Agri.

112: Principles of Soil Science

Module 2

SOIL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

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I. INTRODUCTION

The soil on the earth’s surface are undergoing continual change, which
escapes a casual study of the soil. Each soil has a life cycle in terms of geologic
time. This dynamic and evolutionary nature is embodied in a definition of soil as a
natural body of the earth’s surface having “properties due to the integrated effect
of climate and living matter (plants and animals), acting upon parent material, as
conditioned by relief (slope), over periods of time.
The formation of the soil on the earth’s surface is governed by the so called
“soil forming factors” previously identified by Jenny (1941), a widely accepted
hypothesis, are the climate, organisms, relief, parent material and time (S = f (cl,
o, r, p, t, …)). Among these factors, the parent material is one of the most influential
factors aside from climate especially during the early stages of soil development.
Parent material in soil science refers to the underlying geologic material
characterized generally by the bedrock or can also be from a previously deposited
material (sedimentary). Three types of rocks are identified on the earth’s surface
according to the major Earth processes that formed them namely: igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. They can also be classified based on their
chemical composition as either a mafic type, where it contains higher amounts of
magnesium and iron, or a felsic rock type, where it is enriched with lighter
elements particularly silica.

II. LEARNING OUTCOME

At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

1. Enumerate the elemental composition of the earth’s crust

2. Identify the different soil-forming minerals
3. Discuss the three general classification of rocks and their abundance
4. Describe the weathering process and the factors affecting soil formation
5. Describe development of soil profile and soil horizon

III. LEARNING CONTENTS

A. The Earth’s Crust

The earth is basically composed of only four elements: iron, oxygen, silicon,
magnesium. Less abundant are nickel, sulfur, calcium and aluminum. They occur
in amounts less than one percent. The crust is the outermost layer on the Earth’s
surface with thickness of about few kilometers.
The three chemical elements, oxygen, silicon and aluminum are the most
abundant elements in the earth’s crust. Their abundance and their affinity for many
other elements make them ideal to serve as framework in the chemical structure
of most rocks and minerals. The eight most abundant elements of the earth’s crust
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are oxygen (46.6%), silicon (27.7%), aluminum (8.14%), iron (5.0%), magnesium
(2.09%), calcium (3.63%), sodium (2.83%) and potassium (8.14%). Altogether,
they constitute 98.6% of the composition of the earth’s crust, but oxygen, silicon
and aluminum make up 82.43%. Thus, quartz, which is one of the most abundant
minerals is made up mainly of SiO2. The so-called silicate clay minerals are
composed chiefly of Si, O2 and Al. in various proportions and combinations with
different elements, usually basic cations, such as K, Ca, Mg and Na.

B. Soil-Forming Rocks and Minerals

Mineral: Building Blocks of Rocks

A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic substance with fairly definite

chemical composition and specific physical properties. These are building the
blocks of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of minerals and their properties.

Primary minerals are those that exist in soils in their original state and are
very resistant to decomposition. Some of the more important primary minerals and
their compositions are as follows:

Quartz SiO2 Muscovite KAl3Si3O10(OH)2

Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 Biotite K(Mg, Fe),AlSi3O10(OH)2
Na-plagioclase NaAlSi3O8 Hornblende Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3,Si6O22(OH)2
Ca-plagioclase CaAl2Si3O8 Augite Ca2(Al,Fe)4(Mg, Fe)4 Si6O24
Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH).(Cl, F)

The primary minerals, because of their resistance to weathering, persist in

the soil in their original state. They are the chief source of the sand and silt
fractions of soils. Thus, a predominantly quartz parent material is expected to give
rise to sandy soil. Some of the important nutrient elements derived from primary
minerals Ca, K, Mg and Fe. The minerals containing Fe and Mg, such as biotite,
hornblende and Augite are called ferromagnesian minerals and lend dark colors
to soils formed. Those of quartz origin are lighter in color. Quartz is one of the
most resistant primary minerals in nature and make up 50 to 90% of the coarser
particles of soils (sand and silt). It does not contribute to the fertility of the soils
being composed entirely of SiO2. The feldspars are composed of two subgroups,
the orthoclase and the plagioclase feldspar. Although they are also found in sand
and silt fractions, they are more important in clay formations. The orthoclase
feldspars, microcline contributes K to soils while the plagioclase feldspars, albite
and anorthite give out Na and Ca. micas, muscovite and Biotite are important
sources of K as well as Fe and Mg. The pyroxenes and amphiboles are another
group of minerals which form clay soils. Pyroxenes are represented by augite, a
ferromagnesian mineral which is a source of Fe, Mg and Ca. The amphiboles are
represented by the mineral hornblende which is also a ferromagnesian mineral
containing Fe, Mg and Ca.

Secondary minerals arise from the chemical breakdown of the least

resistant primary minerals. The more commonly occurring ones and their
composition are as follows:
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Calcite CaCO3 Gibbsite Al2O3.3H2O

Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 Clay minerals Al-silicates
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4
Limonite Fe2SO3.3H2O Montmorillonite Si8(Al4xMgX)O20(OH)4
Hematite Fe2O3 Illite mixed mica

The most important contributions of the secondary minerals are the clay
fractions, which, among other properties have high capacity to store and exchange
cations. They also release the important nutrient elements Ca, Mg, S, P, Cl and
Fe. Montmorillonite, in particular have a very high cation exchange capacity
(CEC).

Three Classification of Rocks

Rocks are consolidated aggregate of one or more minerals. The study of

rocks is called petrology (Greek: petros, stone, rock). There are three major types
of rocks: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary.

a) Igneous rocks are original rocks formed from the solidification and
crystallization of magma at temperatures of 9000C to 16000C within or outside
the earth’s crust. They are considered the mother of all other rocks. The
common soil-forming igneous rocks are granite, diorite, gabbro, rhyolite,
andesite, basalt, felsite and obsidian. Granite and diorite are light-colored
rocks due to high proportion of light colored minerals such as feldspar and
muscovite. Gabbro is darker in color due to the predominance of dark-colored
minerals such as biotite, hornblende and augite. Fine-textured rocks include
felsite and obsidian which are lighter in color and basalt which is darker in color.
Granite is acidic (greater than 65% SiO2) while basalt is basic (less than 50%
SiO2).

b) Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of sediments derived

from the weathering of existing rocks through fragmentation, transport (by
water) and recementation. The important soil-forming sedimentary rocks
include limestone, dolomite, sandstone and shale. Limestone is made up
chiefly of the carbonate mineral, calcite or CaCO 3 while dolomite, also a
carbonate mineral is composed of calcium and magnesium carbonate,
CaMg(CO3)2. Sandstone is composed of cemented sand grains whose
composition is SiO2. Shale, on the other hand, is made up of fine particles of
clay which become consolidated after deposition in bodies of water.

c) Metamorphic rocks are formed from other existing rocks through the process
of remelting and recrystallization under very high temperature and pressure.
The typical metamorphic rocks are gneiss, schist, quartzite, slate and marble.
The mineral composition of gneiss and schist is very variable but gneiss is
sometimes composed of quartz and feldspars, while schist is sometimes made
up of mica and hornblende. Quartzite is made up of quartz (SiO2). Slate is
composed of clay, usually transformed from shale. Marble is the metamorphic
form of limestone.
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Relative Abundance of Rocks

The Earth’s crust is predominantly composed of rocks (95% igneous rocks).

The rest are sedimentary rocks with shale making up about 4%, sandstone 0.75%
and limestone, 0.25%. However, although igneous rocks are the most abundant,
the sedimentary rocks are concentrated near the crust’s surface and therefore
they exert a dominant effect on many soils of the world.
The dominant soil-forming rocks in the Philippines are basalts and
andesite. There are also some soils derived from gabbro and diorite (igneous
rocks), limestone, shale and sandstone (sedimentary rocks). Many soils of
Laguna, Batangas, Rizal and parts of Quezon are from volcanic tuff. Some of the
soils which were derived from basalt and andesite are the soil series of Adtuyon,
Antipolo, Guimbalaon, and Jasaan, Examples of soils derived from
shale/sandstone are Alaminos, Bantay, Bauang, Lugo and Ubay soils. Some
limestone-derived soils which are quite extensive are Faraon, Bolinao,
Binangonan and Alimodian soils.

Modes of Rock Formation

Extrusive (volcanic) formation is when the magma is ejected out of the

earth’s crust through volcanic eruption and solidifies in the surface. Thus, there I
abrupt cooling of the magma and less time for crystal growth. The rock formed is
therefore fine-grained like basalt and andesite.
Intrusive (plutonic) formation is when magma solidifies within the earth’s
crust. Due to still high temperatures, cooling is slower so that there is more time
for the crystal growth of the magma. Hence, the resulting rock formed is coarse-
grained, typical example are granite, diorite and gabbro.

The Rock Cycle

Rocks in the crust are transformed from one type to another. For example
an igneous rock may be transformed into a sedimentary rock through weathering
and lithification, or into a metamorphic rock by partial melting through the action
of heat, pressure or chemical action. On the other hand, a sedimentary or
metamorphic rock may undergo complete re-melting and crystallization to form an
igneous rock. This continuous process through which old rocks are transformed
into new ones is called rock cycle.

C. Weathering and Soil Formation

Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks and minerals.

It is basically a combination of destruction and synthesis. Rocks are first broken
down physically into smaller fragments and eventually into the individual minerals
of which they are composed.

Two basic processes involved in the change: physical and chemical

weathering.

1. Physical weathering
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It is the breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller pieces without any
drastic change in their chemical properties or composition. One process is
unloading which is the imperceptible movement of rock formation towards the
earth’s surface resulting in cracking of rocks. As broken pieces of rocks and
minerals are carried by water, wind and ice, the pieces rub against one another
and against the still consolidated (intact) rocks.
The other forces of physical disintegration include that of freezing water in
cracks crevices which expands with a force of 73 kg/cm2. Because of different
mineral composition of rocks, they expand and contract at different rates of
different parts with alternated heating and cooling resulting also in cracking. The
breaking of rocks and minerals into small pieces create more surface area for
faster chemical weathering.

2. Chemical weathering
It involves change in chemical structure and composition of rocks and
minerals which results to release of soluble materials and formation of simple
products. These processes include the following:

(a) Hydrolysis is the reaction of water with the mineral resulting in the destruction
of the original chemical structure and the formation of acid and base.

KAlSi3O8 + H2O ------> HAlSi3O2 + KOH

(Feldspar)

(b) Hydration involves reaction of water with minerals but in this case there is no
destruction of the chemical structure, but only a rigid attachment or association
with a water molecule. Example is the transformation of the iron mineral,
hematite to limonite.

2Fe2O3 + H2O ------> 2Fe2O3.3H2O

(Hematite) (Limonite)

(c) Oxidation is a weathering process particularly occurring in iron-containing

minerals. Oxidation changes the iron in the mineral from ferrous (reduced) to
ferric (oxidized) form. The reduction in size and increase in valency of Fe
results in weakening and instability of the structure of the mineral.

4FeO + O2 ------> Fe2O3

(Ferrous oxide) (Hematite)

d) Carbonation is the reaction of carbonic acid, H2CO3 with a mineral to produce

a more soluble product.

CaCO3 + H2CO3 ------> Ca(HCO3)2

(Calcite) (Ca-bicarbonate)
e). Solution is the dissolution of minerals through the solvent action of H 2CO3 or
H+ ions. The reaction results in separation or dissociation of component
cations, usually the base of the minerals. Usually, silica is dissolved from
minerals and washed off from soils.
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CaSO4 + H2O ------> Ca2+ + SO42- + 2H2O

D. Factors of Soil Formation

The five factors of soil formation are climate, living organisms, relief, parent
material and time. These factors determine the kind of soil that eventually
develops in particular place. The five factors interact with one another, sometimes
masking the influence of other factors, or at other times enhancing the effect of
each other. When a factor dominates the other factors, the resulting properties of
the soil invariably reflect the effect of the dominating factor. Nevertheless, the
properties of the soil reflect the combined influences of all five factors with each
one exerting its effect in greater or lesser degrees. In equation form, this principle
is stated as:

S = f(CLORPT)

Where: S = soil properties being influence of

C = climate
LO = living organism
R = relief
P = parent material
T = time

1. Climate – the two most important climatic factors in soil formation are
temperature and rainfall. The higher the amount of rainfall, the faster is soil
formation. Water being a solvent is a principal agent in weathering of minerals
(hydration, hydrolysis), it speeds up chemical reactions and facilitates
decomposition. Under conditions of low rainfall, silica and basic cations like
Ca, Mg, Na and K accumulate and form montmorillonitic soils. At high rainfall,
soluble silica and bases are leached out to give rise to soils high in kaolinite
and sesquioxides. The higher the temperature, provide water is sufficient, the
faster is the rate of soil formation because the rate of chemical reactions is
faster. The rate of chemical reactions is known to increase to three times for
every 100C rise in temperature.

2. Living organisms that are involved in soil formation include plants, animals and
microbial life. The accumulation of organic material and of the decomposed
soil organic matter is one major role played by the living organisms. The
vegetation especially higher plants minimize water run-off and provide more
water for soil formation and limit subsequent destruction of soil profile by
erosion.

3. Relief or Topography influences soil formation by its effect on movement and

accumulation of water and degree of erosion by water run-off. There is more
run-off and less percolation on the steep slopes than on the level or plain areas.
Marked horizon differentiation normally occurs on gentle slopes or level areas
with good internal drainage. However, if these areas are less or hardly
permeable to water, they are likely to be poorly drained or water logged. The

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difference in moisture conditions under different topographic situation affects

soil color, base status, salt content, and pH of the soil.

4. Parent material is the partly weathered (unconsolidated or broken) mineral or

organic debris from which true soil (solum) is formed. It is the starting points of
soil formation or soil at zero time of formation. Inorganic parent materials are
classified into two geologic groups: sedentary or residual and transported
materials.
Residual parent materials are those that developed in place and formed
from the rock below where it is found. Transported parent materials are those
which are transported by various agents, such as water, wind or ice and
deposited in other sites where they form soil eventually.
Transported parent materials are further classified according to the agent
or manner of transport. Those which accumulate from running water (usually
streams or rivers) are termed as alluvium. A large tract of the soils surrounding
the Cagayan River are of alluvial origin. Materials that accumulated in former
lake waters are termed lacustrine, and those in oceans are marine. Those that
are carried and deposited by moving glaciers are termed glacial till or moraine
and those by wind are aeolian, with loess, sand dunes, volcanic ash as
examples. Gravity can also be an agent of transport and the materials so
deposited are called colluvium.
The physical and chemical properties of parent materials are generally
reflected in the soils formed thereon, particularly is the soil is still relatively
young. Thus, soils developed from calcareous parent material (limestone) has
high calcium content and is alkaline. Soils which developed from primary
minerals which are resistant to weathering are usually coarse-textured, while
those from secondary minerals such as clay minerals are fine in texture.
However, some soils do not necessarily resemble their parent materials. The
older the soil, the less it reflects the properties of parent materials. This is
because other factors of soil formation may exert greater influence with the
passage of time. This is the meaning of the phrase: “time nullifies the effect of
parent materials”.
The most common parent materials of Philippine soils are alluvium (e.g.
Central plains of Luzon and Cagayan Valley), shale and sandstone, limestone
(soil in Bohol and Cebu), andesite, basalt and agglomerates.
When volcanic eruptions emit the deposit fine dust and ash which
eventually harden (lithified), a stratified rock called tuff is formed. Some
examples of soil formed from this parent material as Lipa, Guadalupe, Ibaan,
Magallanes, Tagaytay, Novaliches and Taal series.

5. The time factor of soil formation refers to the active length of time that parent
materials have been subjected to soil forming process. Thus, there are young
soils, mature soils and old soils. Alluvial soils are generally young soils
because constant deposition always renews the parent material. As the soil
progresses towards maturity, the horizons (or layers) become more and more
distinctly differentiated. As development proceeds, more of the soluble
components, particularly the bases, Ca, Mg, Na, and K are leached out. Thus,
while old soils have thick solum, they are generally acidic and are of low fertility.
It takes about 100 years to form an inch of soil from bare rock.

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 Agri.112: Principles of Soil Science

E. Soil Development

As young soil becomes old soils, soil components undergo various

processes: additions, losses, translocation, and transformations. These are
pedogenic (pedogenesis – study of soil origin and development) processes which
bring about soil development. These mechanisms are taking place in each soil
horizon singly or in combination at various intensities so that eventually each
horizon acquires distinctly different properties from the others. This is called
horizon differentiation.
Organic matter, soluble salts, carbonates, oxides of Fe and Al and silicates
are common materials that are subject to the four basic mechanisms. The
combined effects of addition, losses, translocation and transformation of materials
produce differences in the horizons of the soil profile, changes in color, structure,
texture, consistency, and some changes do not take place in each horizon.

Processes of Soil Development

The two major processes which result in loss of materials from the soil body
are erosion and leaching. The chief agent in these losses is water. Erosion is the
removal of materials from the surface of the soil and their deposition in another
location. Leaching is the general term for the washing out of soil materials from
the soil body. These processes happen more intensively in high-rainfall areas. In
most areas, iron and aluminium oxide such as gibbsite, hematite, goethite and
limonite are left on the leached soil and serve as indicators that soils have
undergone intensive leaching.
The most common material added to the soil is organic matter. Plants
constantly undergo the cycle of growing and dying and they accumulate usually at
the soil surface. Organic matter is thus, amassed in the soil at various stages of
decomposition, the last stage of which is humus. Humus darkens the soil side from
increasing soil aggregation and nutrient storing capacity of the soil. Melanization
is the admixing of organic matter to the mineral matter thereby darkening the soil.
This is a transformation process. Mineral matter may also be added to the soil
though wind (Aeolian) and water (hydrologic). This process is termed as
cumulization. The general term for the addition of any material to the soil body is
enrichment.
Illuviation is the general term for the movement of soil materials from one
part of the soil solum to another layer. This process results in the formation of
argillic (clayey) horizon. Generally, the subsoil clay content becomes higher than
that of the upper horizon. Calcification is the transfer and accumulation of calcium
carbonate in particular soil horizons. Decalcification is the removal of CaCO3 from
the soil horizon. Salinization is the accumulation of soluble salts of sulfates and
chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium in certain horizons of the
soil solum or soil body. Desalination is the removal of soluble ions in the soil.
Alkalization (solonization) is the accumulation of sodium ions in the soil.
Dealkalization (solodization) is the leaching of sodium ions from the zone of
accumulation. Lessivage is the specific term for the movement of fine mineral
particles from the topsoil (A horizon) resulting in the enrichment of clay of the B
horizon or formation of the argillic horizon. Pedoturbation is the biological (by soil
organisms) and physical (freezing, thawing, wetting and drying) mixing of soil
materials resulting in the homogenizing of the solum.
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Podzolization (silication) is the translocation of aluminum and iron and/or

organic matter, thereby concentrating the silica in the leached layer. Thus, this
process is also classified as transformation mechanisms. Laterization
(desilication), on the other hand, is the transfer of silica from the solum, thus
concentrating the iron and aluminum oxides and hydroxides (sesquioxides) in the
leached layer. This is also called a transformation process. Leucinization is the
paling or loss of the dark color of the soil due to the removal or organic matter from
the solum.

F. The Soil Pedon

In studying a soil profile, a soil pedon may be examined. A pedon is a three-

dimensional soil body which is the smallest volume of soil material that could be
called a soil. The pedon is in a sense an abstraction or creation of the mind for
convenience in the study of soil. It is analogous in some ways to the unit cell in a
crystal of a mineral, though the soil continuum lacks the uniformity of arrangement
of components that characterizes crystals. One face of the pedon is the soil profile.

Soil Profile

Soil profile is a vertical section

of the soil from the surface down to the
parent material. It consists of the
vertical arrangement of all the soil
layers known as soil horizons. It may
range in thickness from less than one
meter to more than 30 meters
depending upon the stage of soil
development. The conventional way
to study a soil profile is by digging a pit
of at least 1.5 meters deep in the
ground or by using road cuts.
Evaluation of a soil profile is
necessary in order to understand the
soil as a natural body.
Soil horizons are soil layers that
are formed roughly parallel to the soil
surface with distinct characteristics
produced by soil forming processes. There are two types of soil horizons (a)
genetic horizons, which are normally evaluated during the field examination of
soils, and (b) diagnostic horizons, which are used for classification purposes.
The ABC system of naming the genetic horizons was introduced by the
Russian V.V. Dokuchaev in 1883. It was improved by the German E. Ramann in
the early 1900s (Bridges, 1997). In this system, three kinds of symbols are used,
these are; capital letters, lower case letters and Arabic numerals. The capital
letters denote the master horizon. The lower case letters are used as subordinate
for the distinction of some specific characteristics of the master horizon. While the
Arabic numerals are used to either further subdivide a horizon or an indication of
a lithological discontinuity.

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 Agri.112: Principles of Soil Science

Master horizons

O horizon - surface accumulation of organic matter overlying the mineral

soil. This is usually absent in cultivated soils

A horizon - composed of mineral soil materials but strongly darkened by

organic matter mixed with the mineral fraction. It occurs at the
surface or below the O horizon

E horizon - usually found below an O or A horizon. Silicate clay, iron,

aluminum or some combination of these have been eluviated or
leached leaving a usually light colored horizon due mainly to the
color of primary mineral grains because secondary coatings on
the grains are absent

B horizon - forms below an O, A, or E horizon and shows no evidence of the

original sediment or structure. In addition, it possesses the
following features:
1. Illuvial accumulation of silicate clay, iron, aluminum,
humus, carbonates;
2. Evidence of carbonate removal;
3. Residual accumulation of iron oxides;
4. Coatings of iron oxides;
5. Alteration that form silicate clay or liberate oxide or both and
that forms a granular, blocky or prismatic structure;
6. Brittleness

C horizon - horizon that are little affected by pedogenetic processes and lack
properties of O, A, E, or B horizons. Unconsolidated layer of
broken rocks known as parent material.

R layer - hard bedrock underlying the soil that is not diggable with a
spade.

Transitional horizons

Horizons that have properties of more than one master horizon, usually of
adjacent ones, are called transitional horizon. There are two kinds of transitional
horizons: those dominated by properties of one master horizon but having
subordinate properties of another such as AB, EB, BE, and BC, and those in which
distinct parts have recognizable properties of two kinds of master horizon such as
E/B, B/E and B/C.

Subordinate characteristics within master horizons and layers

Designations of subordinate distinctions and features within the master

horizons and layers are based on profile characteristics observable in the field and
are applied during the description of the soil at the site. Lower case letters are
used as suffixes to designate specific kinds of master horizons and layers, and

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 Agri.112: Principles of Soil Science

other features. Examples of subordinate characteristics common in Philippine

soils:
a - highly decomposed organic material (used for O horizon)
b - buried genetic horizon
c - concretions or nodules
d - dense layer (physically root restrictive)
e - moderately decomposed organic material (used for O horizon)
g - stagnic conditions (due to submergence)
h - accumulation of organic matter
i - slightly decomposed organic material
m - strong cementation or induration
n - pedogenetic accumulation of exchangeable sodium
o - residual accumulation of sesquioxides (iron oxides)
p - plowing or other human disturbance
r - strong reduction
u - urban and other human-made material
v - occurrence of plinthite
w - development of color or structure
y - pedogenetic accumulation of gypsum
z - pedogenetic accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum

Regolith
The loose mantle of weathered rock and soil material above the bedrock.
The regolith may be a residual material derived from the weathering of rock or it
may be an unconsolidated sediments. It consist of the A, B and C horizons.

Solum
It refers to the upper part of a soil profile, above the parent material, in which
the processes of soil formation are active. It includes the A and B horizons.

Soil monolith
It is a preserved soil profile used for display purposes.

IV. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity 1:
As a follow-up to the topics mentioned in Module 2, please check the
following video clips.

"A Brief Introduction of Minerals"

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8a7p1NFn64s

“Rocks and Minerals”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZkHp_nnU9DY&t=122s

After which, make a compendium of soil-forming rocks and minerals by

following the preceding instruction.

 Make a compendium of the different soil-forming rocks and minerals.

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 Agri.112: Principles of Soil Science

 Print pictures of 10 igneous, 10 sedimentary and 10 metamorphic rocks (size

of 2” x 3” with two pictures per bond paper)
 Print pictures of 30 soil-forming minerals (size of 2” x 3” with three pictures
per bond paper)
 Place your clippings in a “clear book”

Activity 2:
Download a pdf copy of Lecture 2: Weathering and Soil Formation
following the link
https://drive.google.com/file/d/16bmCrMQxNRmFT3OS6clsdgfE-
AT4T1XG/view?usp=sharing. Read and after which, answer the following guide
questions. Write your answers in an A4 coupon bond (handwritten).

Study Questions:

1. What are the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust and in most soils?
2. What is the difference between chemical and physical weathering?
3. List and briefly describe the five factors of soil formation
4. What is the difference between a pedon and a soil profile?
5. What are the beneficial effects of a thick solum on crop growth?
6. List and briefly describe the four basic processes of soil formation
Activity 3:
Answer Online Quiz 2 in the Google Forms following the link to be posted
in the Google Classroom and Gchat (messenger).

V. FLEXIBLE TEACHING LEARNING MODALITY (FTLM) ADAPTED

The content for this topic will be delivered using this module, laboratory
exercises, Gchat (messenger) and Google classroom. Students will be required
to answer online quiz in the Google Form.

VI. ASSESSMENT TASK

This module has three assessments:

 Submission of a compendium (30 points)

 Answer to study questions (25 points)
 Formative Assessment (Online Quiz No. 2)

VII. REFERENCES

Brady N C. 1984. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 9th ed. Macmillan, New York.

Cosico W. C. Primer on Soil Science. Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of

Agriculture, UPLB. 2005.

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