16

INVERTERS

Inverters control the output speed of alternating current (AC) motors. While the basic
function of all inverters is the same, the approach varies with the type of inverter.

CONFIGURATION
Two basic types of inverters commonly are used in industrial applications: voltshertz
and vector control.

Volts/Hertz Control
Traditionally, a voltshertz speed-control device uses a volts-per-hertz (V/Hz) control-
ler, which uses a mechanical-reference command taken from a shaft encoder, or
resolver, to vary the voltage and frequency applied to the motor. By maintaining a
constant V/Hz ratio, the inverter drive controls the speed of the connected motor.
Figure 16-1 shows how this type of controller limits current frequency to the motor.

Inside the drive shown in Figure 16-1, a current-limit block monitors motor current and
alters the frequency command when the motor current exceeds a predetermined value.
Early V/Hz inverters were sensitive to variations in applied load and could not maintain
consistent speed control in applications subjected to frequency-load variations.

The introduction of slip compensation, a feature added to later V/Hz models, altered
the frequency reference to keep the actual motor speed close to the desired speed dur-
ing load changes. The slip-compensation module compares the deviation between
actual and no-load speed of the motor and enters a correction factor to the inverter
drive. This factor compensates for the variation in speed, or slip, caused by load
changes.

194
 Inverters 195
r
Figure 16-1 Volts/Hertzinverter limits currentfrequency to the motor.
196 Root Cause Failure Analysis

Volts-per-hertz technology works well in general-purpose, moderate-speed applica-

tions. However, it is unsuitable for applications that require high dynamic response
and torque control or when the motor is running at very low speeds.

Vector Control

Vector-control technology was developed to provide the ability to accurately control

the output speed of alternating-current motors in both high-torque and low-speed
applications. Alternating-current vector controls refer to the drive’s ability to control
the vector sum of flux and torque in the controlled motor, which provides precise
speed and torque performance. These capabilities enable the drive to maintain tension
when a machine stops or to quickly return to full speed when a heavy load variation is
imposed on the driven machine.

Three basic types of vector drives commonly are used in these applications: flux-vector,
voltage-vector, and stator-flux-vector controls. All these control technologies may retain
the volts-per-hertz core logic, but add other control blocks to improve drive perfor-
mance. These additional control blocks include a current resolver that estimates the flux-
and torque-producing currents in the motor and enters a correction factor to the V/Hz
primary-control logic. Where more accurate speed control is required, a current regulator
may be used to replace the standard V/Hz current-limit block. In this configuration,
shown in Figure 16-2, the output of the current regulator is still a frequency reference.

PERFORMANCE
Inverter performance is measured by the response characteristics of the motor. In
most cases, these characteristics include torque response, impact-load response, and
acceleration control.

Torque Response

Figure 16-3 illustrates the normal torque-response characteristics of a V/Hz inverter.

Note that the ability of the drive to maintain high torque output at low speeds drops
off significantly below 3 Hz. For this reason, the operating range of a V/Hz inverter is
usually less than 20 to 1 (i.e., 20:l).

A flux-vector control improves the drive’s dynamic response and may be able to con-
trol both the output torque and speed. Figure 16-4 provides a typical torque-speed
response curve of a flux-vector inverter.

Impact-Load Response
Inverter drives must compensate for variations in load. Figure 16-5 compares the
impact-load response of a standard V/Hz and a sensorless flux-vector-typeinverter. In
 Inverters
a
lw
-
a
w
2
Figure 16-2 Flux-vector control with feedback loop.
198 Root Cause Failure Analysis

Per Unit
Torque

Figure 16-3 V/Hz drive cannot apply full torque as speed approaches zero.

most cases, the flux-vector inverter will have better response characteristics than the
V/Hz inverter. The feedback logic used in flux-vector inverters provide a more posi-
tive means for both detection and compensation for load variations.

Acceleration Control
Inverters must provide positive speed and torque control over the full operating range
of the controlled motor and system. Inverter speed-control characteristics, especially

Torque

30 40 50 60

Speed (Hz)
Figure 14-4 Flux vector has limited ability to supply full torque at low speeds.
 Inverters 199

0.9

SensorlessLoad Removed

0.875 Sensorless and

Per Unit
of
Quantities

0.85

0.825
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (set)

Figure 16-5 Impact load-response comparison for V/Hz and sensorless, flux-vector-type
inverters.

during rapid acceleration, are important performance measurements. Figure 16-6

shows the response characteristics of a flux-vector-type inverter, which can supply
three times full torque in less than 1 sec. The ability to maintain full torque, as well as
the ramp or acceleration rate of the motor, is essential in critical applications.

+O

25 -
2.0 -
Per Unit
of 15 -
200 Root Cause Failure Analysis

INSTALLATION
Inverters must be installed in a reasonably clean, air-conditionedenvironment. In crit-
ical applications, an extra cooling fan may be required to ensure adequate temperature
control. Wiring from an inverter to a motor, including starter, plugsets, and fuse dis-
connections, must be new or in good working condition.

Motors
Motors to be controlled by an inverter must be of the three-phase, AC type. More than
one motor can be controlled by one inverter, but each motor must have its own set of
three fuses. A positive disconnection must be installed upstream of the dedicated
motor-fuse set.

Short-circuit Protection
Short-circuit fuse coordination is required in all multimotor inverter systems. In the
case of a short circuit in one motor, the individual fuse set will clear without caus-
ing the inverter’s overcurrent-protection system (fuses, electronic trips, etc.) to
operate.

Ground-Fault Protection
Ground-fault fuse coordination is required with multimotor inverter systems for the
same reason as short-circuit fuse coordination. Including ground-fault protection for
each motor will prevent shutting down the inverter should one or more motors trip.

Transformers
Transformers may be required when a different input or output voltage is required for
proper operation. Input transformers are required when the available input voltage is
different than that required by the inverter system or motor. Input isolation transform-
ers also can be used to prevent the electrical noise generated in the inverters from
feeding into other equipment.

An output transformer can be used to match the motor’s load to the inverter. For
example, if the inverter is capable of producing a 480-Voutput and the motor requires
only 290 V at maximum speed, an output transformer can be used to step down the
inverter’s output voltage.

lnstrumentation
Proper operation and maintenance of an inverter system requires adequate feedback to
monitor and troubleshoot the system. As a minimum, inverter systems should have
digital oscillators and a fault-indication system.
 Inverters 201

Digital Oscillators
Most inverter systems incorporate a digital oscillator. The feedback provided by this
device is essential for applications where speed stability is required.

Fault-Indication System
A multimotor inverter system should have sufficient diagnostic capability to detect
and display the reason for an unplanned system shutdown. It is desirable for the
inverter to display the first fault that occurred.

Other Instrumentation
It is necessary to have voltage, frequency, and current readouts or meters on the front
panel of the inverter. Most new inverters have digital displays, which allow the output
to be displayed in series or simultaneously.

OPERATING
METHODS
Proper operation of an inverter system varies with the type of inverter and the specific
application. However, all systems have some common operating parameters, such as
startup and braking.

Startup
Motors controlled by inverters must be started across the line, which refers to con-
necting them across the inverter output while the inverter is operating at running fre-
quency. The inverter must be capable of handling a motor’s starting current in-rush
without affecting the other motors controlled by the inverter.

Braking
If the application requires the motors to be slowed down faster than they would nor-
mally coast to a stop, then dynamic braking is required. This can be achieved with a
multimotor inverter system in several ways. When a motor is removed from the
inverter output, direct current (DC) from a separate power supply can be connected
through one phase of the motor being stopped. Controls must be designed to shut off
the DC power when the motor comes to a complete stop. If not, the motor’s windings
will be damaged.

Another method of braking uses a 60-Hz utility power supply connected to the motor.
This 60-Hz power is connected in opposite-phase rotation from the normal direction
of the motor. This reverse power provides the braking required to stop the motor.
Again, provisions must be made to shut off this power supply as soon as the motor
comes to a complete stop.