Use this guided note document to take notes during lecture and/or while reading your textbook.

The USLOs
are taken from the course syllabus.

Unit 1: Endocrine System

 Recognize the role of the endocrine system (USLO 1.1)

o What is the endocrine system?
-A series of glands that produce and secrete hormones that the body uses for a wide
range of functions. Acts with the nervous system to coordinate and integrate activity of
body cells. Released directly into tissue fluids, not through ducts, and travel through
blood to target organs. Some effect many tissues, and some effect specific tissues.

Various roles of the endocrine system.

 Homeostasis
-Secretes hormones into the bloodstream to maintain homeostasis and

 Reproduction
-Produces sex hormones that are responsible for secondary sex characteristics in
men and women. Produces hormone in men called testosterone and Estrogen in
women.

 Growth and development

-Produced in the pituitary gland and is dispersed throughout the body as one grows.
Stimulating the growth of bones and other body tissues and plays a role in the body
handling of nutrients and minerals.

 Cellular metabolism and energy balance

-
 Stress responses
-Epinephrine and norepinephrine. Fight or flight response

 Ionic water and nutrient balance

-Adrenal glands
 Positive and negative feedback

 Differentiate between the classes of hormones and interactions with membrane or

intracellular receptors (USLO 1.2)
o Classes
 Amino acid derivatives (Amine hormones)
-Derived from amino acids, hydrophilic; can dissolve in blood or lymph.
-Unable to pass through cell membrane (Activate receptor like lock and key)
-Binds to exocellular receptor
-Includes Thyroid hormones
-Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine)
-Serotonin and melatonin

 Peptide hormones (short chains)

 -short chains polypeptides (ADH and OXT)
-small proteins including insulin, growth hormone, and prolactin

 Protein hormones (long chains)

-Made of chains of amino acids
-Glycoproteins (Proteins more than 200 amino acids long that have carbohydrate side
chains

 Lipid derivatives
 Steroid Hormones
-derived from cholesterol
-Hydrophobic, cannot dissolve in blood or lymph
-can dissolve in the cell membrane
-Binds to intercellular receptor to stimulate response
-Must bind to chaperone
Including:
Androgens from teste in males
-Estrogens and progesterone from ovaries in females
-calcitriol from kidneys
-corticosteroids from adrenal cortex

 Eicosanoids
-derived from fatty acids (arachidonic acid)
-Paracrine that coordinate cellular activities such as blood clotting
-Leukotrienes have secondary roles as hormones
-prostaglandins coordinates local cellular activities, causing the cell its secreted
from to contract

o Receptor Types

 Intracellular Receptors
-diffuses into the cell, located inside the cell.
-Hormones that bind to this type of receptor must be abele to cross the cell
membrane.
-Lipid soluble hormones attach to intercellular receptors (hydrophilic)

 Plasma-membrane receptors
-Also known as cell surface receptors or transmembrane receptors, they are typically
the proteins attached to cell membranes. They bind the category of ligands (external)
that ordinarily remain fixed in a cell membrane. Its purpose is to transduce a signal and
convert the same into an intercellular signal even without entering the cell they affect

 Second Messenger Systems

 -initiates a signaling cascade that is carried out by a molecule, does not directly affect
the transcription of target genes. Used by most hormones, water soluble hormones bind
to receptors in the cell membrane

 Identify types of stimuli that control secretion of hormones (USLO 1.3)

o Humoral
-Factors in the blood or lymph that will stimulate a gland

o Hormonal
-Hormones stimulate the release of other hormones
-Hypothalamus utilizes hormonal stimuli to control the anterior pituitary

o Neural
-Hormones that are released in a response of a neural stimuli.
-Hypothalamus utilizes neural stimuli to control the posterior pituitary.
EX: The activation of a fight or flight response by the sympathetic nervous system. When
an individual perceives danger, sympathetic neurons signal the adrenal glands to secrete
norepinephrine and epinephrine.

 Identify the locations, functions, and stimuli for releasing hormones of the pituitary gland
(USLO 1.4)

Anterior Pituitary Gland (6) Also known as the Adenohypophysis (TPFLAG)

 FSH
-Follicle-stimulating hormone. Located in the anterior pituitary lobe. Stimulates sex
cell production (eggs or sperm).
-Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus
Male: Makes sperm
Females-help manage the menstrual cycle(period), stimulates the ovaries to produce
eggs

 LH
-Luteinizing hormone. Located in anterior pituitary gland. Stimulates release of sex
steroids. Release is stimulated by gonadotropin (sex hormone) releasing hormone
(GnRH) from the hypothalamus.
Male: Triggers testosterone
Female: Triggers release of eggs, controls menstrual cycle

 ACTH
-Adrenocorticotropic hormone. Located in anterior pituitary gland. Stimulates hormone
release by adrenal gland. Stimulates production of cortisol.

 TSH
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone. Located in anterior pituitary lobe. Function is to
stimulates thyroid. Stimulated by thyroid releasing from the hypothalamus.

 PRL
-Prolactin, located in anterior pituitary lobe. Function is to stimulate milk production.
Target organ is mammary glands,

 GH (somatotropin)
-Growth hormone, located in the anterior pituitary lobe. Function is to stimulates
mitosis and cell division). Target organs are bones, muscle, and other structures
associated with growth.

Regulation of hormone release

 Hypophyseal Portal System
-Function is to transport and exchange of hormones to allow a fast
communication between both glands. Regulates the pituitary function.

Hypothalamic hormones
 GnRH
-Gonadotropin releasing hormone, responsible for the release of follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary.

 CRH
-Corticotrophin releasing hormone. Responsible for the release of ACTH which
targets the adrenal glands. Which regulates metabolism and the stress response.

 TRH
- Responsible for releasing to FSH which then targets the thyroid gland. Stimulating
the release of thyroid hormone. TH regulates metabolism

 PIH, PRH
PRH (inhibited by PIH), Responsible for releasing the prolactin, which targets the mammary
glands. Which promotes milk production.

 GHIH, GHRH
-GHRH (inhibited by the GHIH), responsible for releasing the Growth hormone,
which targets liver, muscles, and the bones. Induces targets to produce insulin like
growth factors. Stimulating body growth and a higher metabolic rate

o Posterior Pituitary (2) Also known as the neurohypophysis

 Hypothalamic Neural Tract
-
 Hypothalamus produces:
 ADH
 -Antidiuretic hormone. Stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys
Target organ: Kidneys
Release is stimulated from the hypothalamus

 Oxytocin
-Located in the posterior pituitary lobe. Stimulates uterine contractions and milk
ejection. Target organs are the mammary glands and uterus. Stimulated by neurons
from the hypothalamus. (Positive Feedback)

 Identify the locations, functions, and stimuli for releasing hormones of the thyroid gland
(USLO 1.5)

o Thyroxine (T4)
-Located in the thyroid gland. Target organ is all cells of the body. Stimulated by TSH
from the anterior pituitary. Referred to as the metabolic hormone. Influences the body’s
basal metabolic rate, the amount of energy used by the body at rest.
-Low activity
-Contains for iodine atoms

o Triiodothyronine (T3)
-Produces from the T4 in target tissues

-High activity

-Increases metabolic rate, heat generation

o Calcitonin
Function is to inhibit calcium entry into the blood from the intestine and other sources.
The overall result is the reduction of blood calcium levels. Target are the intestines,
kidneys, and bones. Release is stimulated by high blood calcium levels. (LOWERS BLOOD
CALCIUM LEVELS)

 Identify the locations, functions, and stimuli for releasing hormones of the parathyroid
gland (USLO 1.6)

o PTH
-Functions to promote calcium entry into the blood. Target organs are the intestines,
kidneys, and bones. Release is stimulated by low blood calcium levels. (RAISES BLOOD
CALCIUM LEVELS)
-Four glands in posterior capsule of the thyroid
-Works with calcitriol (VD) to raise blood levels of calcium
-Excessive activity causes hyperparathyroidism (Calcium, moves from bone and into the
blood, making the bones start to deform causing them to be weaker and flimsy)
-Deficiency causes hypoparathyroidism (Muscle spasm)
 Identify the locations, functions, and stimuli for releasing hormones of the adrenal gland
(USLO 1.7) Cone shaped on top of the kidneys

o Adrenal Cortex
 Glucocorticoids; example cortisol
-Increases blood glucose; reduce activation of the immune function.

 Mineralocorticoids; example aldosterone

-Increase sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion from the kidneys

 Androgens; testosterone
-Promote tissue building and healing

o Adrenal Medulla
-Epinephrine & Norepinephrine. function is to promote the fight or flight response during
periods of stress. Target organs are all tissues associate with the fight or flight response.
-inner portion of the adrenal. Sympathetic hormone.

 Identify the locations, functions, and stimuli for releasing hormones of the pancreatic
gland (USLO 1.8)
o Islets; secrete hormones and Acini; secretive digestive enzymes
o Alpha cells
 Glucagon
-Plays an important role in blood glucose regulation; low blood glucose levels
stimulate its release. (Lowers blood glucose levels). Promotes glucose synthesis and
glycogen breakdown in the liver.

o Beta cells
 Insulin
-Released through the pancreas, and into the target organs.
-Elevated blood glucose levels stimulate the release of insulin, lowering blood
glucose by promoting glucose use and storage
Negative feedback: Blood sugars were high in the blood, and so the pancreas
releases insulin into the bloodstream and into the target organ (liver or muscle) to
lower the blood sugar in the body. Homeostasis is then restored.

 Identify the locations, functions, and stimuli for releasing hormones of the gonads (USLO
1.9) **SEX GLANDS**
o Testosterone
-Located in the testes in males, Reproductive development in males
-Function: Testosterone is a sex hormone that plays important roles in the body. In men,
it's thought to regulate sex drive (libido), bone mass, fat distribution, muscle mass and
strength, and the production of red blood cells and sperm.
 o Estrogen
-Located in the women’s ovaries.
-Stimulates development of female secondary sex characteristics and prepare the body
for childbirth

o Progesterone
-Located in the women’s ovaries.

 Differentiate the various hormonal interactions (USLO 1.10)

o Antagonistic effects
Two hormones have opposing effects
EX: insulin and glucagon

o Synergistic effects
-Two hormones with similar effects produce an amplifies response.

o Permissive effects
-Presence of one hormone enables another hormone to act

o Integrative effects
-Hormones may have different but complementary effects to coordinate diverse
physiological activities. Such as, prolactin and oxytocin on mammary glands. The ability
of mammary glands to produce and secrete milk depends on both hormones working
together. Prolactin stimulates milk production and oxytocin stimulated milk ejection.

 Describe homeostatic imbalances of the endocrine system (USLO 1.11)

o Diabetes mellitus
Type 1: autoimmune destruction of pancreas, develops in children and young adults
-Treated with insulin injections or pumps

Type 2: insulin resistance

-usually develops in adults
-treated with lifestyle modifications
-Associated with obesity, cardiovascular diseases

o Diabetes insipidus
-Rare disorder that occurs when the kidneys are unable to conserve water as they
perform their function in filtering the blood. One who has this has a rare disorder where
they pee a lot and often feel thirsty.

o Acromegaly
 -excess growth hormone (GH) after the growth plates have closed 
-enlargement of hands, feet, forehead, jaw, and nose
o delayed growth
o abnormal fat distribution
o low blood glucose hours after a meal
o excessive growth

o Gigantism
-The pituitary gland produces too much growth hormones. Usually starts in adolescents causing the
child’s body and bones to grow abnormally fast

o Dwarfism
-Abnormally low levels of GH (growth hormone) in children can cause growth impairment, known as a
growth deficiency.

o Addison’s Disease
-Hyposecretion of corticosteroids (Not enough cortisol) in the adrenal cortex

- Rare disorder that causes low blood glucose levels and low blood sodium levels. -Symptoms
tend to vague but may include general weakness, abdominal pain, weight loss, nausea,
vomiting, sweating, and craving for salty foods

**Cushing syndrome; over secretion of cortisol in the adrenal cortex

o Hyperthyroidism
-Abnormally high activity of the parathyroid gland
- caused by the overproduction of PTH that result in excessive calcium reabsorption from bone,
which
Can significantly decrease boon density, leading to bone deformities.
Symptoms: Building eyes, high metabolic rate, quickly experiencing weight loss, very high body
temperatures, nervousness
o Grave’s Disease
-Autoimmune disease. Common from hyperthyroidism. Happens from when a reaction in which
antibodies overstimulate the follicle cells of the thyroid gland.
o Hypothyroidism
-Abnormally low blood calcium levels may be caused by parathyroid hormone
deficiency.
-Lack of iodine to synthesize thyroid hormones
-Low metabolic rate
Symptoms: weight gain, fatigue, swelling of the legs and face, cold tolerance

o Hashimoto’s
-An autoimmune disease that can cause hypothyroidism, or unactive thyroid. Decreased
metabolism which destroys the thyroid gland instead of stimulating it.