minimum price of an exercise book is Rs 40.
Exercise 20.2
1. 5 bags of cement of mass 50kg each and 30 wires of equal mass have been
loaded into a small tractor. The maximum mass the tractor can carry is 700kg.
(i) Taking the mass of a wire as x, construct an inequality using the
given information.
(ii) Find the maximum mass of a wire.
2. There are twelve small packets of biscuits and five 200g packets of biscuits in
box A, while in box B there are four small packets of biscuits and nine 200g
packets of biscuits. The mass of the biscuits in box A is less than or equal to
the mass of the biscuits in box B.
(i) Taking the mass of a small packet of biscuits as x, write an inequality
in terms of x using the given information.
(ii) Find the maximum mass of a small packet of biscuits.
3. There are trained and untrained employees in a workplace. The daily wage of a
trained employee is Rs 1200. The amount spent on the daily wages of 5 trained
employees and 7 untrained employees is greater than or equal to the amount
spent on the daily wages of 7 trained employees and 4 untrained employees.
(i) Taking the daily wage of an untrained employee to be Rs x, construct
an inequality using the information given above.
(ii) Solve the inequality and find the minimum daily wage of an
untrained employee.
61
4. 5 packets of tea of equal mass and 3 kg of sugar are packed in a polythene
bag. The mass that the polythene bag is greater than or equal to the mass of
25 packets of tea. Using this information, construct an inequality and find the
mass of a tea packet that the bag can hold.
5. Square tiles of two sizes are used to tile two rooms. The area of the larger tile is
900cm2. To tile room A, 100 small tiles and 10 large tiles are needed, while to
tile room B, 20 small tiles and 30 large tiles are needed. If the area of the floor
of room B is greater than or equal to the area of the floor of room A, using an
inequality, find the maximum length that a side of the smaller tile could be.

6. A large bucket of capacity 5 litres and a small bucket are used to fill a tank with
water. The tank can be filled completely by using the large bucket 12 times and
the small bucket 4 times (assuming that both buckets are filled to the brim).
When the tank was filled using the large bucket 9 times and the small bucket 9
times, the tank did not overflow. Using an inequality, find the maximum capacity
of the small bucket.
62
21 Cyclic Quadrilaterals
• identify cyclic quadrilaterals and identify the theorem that “the opposite
angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary” and its converse,

• identify the theorem that “if one side of a cyclic quadrilateral is produced,
the exterior angle so formed is equal to the interior opposite angle of the
quadrilateral”.
21.1 Cyclic quadrilaterals

A quadrilateral which has all four vertices on the same circle is known as a cyclic
quadrilateral.
N
D R
Q V
S K U
A O O O S O
C
M
P L
B T
(i) (ii) (iii) (iii)
It is clear that the quadrilaterals in figures (i) and (ii) are cyclic quadrilaterals
while the quadrilaterals in figures (iii) and (iv) are not cyclic quadrilaterals.
In a quadrilateral, the angle which is opposite a given angle is known as the “opposite
>
>
angle”. For example, in the quadrilateral shown below, R is the opposite angle of P
>
>
and S is the opposite angle of Q .

Q
P S
To understand the relationship between opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral let

us do the following activity.
63
Activity
D
r
A s q C
p
B
² Draw a cyclic quadrilateral as shown in the figure.

² Cut and separate out the angles in the cyclic quadrilateral.
² From the angles that were cut out, take the angles p and r and paste them on a
piece of paper such that they are adjacent angles and see whether they form a pair
of supplementary angles (that is, whether the sum of the magnitudes is 180x.) Do
the same with the angles q and s.
² What is the conclusion you can draw regarding opposite angles of a cyclic
quadrilateral?
You would have observed the p + r = 180x and q + s = 180x. This relationship can
be written as a theorem in the following form.
Theorem: The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
According to this theorem, in the above figure,

>
>
ABC + CDA = 180

x

>
>
DCB + DAB = 180

x
Let us now see how calculations are performed using the above theorem.
Example 1
Find the values of x and y in the cyclic quadrilateral ABCD shown in the figure.
A
x Since the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are
supplementary,
70
x
D
B y 70x + y = 180x
2x

∴ y = 180x – 70x
y = 110x
C
64
Since the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary,
x + 2x = 180x

3x = 180x

∴ x = 60x
Example 2
O is the centre of the circle shown in the figure and AB//DC. Find the magnitudes
of the angles denoted by symbols.
D C
t 75
x
O
50
x
r
p
A B

>
>
OAB = OBA (OA and OB are equal as they are radii of the same circle)
.
. . p + p + 50x = 180x (interior angles of the triangle OAB)
. . . p = 180 – 50
x x

2
= 65 x
As the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180x,

>
75x + DAB = 180x

>
DAB = 180 – 75
x x

= 105x
>
>
BAO + OAD = 105

x
. . . 65x + r = 105x

r = 105x – 65x

r = 40x
As allied angles add up to 180x,

t + 105x = 180x
... t = 180x – 105x

t = 75x
65
Exercise 21.1
F
1. (i) Write down all the cyclic quadrilaterals in the figure. A
(ii) For each of the cyclic quadrilaterals written above,
write down the pairs of opposite angles.
B E
D
C
2. Find the magnitude of each of the angle denoted by a symbol, based on the
information in the figure. O denotes the centre of each circle.
(i) (ii) (iii)
C U
D 130
x
50
x
S T
123
x
x V
P 80
x
y + 10
2y
O
A x O O
y x + 10
y 5x R
B Q
S
(iv) (v) (vi)
D
U C
73
x
45
x
A
27
x
z
x D V
230
x
O O
O
x y
34
x T
y x
R
y
C A B
B S
3. O is the centre of the circle shown in the figure. P
a. If P = 60x and S = 125x, then find the magnitudes of

>
>
>
>
R and Q . Q
O
>
b. If P : R = 2 : 3, then find the magnitudes of P and R.

>
>
>
c. If Q – S = 120 , then find the magnitudes of S and Q.

>
>
>
>
x
R
d. If 2P = R , then find the magnitude of P .
>
>
>
>
e. If P = 2x + y, Q = x + y, R = 60x and S = 90x then find the values of x and y.

>
>
>
66
4. The points denoted by A, B, C, D, E and F lie on the circumference of the circle
>
>
>
with centre O. Find the value of FAB + BCD + DEF .
5. Using the information in the figure, find the magnitude A
of each of the angles given below.

a. BAE b. CBA c. CBE
>
>
>
32x
B E
27
x
x
105
D
C
Now let us see how to prove the theorem, “the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral
are supplementary.”
Data: ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral with its vertices D
on the circle with centre O.
>
>
To be proved: ABC + ADC =180x and

>
>
DAB + DCB =180x. O
Construction: Join OA and OC.

C
A
>
>
Proof: AOC = 2 ADC B

(the angle subtended at the centre is twice the angle
subtended at the circumference)
>
>
AOC (reflex) = 2 ABC (the angle subtended at the centre is twice the
angle subtended at the circumference)
.
. . AOC + AOC (reflex) = 2 ADC + 2 ABC
>
>
>
>
>
>
But, AOC + AOC (reflex) = 360 (angles around a point)

x
. . . 2 ADC + 2 ABC = 360x

>
>

>
>
Therefore, ADC + ABC = 180x

>
>
We can join OB and OD, and similarly prove that DAB + DCB = 180x.
. . . The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.

The converse of this theorem is also true. That is, if the sum of the opposite angles
of a quadrilateral is 180x, then its vertices lie on a circle. We can write this as a
theorem as below.
67
Theorem: If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then
the vertices of the quadrilateral are on the circle.
Now let us consider how riders are proved using the above theorem.
Example 1
A
In the cyclic quadrilateral shown in the figure, AB = AD

and CB = CD.
(i) Show that ABC ACD
B D
(ii) Deduce that AC is a diameter.
B D
C
(i) When we consider the triangles ABC and ADC,
AB = AD (given)
BC = DC (given)
AC is the common side
... ABC ACD (SSS)
>
>
(ii) ABC = ADC (corresponding angles of congruent triangles are equal)

>
>
But, ABC + ADC = 180x (opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary)
. . . ABC + ABC = 180x
>
>
. . . 2 ABC = 180x
>

. . . ABC = 90x
>
. . . AC is a diameter (angle in a semicircle is 90x).
68
Example 2
In the parallelogram ABCD, AB is produced to E such that CB = CE. Show that

AECD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
D C
d
c a b
A B E

a = b (since CE = CB)
c = 180x – a (angles on a straight line)
c = 180x – b (since a = b) 1
c = d (opposite angles of the parallelogram ABCD) 2
From 1 and 2 ,
d = 180x – b
∴ b + d = 180x
As the opposite angles of the quadrilateral AECD add up to 180x, this is a cyclic
quadrilateral.
Exercise 21.2
1. State with reasons whether each of the following quadrilaterals is a cyclic
quadrilateral or not.
(a) (b)
R
S
A 52x
35x
128x 110x
B P
C Q
Quadrilateral ABCD Quadrilateral PQRS
69
A P
(c) (d)
L
70
x
E
Q
>
40
x F
G M
B D
>
40
x
30
x
C
R
Quadrilateral FGDE
Quadrilateral QRML if PQ = PR
>
>
2. Show that PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral if P = Q and R = S .
>
>
>
>
>
3. In the cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, AC is joined. Show that BAC = ADC – ACB.
>
>
>
4. Show that A,B,C and D are points on the same circle if ABD + ADB = DCB in
the quadrilateral ABCD.
D
5. Using the information in the figure, prove that CDFE is a C
cyclic quadrilateral.
>
E
F
B
>
A
6. If AB is a diameter of the circle in the figure, E D

>
>
>
show that APB = CAB + ABC . P
A B
70
7. In the triangle PQR, PQ is produced to S and PR is produced to T. The bisectors
>
>
>
>
of SQR and QRT meet at X and the bisectors of PQR and PRQ meet at Y.
(i) Show that QXRY is a cyclic quadrilateral with XY as a diameter of the
corresponding circle.
>
>
(ii) Find the magnitude of QXR if QPR = 40x.

8. The two circles in the figure
intersect at X and Y. A straight X
line drawn through X meets the A B
two circles at A and B. If D and
C are marked on the circles such C
that AD//BC, show that DYC is a
straight line. D Y
21.3 The relationship between the exterior angle and the interior
opposite angle
In the cyclic quadrilateral ABCD shown in the figure, AB is produced to E.

C
A
>
Then, CBE is an exterior angle of the cyclic quadrilateral. The corresponding

>
interior opposite angle is ADC .
71
E
S
F
D
Q
The following table has been filled by considering the cyclic quadrilateral PQRS in
the figure.

Produced side Exterior angle Interior opposite
angle
>
>
PQ DQR PSR
>
>
QR ERS QPS
>
>
RS FSP PQR
>
>
SP QPC QRS
The relationship between an exterior angle and the interior opposite angle of a
cyclic quadrilateral is given in the theorem below.
Theorem: If one side of a cyclic quadrilateral is produced, the exterior angle

so formed is equal to the interior opposite angle of the quadrilateral.
72
C M
N
L
A
K
For the above figure, the following are true according to the theorem.
>
>
DAK = BCD
>
>
ABL = CDA
>
BCM = BAD
>
>
>
CDN = ABC

Let us consider why this theorem is true. Let us for example consider why
>
>
the angles DAB and BCM are equal. Since ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral,
>
>
DAB + BCD = 180x. Furthermore, since DCM is a straight line,

>
DAB + BCD = BCD + BCM. Cancelling BCD from both sides, we obtain
>
>
>
>
>
>
DAB = BCM.
Example 1
Find the values of a and b based on the information in the given figure.
As the exterior angle of the cyclic quadrilateral is

A equal to the interior opposite angle,
a
D a = 100x.
>
ADB = b ( since AB = AD)

b a + b + b = 180x ( interior angles of a triangle)
100 100x + 2b = 180x
x
B
C E
b = 40x
73
Example 2
Find the values of x, y, z, m and n based on the information in the given figure.
D
A n
65x y
z
m
80x x 120x
T
S B C
x = 65x (angles in the same segment)
As an exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle,

>
>
BAD = DCT
>
BAD = 120x
z + 65x = 120x

z = 55x

z = y ângles in the same segment&
.
. . y = 55x

As an exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle,

>
>
ADC = ABS = 80
x
. . . n + y = 80x

n + 55x = 80x

n = 80x – 55x
. . . n = 25x
80x + m + x = 180x ângles on a straight line&

. . . 80x + m + 65x = 180x

m = 180x – 145x
m = 35x
74
Example 3

The two circles in the given figure intersect at A and B. Moreover, PA = PB.
>
If APB = 70x"
>
(i) find the magnitude of ARQ .
(ii) Is AB//RQ ?
R
A
=
P
=
Q

(i) In the triangle APB,
>
>
PAB = PBA (since PA = PB)

180x – 70x
. . . PAB = PBA =
>
>
2 = 55x
>
>
Moreover, ABP = ARQ ^ exterior angle of the cyclic quadrilateral

ABQR = the interior opposite angle)
.
. . ARQ = 55
>
x
>
>
(ii) PAB = ARQ = 55x .

. . . AB//RQ. (since corresponding angles are equal&
Exercise 21.3
1. By considering the figure, name an angle equal to each of the angles given below.
R
S E

>
>
>
D (i) CBP (ii) DCQ (iii) REA

>
>
(iv) SEA (v) EAT
Q
T A C
B P
75
2. In each of the circles given below, the centre is O. Find the magnitude of each of
the angles denoted by an algebraic symbols.
(a) t
y
30
x
70
x
x
84
x
y O
O O
x
x
100x
y
(i) (ii) (iii)
= =
40
=
x
30
x
>
=
O O x
O
>
63
x
x x
(iv) (v) (vi)
62
x
30
x
42
x
O 60
x
O O
30
x
x
x
x 80
x
105
x
(vii) (viii) (ix)
33
=
= 130
x
p
>
87
x
120x O q O
O
x
x
70
x
> r
70x
(x) (xi) (xii)
76
A

3. The points D, E and F are on the sides BC,
F E
CA and AB respectively of the triangle
ABC such that BDGF and DCEG are G
cyclic quadrilaterals. Furthermore,
GDC = 80x.
>
80
x
B D C
>
>
(i) Find the magnitudes of AFG and AEG .
(ii) Show that AFGE is a cyclic quadrilateral.
4. The circles given in the figure intersect at P and Q. The straight lines APB and
CQD meet the circles at L, P, M and X, Q, Y respectively.

B
M
P
A L
C
X
Q
Y D

>
>
(i) Find the magnitude of BMY if ALX = 105x.

(ii) Show that LX and MY are parallel.
P

5. The centre of the given circle is O. The Q
diameter AB and the chord PR intersect O
perpendicularly at L. The line segments QR A T L
B
and AB intersects at T.
>
a. If QTA = x, write in terms of x,

>
(i) the magnitude of LRT , R

>
(ii) the magnitude of OPQ .

b. Show that QTOP is a cyclic quadrilateral.
77
Q R
6. In the figure, PQ = QR and
>
>
PR = PS. If PRS = 2 QRP, show
=
that
(i) PSRQ is a cyclic quadrilateral,
>
>
(ii) QPT : PRS = 3 : 2 .
=
T P S
T
S

7. PQ = QR in the cyclic quadrilateral P
PQRS. Moreover, PS is produced to
T such that RS = ST ' If SRT = 32x,
>
=
>
(i) find the magnitude of QRP , R
=
(ii) show that QS and RT are parallel. Q
78
22 Tangents
² identify the tangent which is drawn through a point on a circle and its
characteristics,
² identify the tangents drawn to a circle from an external point and their
characteristics,
² identify the angles in the alternate segment and solve related problems.
22.1 Tangents
Figure (i) Figure (ii) Figure (iii)
In Figure (i), the circle and the straight line have no points in common. Therefore
the straight line is situated external to the circle.
In Figure (ii), the circle and the straight line intersect at two points. Therefore the
circle and the straight line have two points in common. The straight line is known
as a secant of the circle.
In Figure (iii), the circle and the straight line have one point in common. Here
the straight line touches the circle and therefore the straight line is known as a
“tangent” of the circle. The point which is common to the tangent and the circle is
known as the tangential point.
79
Line drawn through a point on a circle, perpendicular to the
radius
To learn about the line drawn through a point on a circle which is perpendicular to
the radius, consider the facts given below.
B A C

O is the centre of the circle in the figure. The radius drawn through the point A
which is on the circle is OA. The line drawn perpendicular to the radius OA through
A is BC. It is clear that OAC = 90x and that BC is a tangent to the circle.
>
That is,
the line BC drawn perpendicular to the radius OA through the point A is a tangent
to the circle.
This result can be written as a theorem as follows.
Theorem: The straight line drawn through a point on a circle and perpendicular
to the radius through the point of contact, is a tangent to the circle.
Furthermore the converse of the above theorem is also true.
That is,
if a tangent is drawn to the circle through a particular point, then the radius that
passes through that point and the said tangent are perpendicular to each other.
This result too can be written as a theorem as follows.
Converse of the theorem: The tangent through a point on a circle is perpendicular

to the radius drawn to the point of contact.
80
Example 1
The tangent drawn to the circle with centre A through the point B is CD. If
>
BAD = 35o, then find the value of x.
35
x
C x D
B

>
ABD = 90o ^the tangent through a point on a circle is perpendicular to the radius
drawn to the point of contact &
As the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is equal to180o,
35o + 90o + x = 180o

x = 180o – 35o – 90o

x = 55o

Example 2
30o
A P B
In the figure, the tangent drawn to the circle with centre O through P is AB. If
>
OP = AP and OBP = 30o, find the magnitude of AOB .

>
OPA = 90o (the tangent through a point on a circle is perpendicular to the

>

radius drawn to the point of contact)
OP = AP (given)
. . . POA = PAO (in an isosceles triangle, the angles opposite equal sides are equal)
>
>
81
In the triangle APO,
>
PAO + POA + OPA = 180o (the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is180o )
>
>
. . . PAO + POA + 90o = 180o
>
>
>
PAO + POA = 180o – 90o
>

>
PAO + POA = 90o
>

. . . 2 PAO = 90o ( since PAO = POA )
>
>

> 90o
PAO =>
2
= 45o
In the triangle AOB,
>
>
AOB + PAO + PBO = 180o ( the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180o)
>
>
AOB + 45o + 30o = 180o

>
AOB + 75o = 180o

>
AOB = 180o – 75o

= 105o

Example 3
A P B
C Q D
PQ is a diameter of the circle with centre O. The tangents drawn to the circle through
>
>
P and Q, are AB and CD respectively. Show that PBQ = BQD .

Since the tangent drawn to the circle through a point on the circle is perpendicular
to the radius drawn to the tangential point,
>
QPB = 90o and

>
PQD = 90o .
...
>
>
QPB + PQD = 90o + 90o

= 180o
... AB // CD (allied angles)
...
>
>
PBQ = BQD (AB // CD and alternate angles)

82
Exercise 22.1
1. In each circle given below, the centre is O and AB is the tangent drawn to the
circle through the point C. Find the value of each algebraic symbol based on the
data in the figure.
O O
x 2a
A 30x B A 3a B
C C
(i) (ii)
B
c
a
30o b C O
O x
D x
y
A C B
A (iv)
(iii)
x B
O 100 O
x
a b
yx
C
a
A C B
A
(v) (vi)
83

2. In the circle with centre O in the figure, AB
is the tangent to the circle through the
point X. If the radius of the circle is 6 cm O
and YB = 4 cm, find the length of XB.
Y

A X B
3.The tangent drawn to the circle with centre O

through the point P is AB. Find the radius of the
O
circle if BOP = 45x and PB = 6 cm.
>
45x

A P B

>
through the point B is AC. If OAB = BOC then

>
O
show that AOB = BCO.
>
>
A B C

though the point P is AB. Q is on the circle such O
Q
that OQP = QPB . Show that OQ and PO are
>
>
perpendicular to each other.

A P B
84
A
6. The tangents drawn to the circle with C
centre O through the points A and B
intersect at point C. Show that AOBC is
a cyclic quadrilateral. O

7. Two circles with equal radii and with centres

A and B are shown in the figure. Y is situated
such that AY = YB. Show that YX is a common
X
tangent to the two circles. A B

Q
R
8. In the given figure, AB is a diameter of the circle
and PQ touches the circle at the point B. Prove
that, A B

(i) QRB = 90x and
>

>
(ii) ABR = RQB

>
85
22.2 Tangents drawn to a circle from an external point
Let us consider a point P which is external to the circle with centre O.
O P

Two tangents to the circle that pass through the point P can be drawn. These two
tangents are shown in the following figure.
A
O P
B

These two tangents are known as the tangents drawn to the circle from the external
point P.
Understand that there are two tangents that can be drawn to a circle from an external
point P irrespective of where the point is located. In the figure below are three
points P, Q and R through which two tangents each are drawn.
Q
O P

R
B
86
Now let us consider the characteristics of the two tangents drawn from an external
point to a circle.
Let us mark A and B as the tangential points and OA and OB as the respective radii.
Let us also draw the straight line segment OP.
P
O
B

As learnt in section 22.1 above, tangents are perpendicular to the radii drawn
through the tangential points. This is indicated in the above figure.
Observing the triangles OAP and OBP, we might guess that they are congruent,
based on symmetry. In fact they are congruent. This can easily be proved. Let
us see how this is proved. First observe that they are both right angled triangles.
Therefore if we show that the hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are equal to
the hypotenuse and corresponding side of the other triangle, we can conclude that
they are congruent under the RHS (Hyp.S) case. In both triangles, the hypotenuse is
the common side OP. Furthermore, since OA and OB are both radii, they are equal
in length. Accordingly, these two triangles are congruent under the RHS case. As
they are congruent,
(i) AP = BP; that is, the tangents are equal in length.

>
>
(ii) APO = BPO ; that is, the angle between the two tangents is bisected by OP.
>
>
(iii) AOP = BOP ; that is, both tangents subtend equal angles at the centre of the
circle.
The above considered facts are expressed as a theorem as follows.
Theorem: If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an external point, then,
(i) the two tangents are equal in length.
(ii) the angle between the tangents is bisected by the straight line joining the
external point to the centre.
(iii) the tangents subtend equal angles at the centre.
87
Let us now consider how this theorem is proved formally.
A
O
P
Data : The tangents drawn from the external point P through the points A and
B on the circle with centre O are AP and BP respectively.
To prove :
(i) AP = BP
>
>
(ii) APO = BPO

>
>
(iii) POA = POB

>
>
Proof : OAP = OBP = 90o ( tangents are perpendicular to the

radii)
... POA and POB are right angled triangles.
Now, in the triangles POA and POB,
OA = OB (radii of the same circle)
OP is the common side
... POA POB (Hyp.S)
In congruent triangles, corresponding sides and corresponding angles are equal.
. . . (i) AP = BP
. . . (ii) APO = BPO
>
>
. . . (iii) POA = POB

>
>
88
Example 1
P R
B Q C
As shown in the figure, the circle touches the triangle ABC at the points P, Q and R.
If AB = 11cm and CR = 4 cm, find the perimeter of the triangle ABC.
Tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal in length.

. . . AP = AR
BP = BQ
CR = CQ
. . . The perimeter of ABC = AB + BC + CA
= 11 + (BQ + QC) + (CR + RA)
= 11 + (BP + CR) + (CR + AP)
= 11 + (BP + 4) + (4 + AP)
= 19 + (BP + AP)
= 19 + AB
= 19 + 11
= 30
.
. . The perimeter of the triangle ABC is 30 cm.
Example 2
A
O
D
C
B
89
As shown in the figure, the two tangents drawn from the external point C to the
circle with centre O touches the circle at A and B. The line drawn from the centre O
to C intersects the circle at D.
Show that AD = BD.
We can obtain the required result by proving that the two triangles ACD and BCD
are congruent.
In the triangles ACD and BCD,
AC = BC ( tangents drawn to a circle from an external point are equal in length)
>
ACO = BCO ( the angle between the tangents is bisected by the straight line joining
>
the external point to the centre)

CD is the common side
. . . ACD BCD (SAS)
.
. . AD = BD (corresponding sides of two congruent triangles)
Exercise 22.2
A 12 cm
1. The tangents through the points A and C on the B
5 cm
circle with centre O in the figure, meet at B. If the
radius of the circle is 5 cm and AB = 12 cm, then O
find the perimeter of the quadrilateral ABCO.
C

A
4 cm
2. The tangents drawn to the circle through the P Q
points P, Q and R on the circle are AB, AC and 5 cm
BC respectively. Find the perimeter of the
triangle ABC if RC = 6 cm, BP = 5 cm and B
AQ = 4 cm.
R

6 cm
C
3. The tangents drawn to the circle in the figure through the B

points B and C meet at A. If BAC = 70o , find the magnitude
>
of ABC .
>
70o
A C
90
4. The centre of each of the circles shown below is O. The tangents drawn to the
circle through the points A and C meet at B. Based on the given data, find the
values represented by the algebraic symbols.
(i) (ii)
A A
30o B
O x bo
o
O co
o
55o a
yo B
C C

(iii) (iv) B
A
xo
O b A C
a 70 o B
y
o
O
C
ABC = 70 o
>
AOC = 110 o
>
5. O is the centre of the circle shown in the figure. The

tangents drawn to the circle through the points P and R
meet at Q. If QR = OR, show that PQRO is a square. P O
Q R
A
6. A, B and C are points on the larger circle with centre O shown
in the figure. AB and AC touch the smaller circle at the points P Q
P and Q. Show that, O
B C
(i) APQ is an isosceles triangle,
(ii) BC // PQ.
91
A X
7. According to the information in the figure, show that C
XC = CY. Also, AC and BC are the tangents drawn Z
to the given circle at A and B respectively.
Y

8. The tangents drawn from the external
point P to the circle in the figure, touch X Y
the circle at X and Y. The line QR which
touches the circle at Z is drawn such that
XQ = YR. Show that,
(i) PR = PQ, Q R
(ii) QR = XQ + YR, Z
(iii) XY // QR.
9. The tangents drawn through the points A and C on the circle with centre O
shown in the figure meet at the point B. Show that,
(i) OAX OCX ,
A
(ii) OB is the perpendicular bisector of AC,
>
>
(iii) AOC = 2 ACB . B

O
X
P
10. The tangents drawn from the external
point Q to the circle with centre O Q
X
shown in the figure are PQ and QR. QO
S O
produced meets the circle at S. Show
that,
(i) PQS QRS R
>
>
(ii) 2 OPX = PQR .

92
P S
11. As shown in the figure, Q is a point on both
circles and QS is a tangent to both circles. The
other tangents drawn from S to the two circles
touch the circles at P and R. Show that,
R
(i) PS = SR,
> Q
>
(ii) PQR = SPQ + SRQ .
>
22.3 Angles in the alternate segment
First let us see what an alternate segment is. To do this let us consider the following
figure.
A B
C
As shown in the figure, the straight line AB touches the circle at the point C. In the
figure, CD is a chord. The circle is divided into two segments by the chord CD.
One segment is the portion which is shaded light blue. The other segment is the
smaller portion which is not shaded. There are two angles formed by the chord
>
>
CD meeting the tangent AB. One angle is ACD . The other is BCD The alternate
>
segment corresponding to the angle BCD is the portion shaded light blue. Similarly,
>
the alternate segment corresponding to the angle ACD is the portion of the circle
which is not shaded.
>
In the figure given below, the alternate segment corresponding to ACD is shaded
light blue.

A C B
93
Theorems related to angles in the alternate segment
>
Consider the figure given below. CPD is in the larger segment which is shaded light
>
blue. Therefore the angle CPD is in the alternate segment of DCB . Similarly CYD
>
>
is in the alternate segment of ACD .
>
P
Y
A C B
There is a special relationship involving tangents of a circle. For the above figure,
>
>
>
it means that the angles DCB and CPD are equal, and also that the angles ACD
>
and CYD are equal. In other words, “The angles which a tangent to a circle makes
with a chord drawn from the point of contact are respectively equal to the angles in
the alternate segments of the circle”. This is a very important result. Therefore let
us write it as a theorem and remember it.
Theorem: The angles which a tangent to a circle makes with a chord drawn from
the point of contact are respectively equal to the angles in the alternate segments
of the circle.
To check the validity of the above theorem let us do some activities.
Activity 1
Y
A
² Draw a circle and mark a point X on it.
² Draw a line touching the circle at X (draw a radius from X and draw a line
94
perpendicular to it.) Name it AB.
² Mark two other points on the circle and name them Y and Z.
² As shown in the figure, join the points X, Y and Z.
>
² Using the protractor, measure the magnitude of BXY and also the magnitude
>
of XZY , which is the corresponding angle in the alternate segment, and check
whether they are equal.
>
>
² Similarly, find the magnitude of AXZ and the magnitude of XYZ , which is the
corresponding angle in the alternate segment, and check whether they are equal
Activity 2
R

S
A P B
² Draw a circle and mark a point on it and name it P. Draw a line touching the
circle at P (this can be done by drawing a radius from P and drawing a line
perpendicular to it through P). Name it AB.
² Draw a chord from P and name it PQ.
² Mark two points on the circle on opposite sides of the chord and name them R
and S.
² Draw the line segments QR, QS, PS and PR.
>
² Using the protractor, measure the magnitude of BPQ and the magnitude of
>
PRQ, which is the angle in the alternate segment, and check whether they are
equal.
>
² Similarly measure the magnitude of APQ and the magnitude of PSQ , which
>
is the angle in the alternate segment, and check whether they are equal.
From the above activities you would have understood that the angles which a tangent
to a circle makes with a chord drawn from the point of contact are respectively
equal to the angles in the alternate segments of the circle.
95
Example 1
C
B
120o
D
55o
P A Q
In the above figure, the line PQ touches the circle at A. Furthermore, B, C and D
>
>
are also on the circle. PAB = 55o and ADC = 120o. Find the magnitude of BAC .
>
Initially let us find the magnitude of the angle PAC .
>
>
PAC = ADC (the angles which a tangent to a circle makes with a chord drawn
>
from the point of contact are respectively equal to the angles in the
alternate segments of the circle)
PAB + BAC = 120o

>
>
55o + BAC = 120o

>
BAC = 120o – 55o

>

= 65o

Example 2
The straight line AB touches the circle at point P, Q and R are points on the circle.
The bisector of the angle PQR meets the circle at S. Show that PS is the bisector of
>
the angle BPR .

>
Q
R
A P B
BPS = PQS (the angles which a tangent to a circle makes with a chord drawn
>
>
from the point of contact are respectively equal to the angles in

the alternate segments of the circle)
RPS = RQS (angles in the same segment are equal)
>
>
96
PQS = RQS (data, because QS bisects the angle PQR )
>
>
>
. . . BPS = RPS
>
>
. . . PS, is the angle bisector of BPR
>
Exercise 22.3
1' PQ is a tangent to the circle through the point A. The points B, C, D and E lie on
the circle.

Angle between Angle in the alternate
the tangent and segment
C
the chord
''''''''''''''''''''
>
BAQ
B ''''''''''''''''''''
>
D PAB
>
E PAD ''''''''''''''''''''
>
P A Q EAQ ''''''''''''''''''''
>
''''''''''''''''' DBA
'''''''''''''''''
>
DCA
2' In each of the following figures, AB is the tangent to the circle drawn through the
point X. Find the values represented by the algebraic symbols.
D
x D
D
a 45
x
C b C C
E a
40x 55
x
35
x b
A X BA X B A X B
(i) (ii) (iii)
97
B D D
D C
x p
40 25x
x
50
x
X E s C
q r
60
x
E c C
y 35
x
30
x
b a
E A X B A X B
(iv) A (v) (vi)
3. PQ is the tangent to the circle through A. If AC = AB C B

show that,
(i) CAP = BAQ ,

>
>
(ii) PQ // CB. P A Q

D
4. AB is a tangent drawn to the circle through
X. The points C and E are on the circle
such that BXC = AXE . D is another
>
>
E C
point on the circle. Show that,
(i) XD is the bisector of EDC ,
>
(ii) EX = CX, A X B
(iii) AB // EC.
Q B
5. The straight line AB touches the circle at X. The chord PQ

is drawn such that PQ // AB. Prove that, X
>
(i) BXQ = AXP ,

>
(ii) AXQP is a parallelogram if PX = PA. P
A
98
A Y
6. Two circles touch each other externally at X. YZ is
the common tangent. AB is a chord of one circle. AX
produced and BX produced meet the other circle at P Q
and Q respectively. Show that, X
(i) BXZ = XPQ ,
>
>
(ii) AB // PQ.
B
P
Z
1. The tangents drawn to a circle with centre O B
from an external point A meet the circle at B
and C. If the radius of the circle is 5 cm and O
OA is 13 cm, find the area of the quadrilateral
OBAC. A
2. AB is the tangent drawn to the circle with

centre O through the point A. OB intersects O
the circle at C. If CB = 4 cm and AB = 8 cm, C
find the radius of the circle. 4 cm

A 8 cm B
A
Y
3. The centres of the two circles shown in the
figure are P and Q. The two tangents P
drawn to the larger circle through A and B Z Q
touch the smaller circle at X and Y X
B
respectively. Moreover, these two
tangents intersect at Z. Show that,
(i) AX = BY,
>
>
(ii) APZ = YQZ .
99
P
4. As shown in the figure, the tangents PX
R
and QX touch the circles at P, R, Q and
S. The centres of the circles are A and X
A B
B. Show that,
S
(i) PR = QS, Q
(ii) PQ // RS,
(iii) A,B and X are on the same
straight line.
100
23 Constructions

• do constructions related to straight lines and angles,
• construct circles related to triangles,
• construct tangents to circles.
23.1 Constructions related to straight lines and angles

Let us learn some constructions which will be required in the constructions that
will be studied later on. We use only a pair of compasses and a straight edge to do
constructions.
1. Construction of the perpendicular bisector of a straight line segment
The perpendicular bisector of a straight line segment is the line drawn

perpendicular to the straight line segment through its midpoint.
Let us consider a straight line segment AB.
A B

Step 1: Take a length of a little more than half the length of AB onto the pair
of compasses. Taking A as the centre, draw two arcs above and below
the straight line segment.
Step 2: Using the same length (i.e., without altering the pair of compasses) and
taking B as the centre, draw another two arcs such that they intersect the
two arcs drawn earlier.
Step 3: Name the two points of intersection as C and D. Draw a straight line
segment joining C to D.
Step 4: Name the point where this straight line segment intersects AB as X.
101
C
A X B
D

CD is the perpendicular bisector of the straight line segment AB. Using a protractor,
>
>
>
>
measure the magnitudes of the angles AXC , BXC , AXD and BXD , and using a
cm/mm scale, measure the lengths of AX and BX. Thereby establish the fact that CD
is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
2. Construction of an angle bisector

>
Consider the angle AOB

A
O B

Step 1: Take a length which is less than OA and OB onto the pair of compasses.
Taking O as the centre, draw an arc such that it intersects both OA and
OB.
Step 2: Name the two points of intersection of the arc with OA and OB as C
and D.
Step 3: Taking a suitable length onto the pair of compasses, and taking C and D
as the centres, draw two arcs which intersect each other. Name the point
of intersection of the two arcs as E.
Step 4: Join O and E.
102
A
C
E
O B
D

>
OE is the angle bisector of AOB . Establish this fact by measuring the magnitudes
>
>
of the angles AOE and BOE .
3. Construction of a perpendicular to a line through a given point on the line.
Let us assume that we want to draw a perpendicular to AB through the point C

which is on AB.
A C B

Step 1: Take a suitable length onto the pair of compasses and taking C as the
centre, draw two arcs that intersect the straight line segment AB on the
two sides of C.
Step 2: Name the two points of intersection as P and Q.
Step 3: Taking P and Q as the centres and using a fixed radius, draw two arcs
above or below the line AB such that they intersect each other.
Step 4: Name the point of intersection of the two arcs as R, and join CR with a
straight line.
A P C Q B
103
>
CR is the perpendicular drawn to AB through C. Measure the angles ACR and
>
BCR and establish this fact.
4. Construction of a perpendicular to a straight line segment from an external

point
Let AB be a straight line segment and C an external point.

C
A B
Step 1: Take a length which is a little more than the distance from C to AB onto
the pair of compasses. Taking C as the centre, draw two arcs which
intersect AB.
Step 2: Name the two points of intersection as D and E.
Step 3: Taking the same radius (or another suitable one), draw two intersecting
arcs taking D and E as the centres, on the side of AB opposite to that on
which C lies.
Step 4: Name the point of intersection of the two arcs as P and join CP. Name
the point of intersection of CP and AB as Q.
A D Q E B
CP is the perpendicular drawn to AB from the point C. This can be established by

>
>
measuring the magnitudes of the angles CQA and CQB using the protractor.
104
Exercise 23.1
1. Construct the perpendicular bisector of the straight line segment AB where
AB = 5.2 cm.
2. Construct an angle of 90o and construct its bisector.
>
3. Construct the triangle ABC where AB = 6 cm, ABC = 60o and BC = 5 cm.
Construct the perpendicular bisector of AB.
4. (i) Construct the triangle PQR where PQ = 7cm, QR = 6.5 cm and PR = 5 cm.
(ii) Construct the bisectors of QPR and PQR.
>
>
5. (i) Draw the straight line segment XY of length 5.5 cm.
(ii) Construct a perpendicular to XY through X.
(iii) Mark a point 4 cm from X on the perpendicular and name it Z. Join YZ.
Construct a perpendicular from X to YZ.
6. (i) Construct an equilateral triangle ABC of side length 6 cm.
(ii) Construct a perpendicular from each vertex of traingle ABC to the opposite
side.
23.2 Construction of circles related to triangles

You have learnt earlier how to construct triangles using a straight edge and a pair of
compasses when lengths of the sides of the triangle and magnitudes of the angles
are given. Now let us learn how to construct circles related to triangles in three
cases, using only a straight edge and a pair of compasses.
Construction of the circumcircle (circumscribed circle) of a

triangle
Draw a triangle and name it ABC.
C
A B

105
Step 1: Using the pair of compasses, draw the perpendicular bisectors of any two
of the three sides AB, BC and CA of the triangle ABC.
Step 2: Name the point of intersection of these perpendicular bisectors as O.

C
A B

Step 3: Taking O as the centre and the distance from any vertex of the triangle to
O as the radius, draw a circle.
C
A B
Observe that the constructed circle passes through all the vertices of the triangle
ABC. This circle is known as the circumcircle of the triangle ABC. The centre of
this circle is known as the circumcentre of the triangle.
Draw a right angled triangle and an obtuse angled triangle and construct the
circumcircle of each triangle.
Using the above constructions, fill in the table given below.
106
Triangle Location of the circumcentre
Inside the On a side of Outside the
triangle the triangle triangle
Acute angled triangle
Right angled triangle
Obtuse angled triangle
Construction of the incircle (inscribed circle) of a triangle

Draw a triangle and name it ABC.
C
A B
Step 1: Using the pair of compasses construct the angle bisectors of any two
interior angles of the triangle ABC.
Step 2: Name the point at which the angle bisectors meet as X.
A B
Step 3: Construct a perpendicular from X to any one of the three sides of the
triangle. Name the foot of that perpendicular as P.
107
C
A P B
Step 4: Taking XP as the radius and X as the centre, draw a circle.
A B
P
You can see that the circle which was constructed touches the three sides AB, BC
and CA internally. Therefore it is called the incircle of the triangle ABC. The centre
of this circle is known as the incentre of the triangle.
108
Construction of the excircle (escribed circle) of a triangle
Let us consider the triangle ABC.
C
A B

Step 1: Produce the side AB to D and the side AC to E.
E
A B D

Step 2: Using the pair of compasses, construct the angle bisectors of the angles
>
>
CBD and BCE.

Step 3: Name the point of intersection of the two bisectors as P.
E
C
P

A B D

Step 4: Construct a perpendicular from P to BC (or to CE or BD). Name the foot
of the perpendicular as Q.
109
E
C
P
Q
A B D

Step 5: Taking P as the centre, draw the circle with radius PQ.
E
C
P
Q
A B D

Observe that the circle touches the side BC and the sides AC and AB produced
externally. Therefore it is named the excircle of the triangle ABC. Its centre is
known as the excentre of the triangle.
Note: The excircle that touches the side AB and the sides CB and CA produced,
as well as the excircle that touches the side CA and the sides BA and BC
produced can also be constructed similarly. It is clear therefore that each
triangle has three excircles.
110
Exercise 23.2
1. (i) Construct the triangle ABC where AB = 5 cm, BC = 4.5 cm and AC = 4 cm.
(ii) Construct the perpendicular bisectors of the sides BC and AC. Name the
point where they meet as O.
(iii) Construct the circumcircle of the triangle ABC.
>
2. (i) Construct the triangle PQR where PQ = 6 cm, PQR = 90o and QR = 4 cm.
(ii) Construct the circumcircle of PQR.
>
3. (i) Construct the triangle XYZ where XY = 4.2cm YXZ = 120o and XYZ = 30o.
>
(ii) Construct the circumcircle of XYZ.
(iii) Measure the radius of the circumcircle and write it down.
4. (i) Construct the triangle ABC where AB = 7 cm, BC = 6 cm and AC = 5.5 cm.
>
Construct the angle bisectors of the angles ABC and BAC .
>
(ii)
(iii) Name the point of intersection of the two angle bisectors as P.
(iv) Draw the incircle of the triangle ABC.
>
5. (i) Construct the triangle KLM where KL = 6 cm, LKM = 105o and
KM = 9 cm.
(ii) Construct the incircle of the triangle KLM and measure and write down its
radius. >
6. (i) Construct the triangle CDE where CD = 5.5 cm, CDE = 60o and
DE = 4 cm.
(ii) Produce CD to P where DP = 2.8 cm and CE to Q where EQ = 2.5 cm.
>
>
(iii) Construct the bisectors of EDP and DEQ . Name the point where they
intersect as X.
(iv) Construct a perpendicular from X to DE and name the point where it meets
DE as K.
(v) Taking X as the centre, draw a circle with radius XK.
7. (i) Construct the parallelogram ABCD where AB = 6.2 cm, ABC = 120o and
>
BC = 4.5 cm.
(ii) Produce the sides AB and AC and draw an excircle of the triangle ABC.
(iii) Measure and write down the radius of this circle.
111
23.3 Construction of a tangent to a circle
Let us recall two theorems we learnt in the lesson on tangents.
1. The straight line drawn through a point on a circle and perpendicular to the radius
through the point of contact is a tangent to the circle.
2. The tangents drawn to a circle from an external point (exterior) are equal in
length.
Now let us consider how to construct tangents to circles using the above theorems.
Construction of a tangent to a circle through a point on the circle

To construct this, let us use the theorem, “The straight line drawn through a point
on a circle and perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact is a tangent
to the circle.”
Let the centre of the given circle be O and X be a point on it.
X

Step 1: Draw the line OX and mark a point P on OX produced.
O
X
P

112
Step 2: Using the pair of compasses, construct a perpendicular to OP
through X.
To do this, use the knowledge on constructing a perpendicular to a
straight line segment through a point on it.
Step 3: Name that perpendicular as RQ.
Q

RQ is the tangent drawn to the circle through X.
Construction of a tangent to a circle from an external point

Let O be the centre of the circle and A a point external to the circle.

A O

To construct this, let us use the theorem, “The tangents drawn to a circle from an
external point (exterior) are equal in length.”
Step 1: Join OA. Construct the perpendicular bisector of the straight line segment
OA. Name the point of intersection of OA and its perpendicular bisector
as B. To do this construction, use the knowledge on constructing the
perpendicular bisector of a straight line segment.
113

A B O
Step 2: Taking B as the centre and BO (or BA) as the radius, draw two arcs which
intersect the circle.
Step 3: Name the two points of intersection as P and Q.
Step 4: Draw the lines AP and AQ.
B O
A
Q

AP and AQ are the tangents drawn to the circle with centre O from the point A.
>
Using the protractor we can establish this by showing that the angles APO and
>
AQO are 90o.
114
Exercise 23.3
1. Construct a circle of radius 3 cm. Mark a point on the circle and name it A.
Construct a tangent to the circle through the point A.
2. (i) Construct a circle of radius 3.5cm and name its centre O. Mark a point on the
circle and name it P. Construct a tangent to the circle through the point P.
(ii) Mark a point Q on the tangent such that PQ = 5cm.
(iii) Measure and write down the length of OQ.
(iv) Find the length of OQ using Pythagoras’s theorem and check if your answer
is correct.
3. (i) Construct the equilateral triangle ABC of side length 5 cm.
(ii) Construct the circle which touches AB at B and passes through the point C.
(iii) Measure the radius of this circle and write it down.
4. (i) Construct the circle with centre O and radius 2.8 cm.
(ii) Mark a point A on the circle and join OA. Mark the point B on OA produced
such that OB = 5 cm.
(iii) Construct tangents to the circle from the point B.
(iv) Measure and write down the lengths of the tangents.
>
5. (i) Construct the triangle ABC such that AB = 5 cm, AC = 3 cm and BAC = 90o.
(ii) Construct the circumcircle of ABC.
(iii) Construct a tangent to the circle through the point A.
(iv) Name the point of intersection of the tangent drawn through A and BC
produced as P.
(v) Construct another tangent to the circle from the point P.
>
6. (i) Construct a triangle KLM such that KL = 9 cm, KLM = 90o and LM = 4 cm.
>
(ii) Construct the angle bisector of KML . Name the point where it meets KL as
O.
(iii) Construct a circle taking O as the centre and OL as the radius.
(iv) Mark a point T on KM such that ML = MT.
>
(v) Find the magnitude of OTM .

(vi) Draw another tangent to the circle from the point K.
115
>
1. (i) Construct the triangle ABC such that AB = 6cm, ABC = 45o and BC = 4 cm.
(ii) Construct a line through A parallel to BC.
(iii) Construct the circle which has its centre on this parallel line and which passes
through the points A and B.

>
2. (i) Construct the triangle PQR where PQ = 7cm, PQR = 120o and
QR = 4.5 cm.
(ii) Locate the point S such that PQRS is a parallelogram.
(iii) Draw the diagonal QS.
(iv) Construct the circumcircle of triangle PQS.
(v) Construct the incircle of triangle QRS.
>
3. Construct the triangle PQR such that PQ = 4.8 cm, PQR = 90o and
QR = 6.5 cm. Construct a circle which touches PQ at P and also touches QR.
116
24 Sets
• identify the regions in a Venn diagram,
• express the regions in a Venn diagram using set notation,
• solve problems using Venn diagrams involving three sets.
Venn diagrams
You have learnt in Grade 10 to identify regions in Venn diagrams which involve
two sets and to express shaded regions in Venn diagrams using set notation. You
can represent three subsets of the universal set in a Venn diagram too. Let us now
consider how this is done.
The following are different ways in which three nonempty subsets of a universal
set can be represented in a Venn diagram.The first figure illustrates the most general
form.
(i) (ii) (iii)

ε ε ε
(iv) (v) (vi)

ε ε ε
117
(vii) (viii) (ix)
ε ε ε
24.1 Expressing a subset denoted by a shaded region in a Venn

diagram using set notation
Let A,B and C be three nonempty subsets of a universal set. Several cases of shaded
regions in a Venn diagram which have been expressed using set notation are given
below.
ε ε ε
A B A BA B
C C C
A∩B∩C A∩B (A∩B) ∩ C'

ε ε ε
A B A B A B
C C C
A∩(B C)' A B C (A B C)'

∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩
ε ε
A B A B
C C
(A∩ B) (B∩ C) (C∩ A)

∩ ∩
(A B)∩C'
∩
Example 1 ε
For each of the following cases, shade the region
P
representing the given set in a copy of the Venn R
diagram provided here.
(i) P∩Q (ii) (P Q)'∩R (iii) (P R)'∩Q
∩ ∩
Q
(iv) (P Q R)'
∩ ∩
118
(i) P∩Q (ii) (P Q)'∩R
∩
ε ε
P P
R R
Q
Q

(iii) (P R)'∩Q (iv) (P Q R)'
∩ ∩ ∩
ε ε
P P
R R
Q Q
Next we will consider how to describe the nature of the elements that belong to a
particular region in a Venn diagram in words. It is easier to understand this if we
consider an example.
The following Venn diagram provides information on what a group of students like
to drink.
ε
Those who Those who like milk
E B F
like tea
A
C D
G Those who like coffee
H

The regions denoted by the capital letters of the English alphabet in the above Venn
diagram can be described in words as follows.
A - Those who like to drink tea, milk and coffee
B - Those who like to drink only tea and milk. That is, those who like to drink tea
and milk but do not like to drink coffee
C - Those who like to drink only tea and coffee
D - Those who like to drink only milk and coffee
E - Those who like to drink only tea
F - Those who like to drink only milk
G - Those who like to drink only coffee
119
H - Those who do not like to drink any of these three
Moreover, regions that are obtained by combining two or more of the above regions
can also be described in words, most often in a simple way.
A and B – Those who like to drink tea and milk
B and C and D – Those who like to dring exactly two of these three types
A and B and C and D – Those who like to drink at least two of these three types
A and B and C and E – Those who like to drink tea
E and F and G – Those who like to drink exactly one of these three types
Example 2
The following Venn diagram provides information on the types of crops that a
group of farmers cultivate. Describe each of the subsets which are denoted by the
capital letters as well as the subsets denoted by the following composite regions.
(i) B and C
(ii) C and D
(iii) A and D and E
ε
Paddy A
B D
Corn
C
E
Sesame
F

A – Farmers who cultivate only paddy

B – Farmers who cultivate only paddy and corn
C – Farmers who cultivate paddy, corn and sesame
D – Farmers who cultivate paddy and sesame but not corn
E – Farmers who cultivate only sesame
F – Farmers who do not cultivate any of these three crops
B and C – Farmers who cultivate corn
C and D – Farmers who cultivate paddy and sesame
A and D and E –Farmers who cultivate at least one crop but do not cultivate corn
Example 3
Let ε = {Families living in a Housing Scheme}
C = {Families that own a car}
M = {Families that own a motorcycle}
F = {Families that own a bicycle}
120
These sets have been represented in the following Venn diagram. The numbers
represent the number of elements in each subset.
Answer the following questions by considering the Venn diagram.
ε
C 20 8 34 (i) How many families own a car?

10 M (ii) How many families own a motorcycle but neither
15 11
a car nor a bicycle?
12 F
2 (iii) How many families do not own a bicycle?
(iv) How many families own exactly two types of vehicles?

(v) How many families own at least two types of vehicles?
(vi) How many families own exactly one of these three types of vehicles?
(i) The set of households which have cars is denoted by C. All these households
need to be considered. Therefore, the number of households which have cars is
20 + 8 + 10 + 15 = 53.
(ii) The set of households that have motor cycles is denoted by M. The households
which have only motorcycles are those which have motorcycles but not cars
or bicycles. Therefore, to obtain the answer, from the households which have
motorcycles, those which also have either cars or bicycles have to be removed.
Hence, the number of households which have only motorcycles is 34.
(iii) The number of households which do not have bicycles is obtained by removing
from all the households in the scheme, those which have bicycles. In other
words, these households are those which have only cars, only motor cycles,
only cars and motorcycles or those which do not have any of these three types
of vehicles. This number is, 20 + 8 + 34 + 2 = 64
(iv) The households which have only two types of vehicles are those which have
only cars and motorcycles or only cars and bicycles or only motorcycles and
bicycles. This number is 15 + 8 + 11 = 34.
(v) The households which have at least two types of vehicles are those which have
either two types of vehicles or all three types of vehicles. This number is
15 + 8 + 11 + 10 = 44.
(vi) The households which have only one type of vehicle are those which have only
cars or only motorcycles or only bicycles. This number is 20 + 34 + 12 = 66.
121
Exercise 24.1
1. A Venn diagram prepared based on the types of sports that each student in a
group likes is given below.
ε
C = {Those who like cricket}
C
F F = {Those who like football}
B = {Those who like volleyball}
B
By using the above Venn diagram model, shade the region that denotes each of the
following sets expressed in set notation and describe it in words. Use a different
Venn diagram for each of the parts (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv).
(i) B∩C∩F (ii) (C∩F)∩B' (iii) (B C)' F (iv) (B C F)'

∩ ∩ ∩ ∩
ε
2. By using the given Venn diagram model, shade the
A region that denotes each of the following sets
B expressed in set notation and describe it in words.
C Use a different Venn diagram for each of the parts
(i), (ii), (iii) and (iv).
(i) A∩B∩C (ii) B∩C'
(iii) A∩(B C)' (iv) (A B C)'
∩ ∩ ∩
ε
3. Determine the following based on the given Venn
P 9 2 4 diagram.
3 Q
(i) n (P∩Q∩R) (ii) n (Q R)'
∩
1
5
(iii) n [(P∩Q)∩R')] (iv) n [(Q R)' ∩P]
∩
6 R
(v) n (P Q R)'
∩ ∩
10
The numbers given in the Venn dragram are the
number of elements in the corresponding region.
24.2 More on problems related to sets

Let us see how to solve problems related to sets by considering a few examples.
Example 1
From a group of 120 students, 41 learn agriculture, 47 learn music and 42 learn
health science. 14 students learn agriculture and music, 19 learn music and health
science, 25 learn agriculture and health science and 8 learn all three subjects.
Represent this information in a Venn diagram and thereby determine the following.
122
(i) The number of students who learn only agriculture
(ii) The number of students who learn only one of these subjects
(iii) The number of students who learn at least two of these subjects
(iv) The number of students who do not learn any one of these three subjects
ε
41 14 47
Agriculture
Music
8
25 19
Health Science
42
Let us find the number of elements in the remaining regions using the given
information.
41 47
Those who learn 10 6 22 Those who learn
Agriculture 8 Music
17 11
6 Those who learn
42 40 Health Science
(i) 10
(ii) 10 + 22 + 6 = 38
(iii) 17 + 6 + 11 + 8 = 42
(iv) 40
Example 2
According to the information gathered on the customers who visited a particular
grocery store during a certain hour on a certain day, 50 bought rice, 21 bought
lentils and 43 bought sugar. Moreover, everyone who bought lentils also bought
rice. The given Venn diagram provides this and additional information.
ε
50
Those who Those who bought lentils
21 43
bought rice
Those who bought sugar
123
(i) Twenty three customers bought rice and sugar. How many bought only sugar?
(ii) Twelve customers bought all three items. How many bought only rice and
lentils?
(iii) How many bought only rice?
(iv) If 90 people came to the grocery store during that hour, how many came to
buy other items?
Answers
Let us find the number of elements belonging to each region using the given
information.
ε
(i)
Those who bought rice Those who bought lentils
43
Those who bought sugar

23
The number of customers who bought only sugar is = 43 – 23 = 20.

ε
(ii) Those who bought lentils
Those who bought rice
21 12
20 Those who bought sugar
The number of customers who bought only rice and lentils is 21 – 12 = 9.

ε
(iii) 50 Those who bought lentils
Those who bought rice 9
12
11
The number of customers who bought only rice is 50 – 9 – 12 – 11 = 18.

(iv) ε
50 Those who bought lentils
Those who bought rice
The number of customers who bought items other than rice, lentils and sugar
= 90 – 70 = 20.
124
Exercise 24.2
1. Information on 20 customers who bought items from a certain stationary shop is
as follows. There were 8 who bought pencils, 11 who bought pens and 13 who
bought books. Of the 6 who bought pencils and books, 4 did not buy pens. There
were 3 who bought pencils and pens and 3 who bought only pens. Represent this
information in a Venn diagram and determine the following.
(i) How many did not buy any of these three types of items?
(ii) How many did not buy pens?
(iii) What percentage of all the customers bought at least 2 of these 3 types?
2. The following information on the newspapers A, B and C that are purchased by
a village community was obtained through a survey. 50% buy A, 67% buy B and
55% buy C. 10% buy only A and B, 15% buy only A and 5% buy A and C but
not B. 17% do not buy A but buy B and C. Represent this information in a Venn
diagram and determine the following.
(i) The percentage that buy all three newspapers.
(ii) The percentage that buy C but not A.
(iii) The percentage that buy only two of these three types.
3. The following Venn diagram has been drawn with the information that was noted
down on the languages that a group of tourists who visited Sigiriya could speak.
ε
Speaks English 5 4 10
3 Speaks French
2
2 Speaks German
(i) How many can speak English?

(ii) If 12 people in total can speak German, how many can speak French and
German only?
(iii) Describe in words the set represented by the shaded region.
(iv) All those who could speak English stayed on with the guide who provided
commentaries in English while the rest were sent with a guide who was
fluent in both French and German. How many went with this guide?
4. All the students who receive training at a certain sports academy participate in at
least one of the three sports cricket, football and volley ball. The Venn diagram
provides information on these students.
125
ε
18
A :Those who play cricket B : Those who play football
32
14
6
C : Those who play volleyball
(i) How many students participate in all three sports?

(ii) How many students play only cricket?
(iii) Describe the group of students who are represented by the shaded region and
express this set using set notation.
(iv) If 25 play volleyball, how many students belong to the shaded region?
5. Each year, 400 students are enrolled in a National College of Education. The
three subjects, namely mathematics, science and physical education which are
taught there are taught in both, Sinhala and English mediums.
(a) Complete the following Venn diagram by marking the given information in
the correct region.
English
ε
Science
Mathematics
(i) There are 140 students who study the subject science. 100 of these students
study in the Sinhala medium.
(ii) 40 students study mathematics in the English medium.
(iii) 110 students study in the English medium
(iv) The total number of students who study mathematics is 175.
(b) (i) How many students study physical education in the English medium?
(ii) How many students study science in the English medium?
(iii) How many students study mathematics in the Sinhala medium?
(iv) Find the probability of a student selected at random from those who enrolled
that year being a student who studies physical education in the Sinhala
medium.
126
6. Information on the types of fruits that were purchased by the customers who
arrived at a grocery store one day is given in the following Venn diagram. On
that day, all who bought either pineapples or papaws also purchased bananas.
ε
Those who bought Those who bought bananas

pineapples 8 5
Those who bought papaws
(i) How many bought pineapples?

(ii) If 12 people bought papaws, how many bought only papaws?
(iii) If 40 people bought bananas, how many bought only bananas?
(iv) If there were 10 other customers who purchased fruits but did not buy any
one of the given three types, how many came to the grocery store that day
to buy fruits?
(v) How many bought only two of these three types of fruits?
(vi) If a person was selected at random from those who came to buy fruits,
what is the probability that the person purchased all three of the given
types of fruits?
127
25 Probability
² solve problems involving the events of a random experiment occurring in
two stages using
(i) a grid (Cartesian plane)
(ii) a tree diagram
Do the following exercise to recall what had been learnt in Grade 10.
Review Exercise
1. A is an event in the sample space S of a random experiment with equally likely
outcomes. If n (A) = 23 and n(S) = 50, find
î& P Â&
îi& P Â' &.
2. The sample space S of a random experiment is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Assuming
that the outcomes of this experiment are equally likely, answer the questions
given below.
(i) A is a simple event of the above experiment. Write down all the events
that A could be.
(ii) For each of the above events, find P Â&.
(iii) B is a compound event of the above experiment consisting of 4 elements.
Write one event that B could be.
(iv) Find P ^B& and P ^B'&.
(v) X is another event with P(X) = 0.5 Write two events that X could be.
3. The following Venn diagram provides information on the number of elements in
the subsets relevant to two events of a random experiment.
(a) Determine the following
ε (i) n (ε) (ii) P (A) (iii) P (B)

(iv) P (A∩B) (v) P (A B) (vi) P (A∩B')
∩
A
12 3 (vii) P (A'∩B) (viii) P (A B)'
∩
7 B
5
128
4. Three identical cards numbered from 1 to 3 are in a bag. One card is drawn out
at random and the number on it is checked to see if it is odd or even, and then the
card is replaced in the bag. A card is drawn out again at random from the bag and
the number is similarly checked to see whether it is odd or even.
(i) If the sample space is denoted by S, write S as a set and write down n(S).
(ii) If A is the event of both numbers drawn being even, write A as a set and
write down n(A).
(iii) Hence find P (A)'
(iv) Represent S on a grid.
(v) If B is the event of drawing exactly one even number, then square the points
on the grid that belong to B and find P(B).
(vi) Represent S in a tree diagram and find the probability of drawing at least
one even number.
25.1 Independent and Dependent Events

(i) Independent events
We learnt in Grade 10 that if the occurrence of an event does not depend on the
occurrence of another event, then the two events are independent. If A and B are
independent we know that P (A∩B) = P(A)P(B). An example of this is given below.
Let us consider the random experiment of flipping two coins simultaneously and
noting the sides that are face up. It is clear that the side which is face up on one
coin has no influence on the side which is face up on the other coin. Therefore the
side which is face up on one coin is independent of the side which is face up on the
other coin.
(ii) Dependent events
If the occurrence of an event depends on the occurrence of another event, then

they are called dependent events. That is, the occurrence of one event changes the
probability of the other event.
Deepen your understanding on dependent events further by studying the following
examples.
a. The probability of a team winning a cricket match depends on whether the best
bowler of the team plays in the match or not. Therefore the two events of the
best bowler playing and the team winning are dependent events.
129
b. An animal is selected at random from a cattle pound in which there are cows
and bulls. If the selected animal is a cow, milk can be obtained from it and if it
is a bull, then milk definitely cannot be obtained from it. Therefore the event of
selecting a cow and the event of obtaining milk are dependent events.
c. A bag contains 7 white balls and 3 black balls which are identical in size and
shape. Let us consider the experiment of randomly drawing out a ball and noting
its colour, and then, without replacing the first ball, randomly drawing out another
ball, and noting its colour. As the first ball is not replaced before the second ball
is drawn, the number of balls in the bag when the second one is drawn out is not
10 but 9, and the number of balls of a particular colour remaining in the bag after
the first ball is drawn depends on the colour of the first ball that is drawn.
The probability of the second ball being a white ball if the first ball 6 2
= =
was white 9 3
7
The probability of the second ball being a white ball if the first =
9
ball was not white
As these two probabilities are not equal, the probability of the second ball being
white is dependent on the probability of the first ball being white.
25.2 Solving problems using a grid

When a random experiment occurs in two stages, the events of the two stages may
be independent or dependent. In Grade 10 we learnt how to solve problems when
the events of the two stages are independent. To review what was learnt, let us
consider the following example.
Example 1
In a bag there are 3 blue balls and 2 red balls of the same shape and size. A ball is
randomly drawn out and the colour is noted. After replacing it, a ball is randomly
drawn out again and its colour is also noted.
(i) Represent the sample space of this random experiment on a grid.
(ii) Find the probability of each of the following events using the grid.
(a) The first ball being red

(b) The second ball being red
(c) Both balls being red
(d) Both balls being the same colour
(e) At least one ball being red
130
(i) We have learnt earlier that a grid can be used to solve problems on probability
only if all the outcomes of the random experiment are equally likely. Since all
the balls are equal in size and shape, the probability of a ball being drawn out
is the same for all the balls. Therefore the sample space can be represented on a
grid and the required probabilities can be found. Let us name the three blue balls
B1, B2 and B3 and the two red balls R1 and R2.
C
R2 X X X X X
Second draw R1 X X X X X
B
B3 X X X X X
B2 X X X X X A
B1 X X X X X
B1 B2 B3 R1 R2
First draw
The sample space consists of all the points that are marked by taking the horizontal
axis to represent the outcomes of the first draw and the vertical axis to represent the
outcomes of the second draw.
Since the second ball is taken out after replacing the first ball, the two events are
independent of each other.
The probability of an event is found using a grid, by dividing the number of points
relevant to the given event by the total number of points in the sample space.
(ii) The event of drawing a red ball on the first occasion is denoted by A on the grid.
10 points from the sample space belong to A. The whole sample space consists
of 25 points.
number of points in A
. . . the probability of the first ball being red =
number of points in the sample space
2
= 10 =
25 5
(b) The event of the second ball being red is denoted by B on the grid.
Accordingly,
number of points in B
the probability of the second ball being red = number of points in the sample space
2
= 10 =
25 5 131
(c) The event of both balls being red is the set of points which are common to both
A and B. There are 4 points in this set.
number of points common to

both A and B
. . . the probability of both balls being red =
number of points in the sample space
= 4
25
(d) For both balls to be the same colour, they should both be blue or both be red.
The set of points relevant to this event is denoted by C. There are 13 points in
this set.
. . . the probability of both balls being } number of points in C
=
the same colour number of points in the sample space
= 13
25
(e) At least one ball being red means that one ball is red or both balls are red. This
means all the points in both A and B. There are 16 points in total.
. . . the probability of at least one ball being red = 16

25
Now let us consider an example of a random experiment consisting of two stages,
where the events are dependent.
Example 2
In Sithija’s pencil box there are 2 red pencils and 3 blue pencils of the same size and
shape. Sithija randomly draws one pencil out and gives it to his friend Thamilini.
Then Sithija randomly draws another pencil out for himself.
(i) Write the sample space in terms of the outcomes and then represent it on a grid.
(ii) Find the probability of each of the following events using the grid.
(a) Drawing a red pencil for Thamilini
(b) Sithija drawing a red pencil for himself
(c) Both getting pencils of the same colour
(d) Only Thamilini getting a red pencil
(i) Let us name the three blue pencils B1, B2, B3 and the two red pencils R1, R2.The
pencil given to Thamilini is one of R1, R2, B1, B2, B3 and the pencil Sithija drew for
himself is also one of these. However since Sithija cannot have the pencil which
132
was given to Thamilini, the events (R1, R1), (R2, R2), (B1, B1), (B2, B2) and (B3, B3)
cannot occur. Apart from these 5 points, the remaining 20 belong to the sample
space. Therefore the sample space is the set
} (R1, R2), (R1, B1), (R1, B2), (R1, B3), (R2, R1), (R2, B1)...}. This sample space can be
represented on a grid as follows.
C
B3 X X X X
B2 X X X X
Sithija’s pencil
B1 X X X X
R2 X X X X
R1 B
X X X X
A R1 R2 B1 B2 B3
Thamilini’s pencil

(a) The 8 points corresponding to Thamilini receiving a red pencil is marked as A .
... 2
probability of Thamilini receiving a red pencil = 8 =
20 5
(b) The 8 points corresponding to Sithija getting a red pencil is marked as B.

. . . probability of Sithija getting a red pencil = 8 = 2
20 5
(c) The set of points corresponding to both getting pencils of the same colour is
marked as C. This is the event of either both getting red pencils or both getting
blue pencils. C also has 8 points.
. . . probability of both getting pencils of the same colour = 8 = 2
20 5
(d) For only Thamilini to get a red pencil, Sithija has to get a blue pencil while
Thamilini gets a red pencil. There are 6 points corresponding to this.
. . . probability of only Thamilini getting a red pencil = 6 = 3

20 10
133
Exercise 25.1
1. In a box, there are 2 white balls and 4 red balls of the same shape and size. One
ball is drawn out randomly from this box and its colour is noted.
(a) Write down the sample space S of all possible equally likely outcomes.
(b) If the ball is put back into the box and a ball is randomly drawn out again and
its colour is also noted, draw the sample space of the equally likely outcomes
of this experiment on a grid.
(c) If the ball is not put back into the box and another ball is randomly drawn out
and its colour is noted, draw the sample space of this experiment on a grid.
(d) For the experiments described in (b) and (c) above, find separately, the
probability of the two balls taken out being of the same colour.
2. In a bag there are 4 ripe mangoes and 1 raw mango, all of the same size and
shape. Saman randomly takes one mango from this bag and gives it to his friend
Rajendra. After that Saman randomly takes out a mango for himself. A grid with
the sample space prepared by Saman is given below.
Raw1 X X X X X
Mango Saman got
Ripe4 X X X X X
Ripe3 X X X X X
Ripe2 X X X X X
Ripe1 X X X X X
Ri
pe Ripe Ripe Rip Raw
1 2 3
e 1
4
Mango Rajendra got

(a) There is an error in the above sample space. Draw the correct sample space
on another grid.
(b) Using the correct sample space, find the probability of each of the following
events.
(i) Both getting ripe mangoes
(ii) Only Rajendra getting a ripe mango
(iii) Only one person getting a ripe mango
(c) Rajendra says that at least one person is sure to get a ripe mango. Explain
with reasons whether this is true or not.
134
3. Sarath who was preparing for a journey, randomly took out two shirts (one after
the other) from a box containing 4 white shirts and 3 black shirts.
(a) Represent the sample space on a grid by denoting the white shirts in the box
by W1, W2, W3, W4 and the black shirts by B1, B2, B3.
(b) Using the grid, find the probability of each of the following events.
(i) Both shirts being white
(ii) Only one shirt being white
(iii) At least one shirt being white
4. In a dish there were 3 milk toffees, 2 orange flavoured toffees and 1 tamarind
flavoured toffee which were all the same size and shape. Sandaru randomly took
one of these toffees and tasted it. Later she randomly took another one and gave
it to her friend Jessie.
(a) By taking into consideration the flavours of the toffees, represent the
relevant sample space of equally likely outcomes on a grid.
(b) Using the grid, find the probability of each of the following events.
(i) Both getting toffees of the same flavour.
(ii) Only one person getting a milk toffee.
(iii) Jessie getting a tamarind flavoured toffee.
25.3 Solving problems using tree diagrams

A tree diagram can be used to find the probabilities of events related to a random
experiment having many stages. In this lesson we will consider only random
experiments having two stages. Let us study this by considering the following
examples.
In Grade 10 you learnt to find probabilities when the events were independent. Let
us review what you learnt earlier.
Example 1
In a bag there are two white balls and one black ball of the same size and shape.
One ball is randomly drawn out and its colour is noted. After replacing it, a ball is
randomly drawn out again and its colour is also noted.
(i) Represent the sample space of this random experiment in a tree diagram.
(ii) Find the probability of each of the following events using the tree diagram.
(a) Drawing a white ball on both occasions
(b) Drawing a white ball on the first occasion
(c) Drawing only one white ball
(d) Drawing at least one white ball
135
(i) Let us denote the event of drawing a white ball by W and drawing a black ball
by B. As the outcomes are equally likely, the probability of drawing a white ball
2 1
out the first time is and a back ball out the first time is . In that part of the
3 3
tree diagram which represents the first draw, let us indicate the probability of
each of these two events on the relevant branches.
First draw
W
2
3
1
3 B
2 1
The sum of the probabilities on the two branches = +
3 3
=1
Note: The sum of the probabilities on the branches which originate from a single
point is 1. This occurs at every stage.
Now let us extend the above tree diagram to indicate the probabilities of the second
stage.
Second draw
As the second ball is drawn out after replacing
2 W the first ball, the number of balls in the bag when
First draw 3 the second ball is drawn out is the same as the
W number that was in the bag initially. Therefore the
2 1 probabilities of drawing a white ball and drawing
3 3 B
a black ball on the second occasion are the same
as those on the first occasion. These probabilities
are marked on the appropriate branches.
Notice that the sum of the probabilities on the
1 2 W branches that originate from a point, all add up to
3 B 3
1
3 B
136
(ii) When both occasions are considered there are 4 possible outcomes.
Outcome Probability
(W, W) 2 2 4
3 3 9
(W, B) 2 1 2
3 3 9
(B, W) 1 2 2
3 3 9
(B, B) 1 1 1
3 3 9
As an example, (W,W ) represents the event of both balls drawn being white. Its
2 2 4
probability is = ' The reason why these two can be multiplied together
3 3 9
is because they are independent events. The four events (W, W), (W, B), (B, W) and
(B, B) are mutually exclusive events. The reason for this is because, no two of
these four events can occur together. The required probabilities can be calculated
as follows.
(a)Probability of drawing a white ball on the first occasion and a white ball on the
second occasion too
= P (W, W)
4
= ^from the table&
9
(b) Probability of drawing a white ball on the first occasion = P (W, W) + P (W, B)
4 2 6 2
= + = =
9 9 9 3
(c) Probability of drawing only one white ball = P (W, B) + P (B, W)
2 2 4
= + =
9 9 9
(d) Probability of drawing at least one white ball = P (W, W) + P (W, B) + P (B, W)
4 2 2 8
= + + =
9 9 2 9
Note: The answer in (d) can be obtained from 1 – P (B, B) too.
Now let us consider an example where the events are dependent.
137
Example 2
In a bag there are 3 red balls and 2 blue balls of the same size and shape. One ball
is randomly drawn out and its colour is noted. Without replacing the first ball, a
second ball is randomly drawn out and its colour too is noted.
(i) Represent the sample space in a tree diagram.

(ii) Using the tree diagram find the probability of each of the following events.
(a) Drawing a red ball on both occasions
(b) Drawing only one red ball
(c) Drawing at least one red ball
(i) The initial part of the tree diagram is shown below.
First draw
3 R
5
2
5 B
Here R represents the event of drawing a red ball while B represents the event of
drawing a blue ball. As there are 3 red balls and 2 blue balls in the bag,
3 2
P (R) = , P (B) = .
5 5
Now let us extend the above tree diagram and include the second draw also.
Second draw
R
First draw
R
3
5 B
2 R
5 B
B
138
How the probabilities relevant to the second draw were found can be described as
follows.
The probabilities on the branches in the second stage are different to those on the
branches in the first stage. This is because the probabilities for the second stage
have to be found after considering the first stage.
If the first ball drawn is red, then the bag will have 2 red balls and 2 blue balls
remaining.
. . . the probability of the second ball drawn being red = 2
4
2
The probability of the second ball drawn being blue =
4
If the first ball drawn is blue, the bag will have 3 red balls and 1 blue ball remaining.
. . . the probability of the second ball drawn being red = 3
4
1
The probability of the second ball drawn being blue =
4
Let us write these probabilities on the relevant branches of the tree diagram, and
complete the given outcomes table. Establish that the sum of the probabilities along
the four branches is 1.
Second draw
2 R
First draw 4
R
3 2
5 4 B
2 3 R
5 B 4
1
4 B

139
Outcome Probability
(R, R) 3 2 6
5 4 20
(R, B) 3 2 6
5 4 20
(B, R) 2 3 6
5 4 20
(B, B) 2 1 2
5 4 20
In the table, the probability of the outcome (R, R) (drawing two red balls) has been
found by multiplying the relevant probabilities. But these two probabilities are not
independent. This is because the probability of drawing a red ball on the second
occasion depends on whether or not a red ball was drawn on the first occasion.
Here however, the probability of drawing a red ball on the second occasion has
been found by assuming that the first ball drawn is a red ball. Therefore to find the
probability of (R, R), the two relevant probabilities can be multiplied.
The events (R, R), (R, B), (B, R), (B, B) in the above table are mutually exclusive.
Therefore to find the probability of a certain event using the tree diagram, we need
to select the outcomes relevant to the event from the table and add the probabilities
of these outcomes.
(a) Probability of drawing two red balls = P (R, R)
= 6 = 3
20 10
(b) Probability of drawing only one red ball = P (R, B) + P (B, R)
6 6 12 3
= 20 + 20 = 20 =
5
(c) Probability of drawing at least one red ball = P (R, B) + P (B, R) + P (R, R)
= 6 + 6 + 6 = 18 = 9
20 20 20 20 10
Note: the answer in (c) can be obtained by using 1 – P (B, B) too.
140
Exercise 25.2
1. In a box with 10 bulbs of the same type, 3 are known to be faulty. Nimal randomly
draws out one bulb from the box and checks whether it is faulty. Without replacing
the first bulb he draws out another bulb and checks whether it is faulty.
(i) Represent the sample space of the above random experiment in a tree diagram.
(ii) Nimal states that the events of the first bulb being faulty and the second one
being faulty are dependent events. Giving reasons explain whether this
statement is true or false.
(iii) Find the probability of each of the following events using the tree diagram.
(a) Both bulbs being faulty
(b) Exactly one bulb being faulty
(c) At least one bulb being faulty
2. The probability of the football player A of a certain team playing in a match is

3 5
4 . If A plays in the match, then the probability of his team winning is 8 and if
he doesn’t play, then his team winning or losing is equally likely. This match is
either won or lost.
(i) Find the probability of A not playing in the match.

(ii) Find the probability of A’s team winning despite him not playing in the match.
(iii) Represent the sample space in a tree diagram, by taking A playing in a match
or not as the first stage and the team winning or losing as the second stage.
(iv) Find the probability of A’s team winning using the tree diagram.
(v) Giving reasons state whether it is more advantageous or not for the team, if A
plays in the match.
3. In a bag there are 4 ripe wood apples and 3 unripe wood apples of the same size
and shape. Namali randomly draws out a fruit from the bag. If it is a ripe fruit,
she again randomly draws out another one without replacing the first. If the first
fruit is unripe, she puts it back into the bag and randomly draws out another fruit.
(i) Represent the sample space of this random experiment in a tree diagram.
(ii) From the following statements made by Namali, with reasons, state which
ones are true.
(a) “The first fruit being ripe and the second fruit being ripe are two
independent events”
(b) “The first fruit being unripe and the second fruit being unripe are two
dependent events”
141
(iii) Find the probability of each of the following events using the tree diagram.
(a) Both fruits being ripe
(b) Second fruit being ripe
(c) From the two fruits, only one being ripe
4. In Sirimal’s cattle pound, there are 5 bulls and 15 cows. In Nadan’s cattle pound,
there are 2 bulls and 8 cows. Sirimal and Nadan agree to exchange one animal
each. After Sirimal randomly selects one animal and sends it to Nadan, Nadan
randomly selects one animal and sends it to Sirimal.
(i) Draw the relevant sample space in a tree diagram.

(ii) Using it, find the probability of each of the following events.
(a) There being a reduction in the number of bulls in Sirimal’s pound
because of the exchange
(b) There being an increase in the number of bulls in Sirimal’s pound
because of the exchange
(c) There being no difference in the number of bulls and cows in each of the
two pounds because of the exchange
(iii) Now suppose they exchange animals in a way different to that mentioned
above. Suppose Sirimal and Nadan randomly take one animal from each of
their pounds and go to their friend Abdul’s house and exchange the cattle
there and bring the exchanged cattle back to the pound. Find the probabilities
of the events given in (ii) above for this random experiment.
5. X and Y are two drugs given for the same illness which have 90% and 80%
effectiveness respectively. If a person does not recover from the illness by using
one of the drugs, then the other one is also given. If this too fails, then a surgery
is done.
(i) Find the probability of the patient recovering after both drugs are given.
(ii) Find the probability of a patient having to undergo surgery.
6. Information on the clerks and labourers who work in an institute is given in the
following table.
Position Male Female Total
Gender
Clerk 5 8 13
Labourer 2 1 3
Total 7 9 16
142
(i) Find the probability of a person taken randomly from this institute being,
(a) a labourer
(b) a clerk
(ii) A clerk and a labourer are randomly taken from this institute.
(a) Write all the relevant probabilities on the branches of a tree diagram.
(b) Using the tree diagram, find the probability of at least one of those chosen
being male.
7. In a box there are 2 white balls and 1 black ball of the same shape and size. From
this box, a ball is drawn out randomly and discarded and then, another is drawn
out randomly. Find the probability of at least one of the two drawn balls being
white.
8. In box A there are 3 blue marbles and 2 red marbles of the same shape and size.
In box B there are 4 blue marbles and 5 red marbles of the same shape and size
as those in box A. A marble is drawn out randomly from A and placed in B. Then
a marble is drawn out randomly from B and placed in A. Find the probability that
there has been no change in the colour composition of the marbles in A.
9. In grade 11 of a certain school there are three parallel classes. The number of
children in these three classes is in the ratio 2: 2: 3. The teachers who teach
mathematics to the three classes are A, B and C respectively. The principal makes
the following statement based on his experience. “90% of the children in the
class taught by A, 80% of the children in the class taught by B and 60% of the
children in the class taught by C will pass the forthcoming examination.”
(i) Find the probability of a randomly chosen child from grade 11 passing the
examination, based on the above statement.
(ii) Using the above answer, evaluate the percentage of students who will pass.
143
Revision Exercise – Term 3
Part I
1. Solve the following inequality and represent the solutions on a number line.
2x + 5 ≤ 15
ε
2. Express the shaded region in the Venn diagram using
P R set notation.
Q
3. The area of the square drawn on the hypotenuse of a right angled isosceles
triangle is 64 cm2. Find the area of a square drawn on one of the other sides.
4. Find p and q if – 3 2 p –5 '

0 –5 2 = q
R
5. D
The tangents drawn to the circle with centre O, at the points
A, B, C and D which lie on the circle, meet at the points P,
S O C Q, R and S as shown in the figure. If PQ + SR = 20 cm, find
the perimeter of the quadrilateral PQRS.
A
Q
P B
6. A and B are two events of a random experiment such that P (A) = 0.4 and
P (A B) = 0.7' If A and B are independent events, find the value of P (B).
∩
A
>
7. In the circle with centre O shown in the figure, COD = 70x

>
CBA = 100 ' Find the magnitude of ODA '

>
B O
x
100
x
x
70
x
C D
8. A G ABCG and FCDE in the figure are squares.
F E
If AC 2 = 12 cm2 and CE 2 = 6cm2, find the area of the
whole figure.
B C D
144
D
9. The triangles ABC and ECD in the figure are
m right angled triangles. Find the area of the whole
A
1 3c
figure.
=
6 cm E
=
B 8 cm C
–1 –1
10. Write down the matrix – 2 A if A =
2 –2
11. A The tangents drawn from the point A to the

P circle in the figure are AB and AC. The tangent
B
drawn to the circle at the point Q meets AB and
Q
AC at P and R respectively. If the perimeter of
the triangle APR is 18 cm, find the length of
R AB.
C
12. A P X
7 cm 6 cm 10 cm
6 cm
120x
Q 8 cm R Y Z
B 8 cm C
(i) (ii) (iii)
Write down the number of the figure suitable for the blank space.
(a) The circum-centre of the triangle lies on a side of the triangle, in triangles of the
form ……………………
(b) The circum-centre of the triangle lies in the exterior of the triangle, in triangles
of the form ……………………
(c) The circum-centre of the triangle lies in the interior of the triangle, in triangles
of the form ……………………
13. Find the values of x and y in the given equiangular traingles.
P
A
3 5 6 y
B x C Q 10 R
145
14. Represent the integral solutions of the inequality 4x + 3 > 8 on a number line.
15. Write down the coordinates of the turning point of the graph of the function
y = x2 + 5x + 9 without drawing the graph.
Part II
>
1. ABC = 90x in the right angled triangle ABC.

(i) If P is the midpoint of the side BC, then show that 4 (AP2 – AB2) = BC2'
(ii) If Q is the midpoint of the side AB, then show that 4 (CQ2 – BC2) = AB2'
(iii) Using the results obtained in (i) and (ii) above, deduce that
4 (AP2 + CQ2) = 5 AC 2 '
(iv) Show using the result obtained in (iii) above, that when the above triangle is
an isosceles right angled triangle, then AP:QP = 5 : 2 '
2. (a) A E D ABCD is a rectangle. Using the trigonometric

tables
30 cm
(i) find the length of AE.
(ii) Calculate the perimeter of the trapezium
'
36
35 x
BCDE '
B 40 cm C
(b) The three cities A,B and C are located such that city B is 50 km from city A,
on a bearing of 040o from city A, and city C is directly to the North of city A
and on a bearing of 270o from city B.
(i) Draw a suitable sketch and mark the above information in it'
(ii) Find the distance from city A to city C.
(iii) It is necessary to construct a large water tank on top of a concrete pillar
to provide water to these three cities. In the above sketch, mark a suitable
place where the tank can be built, so that the lengths of the water pipes
that carry water from the tank to each of the three cities is the same, and
mark this location as T in the sketch.
3. Information on some of the students who were involved in a pageant in which

160 students participated is given below.
ε
Dancing Playing an instrument

(D) (P)
Singing
(S)
146
1
of all those who participated in the pageant were involved in at least one of the
4
three activities, dancing, singing and playing an instrument. From the 16 students
who were involved in playing an instrument and dancing, 6 students also sang.
Twice the number of those who were involved in playing an instrument only was
involved in singing and dancing only, and five times the number of those who were
involved in playing an instrument only, danced.
Copy the given Venn diagram in your exercise book and answer the following
questions.
(i) Mark the given information accurately in the Venn diagram. How many
students were involved in all three activities, singing, dancing and playing an
instrument?
(ii) How many were involved in only playing an instrument?
(iii) Express the number that was involved in only one of these three activities as
a fraction of the total number of students that participated.
(iv) Describe the activities in which the students in the set represented by
(S' ∩ D) ∩ P (v) were involved. How many students belong to this set?
4. Identical balls of different colours have been placed in two vessels A and B.
Vessel A has 3 black balls and 2 white balls. Vessel B has 2 black balls and 3
white balls. A person randomly draws out a ball from vessel A and places it in
vessel B. He then randomly draws out a ball from vessel B.
(i) Draw a tree diagram with the probabilities relevant to the above events
marked on the branches.
(ii) Using the tree diagram, find the probability of drawing out balls of the same
colour on both occasions.
5. E D
> F
As indicated in the figure, AB is a diameter of the circle
C with centre O. The tangent EF drawn to the circle at the
G point D is parallel to AB.
>
A o> B (i) Write down two angles which are equal to ABD .
>
(ii) Find the magnitude of EDO .

(iii) Show that OBCG is a cyclic quadrilateral.
147
6. Do the following constructions using a pair of compasses and a straight edge
with a mm/cm scale and showing the construction lines clearly.
>
(i) Construct the triangle ABC such that AB = 8 cm, ABC = 90x and
BC = 4 cm.
(ii) Construct the trapezium ABCD such that DC = 2 cm and DC is parallel to
AB.
(iii) Construct the circle that externally touches CB produced at G, CA produced
at E and AB produced at F.
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
Glossary
A
Adjacent side noaO mdoh A¯Ø £UP®
Angles in the same segment taldka;r jD;a; LKavfha fldaK J÷µxshU ÷Põn[PÒ

C
Centre flakaøh ø©¯®
Chord cHdh |õs
Circle jD;a;h Ámh®
Circumcircle mßjD;a;h _ØÖ Ámh®
Column matrix ;Sr kHdih {µØ uõ¯®
Cosine fldaihskh ÷Põø\ß
Cyclic quadrilateral jD;a; p;=ri% Ámh |õØ£UPÀ

D
Dependent Events mrdh;a; isoaê \õº {PÌa]

E
Element wjhj ‰»P®
Elements of a matrix kHdihl wjhj uõ¯ö©õßÔß
‰»P[PÒ
Exterior angle ndysr fldaKh ¦ÓU÷Põn®
Exterior point ndysr ,laIHh ¦Ó¨¦ÒÎ
Excircle/Escribed circle ndys¾ jD;a;h öÁÎ Ámh®
G
Grid fldgq oe, ö|´¯›

H
Hypotenuse l¾Kh ö\®£UP®

I
Independent events iajdh;a; isoaê \õµõ {PÌa]PÒ
Inequalities wiudk;d \©Û¼PÒ
Inscribed circle/ Incircle wka;¾jD;a;h EÒÁmh®
Interior opposite angle wNHka;r iïuqL APzöuvº ÷Põn®
fldaKh
Intersection of sets l=,l fþokh öuõøhPÎß
CøhöÁmk
155

L
Locus m:h
JÊUS

M
Matrices kHdi
uõ¯[PÒ

O
Opposite angles iïuqL fldaK
GvºU ÷Põn[PÒ
Opposite side iïuqL mdoh Gvº¨ £UP[PÒ
Order of a matrix kHdifha .Kh
uõ¯zvß Á›ø\
P
Perpendicular ,ïnlh ö\[Szx
Point ,laIHh ¦ÒÎ
Pythagoras' theorem mhs;.ria m%fïhh
ø£uPµ]ß ÷uØÓ®
Pythagoras' triple mhs;.ria ;s%l ø£uPµ]ß •®ø©

R
Radius wrh Bøµ
Random Experiments iiïNdù mÍlaIK GÊ©õØÖ¨
£›÷\õuøÚ
Riders wkqfïhhka HÔPÒ
Right angled triangles RcqfldaKsl ;s%fldaK
ö\[÷Põn
•U÷Põn®
Row matrix fma<s kHdih {øµz uõ¯®

S
Sample space ksheÈ wjldYh ©õv›öÁÎ
Segment of a circle jD;a; LKavh Ámhzxzxsh®
Set l=,lh öuõøh
Sine ihskh ø\ß
Solution set úi`ÿï l=,lh wºÄz öuõøh
Square matrix iup;=ri% kHdih \xµz uõ¯®
Subtended wdmd;s; Gvµø©

Supplementary mßmQrl ªøP {µ¨¦QßÓ
Symmetric matrix iuñ;s kHdih \©a^ºz uõ¯®

156
T
Tangent iam¾Ylh öuõh¼
Tree diagram rela igyk ©µÁ›¨£h®
Trigonometric ratios ;s%fldaKñ;sl wkqmd;
v›÷Põn
Pou ÂQu[PÒ
Trignometry ;s%fldaKñ;sh v›÷Põn Pou®

U
Union of sets l=,l fï,h öuõøhPÎß JßÔ¨¦
Unit matrix tall kHdih
A»Sz uõ¯®

V
Venn diagram fjka rEmh öÁß Á›¨£h®
157
Sequence of the Lessons
Chapter of Textbook No.of Periods

1 Term
1. Real Numbers 10
2. Indices and Logarithms I 08
3. Indices and Logarithms II 06
4. Surface Area of Solids 05
5. Volume of the Solids 05
6. Binomial Expressions 04
7. Algebraic Fractions 04
8. Areas of Plane Figures between Parallel 12
Lines
2 Term
09. Percentages 06
10. Share Market 05
11. Mid Point Theorem 05
12. Graphs 12
13. Formulae 10
14. Equiangular Triangles 12
15. Data representaion and Interpretation 12
16. Geometric Progressions 06
3 Term
17. Pythagoras’s Theorem 04
18. Trignometry 12
19. Matrices 08
20. Inequalities 06
21. Cyclic Quadrilaterals 10
22. Tangent 10
23. Constructions 05
24. Sets 06
25. Probability 07
158

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MATHEMATICS

Educational Publications Department

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Published by Educational Publications Department

Sri Lanka Matha

17. Pythagoras' Theorem 1

Textbooks are compiled for students. Therefore, we have made an attempt to

We hope that studying mathematics will be an interesting, joyful and productive

for free distribution. 1

Area of square PQAB + Area of square RCDQ = Area of square

Area of the square drawn on the side KL = KL2 K

Area of the square drawn on the side LM = LM 2

In the right angled triangle ABC, B = 90 , AB = 5 cm and BC = 12 cm. Find the

length of the side AC.

According to Pythagoras’ Theorem, A

Applying Pythagoras’ Theorem to the right angled triangle BCD,

horizontal ground. Therefore PQS = 90x.

Now do the following exercise using Pythagoras’ Theorem.

17.2 Further applications of Pythagoras’ Theorem

ABCD is a square. Prove that AC2 = 2AB2.

Proof : ABC is a right angled triangle since ABC = 90x

In the rhombus ABCD, the diagonals AC and BD intersect at O. Prove that

In the triangle ABC, BAC is an obtuse angle.

1. AD is perpendicular to BC in the triangle ABC .

2. AD is perpendicular to BC in the triangle ABC . Prove that

3. AD is perpendicular to BC in the equilateral triangle ABC. Prove that

17.3 Pythagorean triples

A mathematician named Euclid introduced “parametric equations” to find

Eg: x = 6, and y = 5, then a = x2 – y2 = 62 – 52 = 11

3. Construct straight line segments of the lengths given below.

(i) 8 cm (ii) 10 cm (iii) 41 cm

4. ABC is an equilateral triangle. D is the midpoint of AB and E is the midpoint of

5. In the triangle ABC, B is an acute angle. The foot of the

18.1 Right Angled Triangles

Accordingly, when A is considered, as above, we have that BC is the “opposite

the adjacent side = PQ.

Right angled Hypotenuse Angle Opposite Adjacent

In the triangle PQR in the figure, P is a right angle. PQ = 5 cm and PR = 12 cm'

(i) Find the length of the side QR.

(i) According to Pythagoras’ relationship,

QR2 = PQ2 + PR2

(i) A (ii) 3 cm (iii)

3. In the triangle ABC in the figure, B is a right angle and C = θ.

(i) Express BAC in terms of θ.

BD2 + AD2 = AB2

Then, according to Pythagoras’ theorem, P

(i) A (ii) D x E (iii) x

a. sin 30x + cos 60x

3. Verify the following.

(i) sin 30x cos 60x + cos 30x sin 60x = 1

4. Based on the information in the figure,

(i) Represent this information in a sketch.

18.4 The Trigonometric Tables

tan 49x 50' = 1.1847

(i) If tan θ = 0.3706

The Sines Table

Now let us find another angle using the table.

That is, if sin θ = 0.5277, then θ = 31x 51' .

(i) If sin θ = 0.5831 (ii) If sin θ = 0.7036 (iii) If sin θ = 0.9691

pairs of angles are called complementary angles.