Dr.

Sandipan Chatterjee
DPMI-Behala
Endocrine System
 The endocrine system interacts with the nervous
system to coordinate and integrate body activities by
means of hormones .
 Endocrine tissues and organs secrete hormone into
body fluids (mainly blood and lymph) directly using
diffusion.
 Exocrine tissues, such as salivary glands, and sebaceous
glands, secrete chemical substances through ducts into
an open space.
TYPES OF GLANDS In contrast, Exocrine Glands, or
Endocrine glands are ductless glands with ducts, such as salivary
glands that secrete hormones and sweat glands, secrete their
directly into the bloodstream or products directly into ducts that
surrounding tissues. open to specific areas
 They are also quite
important in
maintaining
homeostasis in the
body.

Hormones are These endocrine

chemicals that glands are
essentially function as distributed
messengers of the throughout the
body body

These chemicals
are secreted by
These messengers control special glands
many physiological known as the
functions as well as endocrine glands
psychological health.
Classification of hormones

 Amino acid derived – Examples include melatonin and

thyroxin .
 Eicosanoids – hormones derived from lipids such as
arachidonic acid, lipoxins and prostaglandins.
 Steroid – Hormones derived from cholesterol
 Functions of the Endocrine System
 Water equilibrium- The endocrine system controls
water equilibrium by regulating the solute concentration
of the blood.
 Growth, metabolism, and tissue maturation - The
endocrine system controls the growth of many tissues,
like the bone and muscle, and the degree of metabolism
of various tissues, which aids in the maintenance of the
normal body temperature and normal mental functions.
Maturation of tissues, which appears in the
development of adult features and adult behaviour, are
also determined by the endocrine system.
 Heart rate and blood pressure management- The
endocrine system assists in managing the heart rate and
blood pressure and aids in preparing the body for
physical motion.
 Immune system control- The endocrine system
helps regulate the production and functions of
immune cells.
 Reproductive function controls-The endocrine
system regulates the development and the functions of
the reproductive systems in males and females.
 Uterine contractions and milk release -The
endocrine system controls uterine contractions
throughout the delivery of the newborn and stimulates
milk release from the breasts in lactating females.
 Ion management-The endocrine system regulates Na+, K+, and
Ca2+ concentrations in the blood.
 Blood glucose regulator -The endocrine system controls blood
glucose levels and other nutrient levels in the blood.
 Direct gene activation - Being lipid-soluble molecules, the steroid
hormones can diffuse through plasma membranes of their target
cells; once inside, the steroid hormone enters the nucleus and
binds to a specific receptor protein there; then, the hormone-
receptor complex binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA,
activating certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA; the mRNA
then is translated in the cytoplasm, resulting in the synthesis of
new proteins.
 Second messenger system- Water-soluble, nonsteroidal
hormones-protein, and peptide hormones- are unable to enter the
target cells, so instead, they bind to receptors situated on the target
cell’s plasma membrane and utilize a second messenger system.
 Major endocrine glands & hormones
 The pituitary gland: attached to the hypothalamus by
infundibulum. Divided into anterior lobe
(adenohypophysis) and posterior lobe (neurohypophysis).
Anterior lobe is about 3 times larger than posterior lobe .
1. Anterior pituitary is under hormonal control by the
hypothalamus where blood vessels transport “releasing
hormones” to the anterior lobe.
• Anterior pituitary contains 5 types of glandular cells.
Somatotrophs produce GH.
 Lactotrophs produce PRL.
 Corticotrophs produce ACTH and MSH.
 Thyrotrophs produce TSH.
 Gonadotrophs produce FSH and LH.
 2. posterior pituitary is under nervous control by the
hypothalamus where nerve fibers innervate the
posterior lobe for its release of hormones (posterior
pituitary does not produce hormones; it only release
hormones made by the hypothalamus)
 Anterior pituitary gland – 7 hormones

 Growth hormone (GH) -- for normal growth and development of all

body cells, especially muscle and bone cells. [Hyper secretion of it
during childhood causes Gigantism, hypersecretion during adulthood
causes Acromegaly, and hyposecretion causes Dwarfism].
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) – stimulates the thyroid gland to
secrete thyroid hormones. [Hypersecretion causes Grave’s disease, and
hyposecretion causes cretinism in children and myxedema in adults].
 Prolactin (PRL) or Lactogenic hormone (LTH) -- stimulates milk
production in the mammary glands. [Hypersecretion can disrupt
normal menstrual cycles in female and causes impotence in
male; and hyposecretion causes poor milk production in female].
 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) -- stimulates melanocytes in
the epidermis and hair follicles to release melanin pigment.
[Hypersecretion causes abnormally dark skin pigment, and
hyposecretion causes abnormally light skin pigment].
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
Oxytocin (OT) -- stimulates uterine contraction during the birth
process, and activates milk ejection from the mammary
glands.[Disorders are rare and have no known effects, except in some
hyposecretion cases, weak labor contraction is reported].
o Antidiurectic hormone (ADH) -- stimulates water reabsorption in
kidney tubules. [Hypersecretion has no know effects, and
hyposecretion causes frequent urination called diabetes insipidus].
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) – stimulates the
adrenal cortex to secrete mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, or gonadocorticoids. [Hypersecretion
causes Cushing’s disease, while hyposecretion is rare].
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) -- stimulates the
production of egg cells and sperm in the gonads.
[Hypersecretion causes no known effects, while
hyposecretion can cause failure of sexual maturation]
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) -- triggers ovulation and
stimulates the production of estrogens and progesterone in
female, and promotes testosterone production in male.
[Disorders are similar to those for FSH]
Pituitary Gland
 This gland has its location at the
base of the brain.
 It is known as the master gland,
because it is responsible to
control the function of other
glands to put forth their
hormones.
 Growth, body metabolism,
sexual development, and
reproduction happen to be the
elements which come under
the domain of the pituitary
gland.
 It develops the hormones that
trigger growth and DIAGRAM OF PITUITARY GLAND
development.
 Functions of pituitary
gland Hormones produced
 Growth Antidiuretic hormone
(vasopressin) – Its primary function
 Blood pressure is to help the kidneys to retain water
 Sex organ functions in the body .
Corticotropin (ACTH) – These
 Pain relief hormones are there for regulating the
hormones of the adrenal glands.
 Temperature regulation
 Water and osmolarity Human growth hormone – it is
regulations in the body associated with the growth and
development of the body. It is also
known to encourage the production
of protein.
 Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone -
Important functions like the production of sperm and semen, and
menstruation, are looked after by this particular hormone.
Secondary sexual characteristics such as hair growth pattern,
muscles, texture and thickness of the skin, nature of the v
oice, etc.
 Oxytocin – Helps contraction of the uterus muscles and mam
mary ducts in the breast
 Prolactin – The process of milk production in the mammary glands
is carried out by this hormone
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)– Again, as the name
suggests, this hormone is responsible for the functions of the
hormones of the thyroid gland

Disorders -
 Gigantism and acromegaly caused by a n excess of growth hormone in
childhood and adult respectively.
 Hypothyroidism caused by a deficiency of thyroid-stimulating hormone.
 THYROID GLAND
 Just below the Adam’s apple, is
located what is known as the
thyroid gland.
 The thyroid gland releases two
main hormones, thyroxine and
triiodothyronine.
 It produces hormones that affect
the heart rate and how calories are
burnt
Functions
Hormones produced :
 Controls how quickly the body uses Thyroid hormone – The body’s
energy metabolic rate is controlled by this
 Hormones control growth rate and hormone.
function of many system in the Calcitonin – It regulates calcium
body balance in species other than
 These hormones play vital roles in humans. Studies are still in progress
regulating metabolism and organ to find its function in the human
function species.
Thyroid gland
a) located inferior to the larynx (voice box) and attached to the trachea.
b) divided into two lateral lobes .
c) thyroid follicles utilize iodine and synthesize thyroglobulin (TGB) to
be stored in the colloids.
d) upon stimulation of TSH, TGB is converted into two hormones --
Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4) to promote normal
metabolism. [Hyposecretion causes hypothyroidism, similar to
cretinism and myxedema, and hypersecretion causes hyperthyroidism
that results in a goiter or in Graves’ disease].
e) also secretes Calcitonin to lower blood calcium and phosphate
levels and regulate digestive hormones. [Both hyposecretion and
hypersecretion would affect normal balances of calcium and
phosphate]
 Parathyroid glands
 Four oval-shaped glands embedded in the posterior
surface of the thyroid gland.
 Secrete only 1 protein hormone called parathyroid
hormone (PTH) or parathormone to raise blood
calcium level and lower blood phosphate level.
[Hyposecretion causes tetany, and hypersecretion
causes osteitis fibrosa cystica].
 Adrenal gland
 A. Adrenal Cortex: outer portion of the adrenal gland
which is attached to the superior surface of the kidney.
 Divided into 3 regions, from outside to inside : Zona
glomerulosa, Zona fasciculate , and Zona reticularis.
 Secretes over 30 steroid-based substances and several
steroid hormones, all crucial for normal homeostasis .
 Zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids which help
regulate the levels of minerals such as sodium, potassium,
and magnesium. Aldosterone is the most important
hormone in this group, where it raises blood levels of
sodium and water, and lowers blood potassium level.
 Zona fasciculate secretes glucocorticoids which affect
glucose or carbohydrate metabolism. Cortisol is the most
important hormone in this group, where it is involved in
carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism , and also helps
fight stress and inflammation . [Hyposecretion causes
Addison’s disease , and hypersecretion causes Cushing’s
syndrome].
 Zona reticularis secretes gonadocorticoids which
supplement sex hormones from the testes and ovaries and
stimulate early development of reproductive organs. These
hormones are male types (adrenal androgens), namely
testosterone , but can be converted into female types, such as
estrogens, by the skin, liver, and adipose
tissues[Hyposecretion causes congenital adrenal hyperplasia,
and hypersecretion causes gynecomastia in male].
 Adrenal gland
 B. Adrenal Medulla: inner portion of the adrenal
gland.
 Made of modified nerve tissue that is under direct
regulation of sympathetic nerves of the autonomic nervous
system.
 Contains glandular cells called chromaffin cells which
secrete 2 closely related hormones -- Epinephrine (or
adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (or noradrenaline).
 Effects of these hormones resemble sympathetic
stimulation, where body activities such as cardiac actions,
blood pressure , and breathing rate are increased , while
digestive processes are decreased. [No known effects are
due to hyposecretion of these, but hypersecretion can
caused hypertension, increased blood glucose level , and
high heart rate].
 Pancreas
 The only gland that is both exocrine and endocrine in
physiology.
 In its exocrine aspect, 99% of its mass is composed of cells
called acini which secrete digestive enzymes and fluids into
the small intestine through the pancreatic ducts.
 In its endocrine aspect, 1% of its mass is little groups of
cells called islets of langerhans (or pancreatic islets) which
secrete hormones to regulate blood glucose level.
 In each pancreatic islet , alpha cells (α cells) secrete
glucagons to raise blood glucose level.
 Beta Cells (β cells) secrete insulin to lower blood glucose
level. [Hyposecretion causes diabetes mellitus where
excessive glucose is present in urine, and hypersecretion
causes hyperinsulinism].
DELTA CELLS (δ cells) secrete somatostation or
growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) which
helps regulate carbohydrate metabolism by inhibiting
the secretion of glucagons.
 Ovary
 The female sex organ that also serves as an endocrine
gland.
 Contains follicular cells in its secondary and mature
follicles, where they secrete Estrogen to develop and
maintain female sexual characteristics, to regulate
ovarian and menstrual cycles, to maintain pregnancy,
and to develop secondary sexual characteristics. [Both
hypo- secretion and hyper -secretion will have broad
effects in female reproduction].
 Also contains degenerating scar tissue called corpus
luteum which contain lutein cells that secrete
Progesterone to help maintain ovarian and menstrual
cycles, and pregnancy. [Discorders are similar to those
for estrogens].
 Testis
 The male sex organ that Pineal gland
also serves as an  -- pine cone shaped
endocrine gland. located deep in the
 Contains interstital cells cerebrum.
(or leydig’s cells) that  -- secrets melatonin to
secrete regulate circadian
 testosterone to rhythms which are
develop secondary necessary to keep track
sexual characteristics. of day/night cycles,
[Both hyposecretion and sleep/wake rhythm,
hypersecretion and will menstrual and ovarian
have broad effects in cycles.
male reproduction].
Thymus gland: A diminishing gland (over time) located
between the lungs. secretes a group of hormones, such as
thymosin, to affect the production and maturation of
lymphocytes in body defenses
 Heart : The organ for pumping blood in the cardiovascular
system. contains 2 small chambers called atrium which
secrete atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) which helps regulate
blood pressure.

 Digestive organs: stomach secretes hormones such as

gastrin to stimulate stomach activities .
 small intestine secretes hormones such as
cholecystokinin (CCK) to stimulate gallbladder
activities, and intestinal gastrin to regulate stomach
activities.
 Disorders of the thyroid gland
 Hyperthyroid :
 Grave’s disease : Auto antibodies (against self)
bind TSH receptors on thyroid cell membranes ,
mimicking action of TSH, over stimulating gland
(hyperthyroidism) ; This is an exothalmic goiter.
 Hyperthyroidism : High metabolic rate, sensitivity
to heat, restless ness, hyperactivity, weight loss ,
protruding eyes , goiter.
 Hypothyroid :
 Hashimoto’s disease : Auto antibodies (against self) attack
thyroid cells, producing hypothyroidism .
 Hypothyroidism (infantile) : cretinism - shunted growth,
abnormal bone formation , mental retardation , low body
 temperature , sluggishness.
 Hypothyroidism (adult) : Myxedema - low metabolic rate,
sensitivity to cols, sluggishness, poor appetite , swollen
tissue , mental dullness.
 Simple goiter : Deficiency of thyroid hormone due to
iodine deficiency ; because no thyroid hormones inhibit
pituitary release of TSH, thyroid is over stimulated and
enlarges, but functions below normal (hypothyroidism).
 Disorders f the parathyroid glands
 I . Hyperparathyroidism : fatigue , muscular weakness ,
painful joints, altered mental functions, depression, weight
loss, bone weakening , increased PTH secretion over
stimulates osteoclasts.
 Cause : Tumor
 Treatment : Remove Tumor , correct bone deformities .
 II. Hypoparathyroidism : muscle cramps and seizures .
Decreased PTH secretion reduces osteoclast activity ,
diminishing blood calcium ion concentration .
 Cause : inadvertent surgical removal; injury .
 Treatment : calcium salt injections , massive doses of
vitamin D.