Intellectual Revolution 2

Title of the Lesson: Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society

Time Frame: 3 hours

INTRODUCTION
Many written contributions through continued exploration of the possible relationships
between the achievement of the early scientific community in seventeenth-century
England and various forms of religious persuasion developed controversial
interpretations and debates that made scientific development and technological
innovations for today.

This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the
heart of society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is
transformed by science and technology.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to
the spark of the scientific revolution.

2. Analyze how the scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in
Europe.
DISCUSSION

Below shows how science as an idea includes theories, observations, systematic

methods about the nature and physical world through the process of learning by
humans that develop better understanding of the world. As humans socialize and
seeks answers to many questions on his or her environment and even on the outside
world, humans discovered or find solutions through concrete ideas and explanations
in the life or lifeless forms. During 16th – 18th century in Europe, the scientific revolution
was very significant in terms of biological science and physical sciences that clearly
gave birth to the modern science that established a strong foundation for the modern
society also.

Nicolaus Copernicus, The Polish Astronomer

Polish Name: Mikolaj, Kopernik

German Name: Nikolaus Kopernikus.
Born: February 19, 1473; Torun, Royal Prussia,
Poland.
Died: May 24, 1543; Frauenburg, East Prussia
(now Frombork, Poland)
Important Contributions: Heliocentric theory,
Commentariolus (Little Commentary) and
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
libri vi (Six Books Concerning the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orb)
(Westman, 2020)
Religion: Roman Catholic

Nicolaus Copernicus.
Science History Images/Alamy

Life, Education and Contributions

The youngest of the four children, his mother, Barbara Watzenrode, the daughter of a
leading trading family in Torun and Nicolaus Copernicus, Sr., was a trader who moved
to Torun from Cracow. The city, on the Vistula River, had been an important inland
port in the Hanseatic League (Rabin & Zalta, 2019), during 1491, Copernicus enrolled
in the University of Cracow (today the Jagiellonian University) which offered courses
in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology. During this time, he was guided by his
maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode (1447–1512) who was a church canon (cleric)
and later Prince-Bishop governor of the Archbishopric of Warmia, since his father died
in 1483. There was no record of Nicolaus having obtained a degree, which was not
unusual at the time as he did not need a bachelor’s degree for his ecclesiastical career
or even to study for a higher degree (Rabin & Zalta, 2019).
The figure presents the
geocentric view that
Copernicus studied as a
schoolboy, the earth was
fixed in the center of the
universe. The sphere of
stars spun around the
earth each day, but as it
spun the sun slowly
moved along its tilted
path, completing its circuit
in a year. Copernicus
soon realized that
Ptolemy’s models for the
orbits of the planets deviated considerably from the principles of perfection that
Aristotle had laid down. This did not mean that Ptolemy was wrong, his models
provided good predictions for the positions of planets at future times. But did
not follow the ideal of geometric perfection (Gingerich & Maclachlan, 2005).

In Ptolemy’s model, although the sun moved uniformly around its off-center
circle (the inner circle in this diagram), from the earth the sun appeared to stay
longer in the summer quadrant, 93 3 ⁄4 days, than in the winter quadrant, 89
days. The speed of the sun through the seasons was measured by the angular
speed, that is, the rate of rotation, from the offset earth—not from the center of
its orbit, the dashed axis in this diagram (Gingerich & Maclachlan, 2005).

Meanwhile, Copernicus aimed to

replicate the planetary motion
described by Ptolemy’s earth-
centered equant model with his sun-
centered epiclyclet model, which
eliminated the equant. In his model,
Copernicus moved the center of his
circle halfway between Ptolemy’s
equant and center. In order to keep
the planets’ motion on the same path
as in the equant model, shown with
the dashed circle on the right, Copernicus introduced an epicycle with a
diameter equal to the distance between the center and the equant in Ptolemy’s
model. In the equant model the motion about the center is not uniform, but in
Copernicus’s model there are two uniform motions around separate centers —
the center of the circle and the center of the epicycle (Gingerich &
Maclachlan, 2005).

Works of Copernicus
1. Commentariolus or Little Commentary – a pamphlet on both sides of about six
large sheets of paper wherein he wrote out a description of his startling new
arrangement for planetary motions, and stated:
 “Ptolemy’s widely-used planetary theories appear to correspond
adequately with numerical observations. However, they seem quite doubtful,
because they require the use of certain equant circles. As a result, the planets
do not move uniformly either about their deferent spheres nor about its own
center. A theory like this does not seem to me to be complete enough nor
sufficiently pleasing to the mind.

When I became aware of these defects, I often pondered whether a more

reasonable arrangement of circles could be found. Such an arrangement would
explain all the apparent irregularities while keeping everything moving uniformly
as required by the principle of perfect motion.”
Copernicus,Little Commentary, around 1510

2. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) – published 30 years after

the Commentariolus. He boldly introduced the idea that the earth is not fixed in
the middle of the universe, but is really a planet in orbit around the sun. Below
are the principles he studied and proposed”

2.1. There is no single center for all the spheres. (Copernicus wished to have
the moon’s motion centered on the earth, while the other planets’ motions were
centered on the sun.)

2.2. The earth is not the center of the universe, but only the center of heaviness
and of the moon’s sphere.

2.3. All the spheres encircle the sun, and therefore the center of the universe is
near the sun.

A detail of Copernicus’s own

handwritten diagram of his
heliocentric system. Sol, the
sun, is fixed in the middle,
while the earth with its moon
(Telluris cum luna) revolves
around the sun in an annual
orbit.

2.4 The earth-sun distance compared to the height of the vault of heaven (the
shell of fixed stars) is so small as to be unnoticeable. As Copernicus exclaims
at the end of the cosmological chapter in his Revolutions, “So vast, without any
question, is the divine handiwork of the Almighty Creator.” (This principle is
important to account for the annual motion of the earth not being detected by
observing the stars; that is, stellar parallax is too tiny to be measured.)

2.5 Apparent motions in heaven’s vault are not real, but result from motions of
the earth. The earth rotates on its fixed poles, while the starry vault, the highest
heaven, remains motionless. (Here Copernicus gives the earth a daily rotation
 on its axis to account for the apparent wheeling about of the entire sky every
24 hours.)

2.6 The apparent motions belonging to the sun are not real but come from the
earth and its spherical shell, which revolve about the sun like any other planet.
The earth therefore has more than one motion. (Here Copernicus makes
explicit the annual motion of the earth, which must be added to its daily
rotation.)

2.7 The retrograde motion that appears in the planets is not real, but is the
result of the earth’s motion. Thus, motion of the earth by itself accounts for
many apparent irregularities in the heavens. (The line of sight from the earth
to Mars seems to move backward as the earth overtakes and passes Mars.)

Other Important Contributors Who Supported the Idea of Copernicus

(Scharf, 2014)

1. Galileo Galilei – an Italian who built his telescopes and seen the moons of
Jupiter and phases of Venus, convincing him that Copernicus was right.
2. Johannes Kepler – the German contemporary of Galilei, stated that the orbits
of the planets, including the Earth are traced and not perfect circles but rather
eccentric ellipses, unsettling any conception of a rational universe.
3. Isaac Newton – English scientist who published his monumental Principia,
laying out the laws of gravitation and mechanics that unwittingly, make the
arrangement of solar system and of the universe at large a thing of austere
beauty, untended by any guiding hand but physics and mathematics.

Charles Darwin, The British Naturalist

British Name: Charles Robert Darwin

Born: February 12, 1809;
Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England
Died: April 19, 1882; Downe, Kent
Important Contributions: The Voyage of the
Beagle and Descent of Man
Religion: Christian
(Desmond, 2020)

Charles Darwin, carbon-print photograph by Julia Margaret

Cameron, 1868. Courtesy of the International Museum of
Photography at George Eastman House,
Rochester, New York;
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin#/media/1/151902/1314
Life, Education and Contributions

Charles Darwin was the second son of society doctor Robert Waring Darwin
who taught him about human psychology and Susannah Wedgwood, daughter of
the Unitarian pottery industrialist Josiah Wedgwood, she died when Darwin was just 8
years old. He was also the grandson of Erasmus Darwin, a poet, freethinking physician
and stylish before the French Revolution, was author of Zoonomia; or the Laws of
Organic Life (1794–96).
► His father sent him to study medicine at Edinburgh University in 1825, he was
also taught to understand the chemistry of cooling rocks on the primitive Earth and
how to classify plants by the modern “natural system.”
► At Edinburgh Museum he was taught to stuff birds by John Edmonstone, a freed
South American slave, and to identify the rock strata and colonial flora and fauna.
► Darwin was accompanied by Robert Edmond Grant as he collected sea pens
and sea slugs on nearby shores and taught Darwin on the growth and relationships
of primitive marine invertebrates, he believed that it held the key to unlocking the
mysteries surrounding the origin of more-complex creatures. Grant was a radical
evolutionist and disciple of the French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, an expert
on sponges. He was encouraged to tackle the larger questions of life through a study
of invertebrate zoology, made his own observations on the larval sea mat (Flustra)
and announced his findings at the student societies (Desmond, 2020).
Darwin’s father switched him to Christ’s College, Cambridge, in 1828 and was
educated as an Anglican gentleman. He indulged in drinking, shooting, and beetle-
collecting passions with other lords’ sons, and managed 10th place in the Bachelor of
Arts degree in 1831.
Here he was shown the conservative side of:
► Botany by a young professor - Reverend John Stevens Henslow.
► doyen of Providential design in the animal world by Reverend Adam Sedgwick,
who took Darwin to Wales in 1831 on a geologic field trip.
► Darwin joined at Henslow’s suggestion of a voyage to Tierra del Fuego, at the
southern tip of South America, aboard a rebuilt brig, HMS Beagle. He prepared
himself with weapons, books and advice on preserving carcasses from London Zoo’s
experts. The Beagle sailed from England on December 27, 1831 (Desmond, 2020).

The Beagle Voyage

Five years of physical hardship and mental rigor, imprisoned within a ship’s walls,
offset by wide-open opportunities in this voyage. The following are some of the
observations of Darwin (Desmond, 2020):
● plankton-filled town left him wondering why beautiful creatures teemed in the
ocean’s vastness
● on the Cape Verde Islands (January 1832), the sailor saw bands of oyster shells
running through local rocks
● the richness of the rainforest at Salvador de Bahia (now Salvador), Brazil
● full of “gaily-colored” flatworms and spiders
● parasitic ichneumon wasp
● he yielded huge bones of extinct mammals (fossils)
● Darwin handled skulls, femurs, and armor plates back to the ship — relics, he
assumed, of rhinoceroses, mastodons, cow-sized armadillos, and giant ground
sloths (such as Megatherium)
● partially gnawed bones of a new species of small rhea (bird)

The HMS Beagle latent on the sands near Rio Santa Cruz, Patagonia, South America. The vessel was
ordered by British naval officer and scientist Robert Fitzroy and carried a crew, which included British
naturalist Charles Darwin, on a survey mission that circumnavigated the world between 1831 and 1836.
© Photos.com/Thinkstock

The Galapagos Islands

Darwin’s navigation continued to these frying hot volcanic prison islands wherein he
observed the following (Sulloway, 2008):
● Darwin mistakenly thought that the Galápagos tortoise – adult specimens of which
he did not collect for scientific purposes – was not native to these islands, he
apparently interpreted reports of island-to-island differences among the tortoises as
comparable to changes that are commonly undergone by species removed from their
natural habitats.
● Darwin initially failed to recognize the closely related nature of the group of finches,
mistaking certain species for the forms that they appear, through adaptive radiation,
to mimic.
● The Darwin-Galápagos legend, with its romantic portrait of Darwin's ‘eureka-like’
insight into the Galápagos as a microcosmic ‘laboratory of evolution’, masks the
complex nature of scientific discovery, and, thereby, the real nature of Darwin's genius.
● sloths (tree-dwelling mammal) become extinct
● his observations of wildlife on the island inspired his theory of evolution by natural
selection
 Adaptive Radiation in Galapagos finches
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

The Origin of Species (Based on the summary of Barnes, 2018)

Darwin’s book was first published in England in 1859. It details part of Darwin's
argument for the common ancestry of life and natural selection as the cause of
speciation, he summarized the evidence for evolution by connecting observations of
development in organisms to the processes of natural selection. He presented the
concept of special creation, which claims that God directly created all organisms in
their current form, is inferior to the theory of natural selection for its ability to explain
the diversity of life. He also discussed classification and homology as they relate
to natural selection. He claimed that the theory of evolution by natural selection can
explain many phenomena, including the patterns emerging from the classification of
organisms, the tendency of embryos to look like with each other and then diverge from
each other as their development progresses, and the presence of useless or vestigial
organs. He said that the alternative theory of special creation has less explanatory
power over these observations. The following are his arguments:
1. He argued that classifying organisms gives a clue about their ancestry and
relationships to each other and let others see how biologists organize species
into groups according to the characters of organisms within species, groups are
then put into broader groups according to heir more general characters. This
process continues until there is just one group. For instance, dogs belong to a
group called canines, but they also belong to a larger and more general group
called Carnivora. Furthermore, they belong to an even more overall group
called mammals, which fit in to the group of vertebrates. This process creates
a descending pattern from the largest most general groups to the smallest most
distinct groups, a system Carolus Linnaeus developed in the eighteenth
century in Sweden.

2. He noted that individuals of the same species vary from each other.
Additionally, he says that these individuals will compete with each other for
resources and, because of their variations, different individuals may be able to
exploit slightly different resources.
3. Next, Darwin argues that the processes by which biologists classify species rely
on common ancestry rather than on special creation. When looking at
organisms through the scope of common ancestry, biologists can explain why
they do not classify whales and fish together. They look similar because both
of their ancestors have been put under the same pressure to survive and
reproduce in an aquatic habitat, but in their basic parts they are very different,
whales breathe air and give birth to live young, while fishes extract oxygen from
the water and lay eggs.

4. In morphology, Darwin discusses the unity of life on earth. He calls upon

homology of basic structures as evidence of evolution from a common
ancestor. Darwin defines homologies as structures that seem to be of the same
type across very different groups of animals, even though they may differ from
each other in their forms or in how they function. He notes the similarities in
bone structures between the limbs of organisms across different genera of
animals used for different purposes, such as the hands of humans used for
grasping, the wings of birds used for flight, and the paddles of porpoises used
for swimming. The limbs are made of the same basic components: similar
bones, in a similar order, from a similar pattern. According to Darwin, this
phenomenon indicates a shared ancestor whose original body-plan has been
modified over time, and supports the claim that species have not been uniquely
created.

Homologies of structure among a human arm,

a seal forelimb, a bird wing, and a bat wing;
homologous supporting structures are shown
in the same color. All four are homologous as
forelimbs and were derived from a common
tetrapod ancestor. The adaptations of bird and
bat forelimbs to flight, however, evolved
independently of each other, after the two
lineages diverged from their common
ancestor. Therefore, as wings they are not
homologous, but analogous.

Photo taken at:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10049/figure/A72/?report=objectonly

5. He stated that embryology is about developmental processes and

phenomena. Embryos from different classes of animals, such as birds and
mammals, look very similar to one another in early development. He tells a story
about Louis Agassiz, a biologist who was at Harvard University in Cambridge,
Massachusetts. Agassiz upon receiving new specimens of embryos, forgot to
put a label on one embryo, later, when returning to the embryos he could not
tell if the unlabeled embryo was a bird, a mammal, or a reptile because they all
looked so remarkably similar.

6. Whether or not differentiation of organisms occurs in early or in late

development, Darwin says that offspring will develop traits in the
 same developmental stages that their parents developed those traits. He
supports his claim with examples of hereditary diseases. Darwin notes that an
inherited disease will generally develop in the offspring at the same age it
afflicted the parent. Darwin uses this observation to support his hypothesis of
heritable variation.
Darwin discusses one reason why embryos of animals from very different
species look so similar to each other. He states that the stages of development
when embryos look similar to each other are also the stages in which embryos
generally do not interact with the outside environment. At these stages,
embryos are largely dependent on their mother's wombs or on the egg, and
they hardly interact with the outside environment. Darwin says
that differentiation between embryos of different species will occur increasingly
as the organisms are exposed to the outside environment and as they become
more independent. The increasing divergence of embryos is because natural
selection occurs during the time when organisms are interacting with their
outside environment. Embryos of different species look similar because they
share a common ancestor, and because they do not have to face as much
selective pressure as adult organisms do. It is the adults that are subjected to
their environment the most, and therefore selected.
7. Natural selection also explains a theory in developmental biology that says
that the stages in an organism's development parallel the adult forms of other
animals that were its ancestors. According to this theory, called recapitulation
theory, the stage at which human embryos exhibit gill slits parallels the adult
forms of our fish ancestor species. This theory came from the observation that
embryos exhibit stages in development in which they resemble the adult forms
of other animals. Darwin tried to explain these phenomena with the theory
of natural selection. He explains that, although the results of natural
selection enable researchers to conclude that animals replay their ancestry
during development, the hypothesis of recapitulation is an exaggeration of the
truth. Embryology can indicate evolutionary relationships between groups of
organisms only because embryos have undergone less change than adults.
Thus, biologists can see those structures that are similar between species at
early stages of development. However, Darwin argues that not every stage of
development corresponds to the form of its adult ancestor.

8. In " Darwin’s Rudimentary Organs", he addresses the vestigial structures in

animals, and it shows that only natural selection can account for these features.
Darwin defines vestigial structures as structures that persist within a species
but have lost their function. They are usually smaller than their homologues in
other species, and are sometimes described as atrophied. However, Darwin's
definition differs from the definition of vestigial structures used by later
biologists.
One of those examples includes the remnants of legs on snakes. Snakes do
not use legs to move, yet some of them possess structures similar to legs; they
are in the same location as the legs of other species, and they are composed
of the same basic parts, although smaller. Naturalists correlated the
rudimentary legs of snakes and the functional legs of lizards. Darwin uses these
examples to critique the theory of creationism. Darwin asks: why would
individually and uniquely created species have useless structures? Darwin says
that, if we accept creationism to explain the origin of species, then we must
accept that there is no rational explanation for these parts. In contrast, natural
selection explains those phenomena. Organisms possess vestigial structures
because they have an ancestor that also possessed these structures. Those
structures in descendent species adapted for different functions, or
 disappeared due to selective environmental pressures, which their ancestors
did not experience.

Darwin's embryological arguments for evolution influenced the study of the

relationships between evolution and development. For example, after the
publication of The Origin, Ernst Haeckel in Jena, Germany, used Darwin's
arguments in support of his biogenetic law or recapitulation, which stated
that organisms replay their evolutionary ancestry while developing from
embryos to adults. Many biologists accepted Haeckel's biogenetic law until the
1890s.

Sigmund Freud, Austrian Psychoanalyst

Austrian Name: Sigismund Schlomo Freud

(later changed to Sigmund Freud)
Born: May 6, 1856; Freiberg, Moravia,
Austrian Empire (now Příbor, Czech
Republic)
Died: September 23, 1939; London, U.K.
Important Contributions: A General
Introduction to Psychoanalysis, The Ego
and the Id, The Interpretation of Dreams
Religion: Atheist but his Jewish background
and upbringing played an important role in the
development of his ideas.
(Jay, 2020)
https://iep.utm.edu/freud/

Life, Education and Contributions (Mitchell, 2020)

Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 in the Czech Republic. After working much of his life
in Vienna, he left in 1938 to avoid Nazi persecution. He moved to England where he
died in Hampstead in 1939. Freud's early work in psychology and psychoanalysis
endeavored to understand and cure the human mind by means of hypnosis. Freud's
initial exposure to hypnosis in a clinical setting was over the winter of 1885-1886, when
he studied in Paris with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned French professor of
neurology. Charcot's work centered on the causes of hysteria, a disorder which could
cause paralysis and extreme fits. He soon discovered that the symptoms of hysteria
could be induced in non-hysterics by hypnotic suggestion and that the symptoms of
hysterics could be alleviated or transformed by hypnotic suggestion. This ran contrary
to the then- prevalent belief that hysteria had physiological causes; it suggested that
a deeper, unseen level of consciousness could affect an individual's conscious
conduct.

In 1886 Freud started a clinical practice in neuropsychology at Berggasse, Austria.

He used this consulting room for almost fifty years. About the same time Freud began
another association with a Viennese physician named Josef Breuer. In 1893 Breuer
had presented a paper titled 'Studies in Hysteria.' In essence Breuer stated that
forgotten traumas, painful incidents that had left a psychological scar, were
responsible for what was at that time called hysteria. It was, Breuer wrote, the
undischarged emotional energy associated with these forgotten traumas that were the
root cause of hysteria. Using hypnotic techniques, Breuer helped some patients to re-
enact, and thus recall, the original traumatic incident, and integrate it into long-term
memory. In doing so the emotional charge was released. This emotionally intense
transfer of a memory from the unconscious to the conscious is known as catharsis
or abreaction - an effective method which seems to corroborate Freud's theories on
the unconscious mind.

Freud adopted this practice at first but it was not until he began allowing his patients
to freely associate ideas with whatever came to mind, that he really explored
spontaneous abreaction. He abandoned hypnosis in favor of conscious
psychoanalysis, first with the technique of free association, then eventually with his
well-known technique of observational, couch-based psychoanalysis.
Freud himself suffered bouts of deep anxiety, and it was partly this that led him to
explore the connection between association of ideas and dreams. Freud noticed that
patients would often find a connection between the direction of their associations and
a dream they had experienced. He aided his patients to uncover and follow both
obvious and hidden associations and emotions connected with the dream
occurrences. Freud was able to make the breakthrough into seeing the connections
with sexual feelings, with early childhood trauma, and with the subtleties of the
human psyche.

For Freud, dreams were the royal road to the unconscious. He began to analyze
dreams in order to understand aspects of personality as they relate to pathology. He
believed that behavior was not a chance occurrence; every action and thought is
motivated by the unconscious at some level. In order to live in a civilized society,
people have a tendency to hold back their urges and repress their impulses. However,
these urges and impulses must be released in some way; they have a way of coming
to the surface in disguised form: one way they are released is through dreams. Freud
discovered that the elements in a subject's dream tend to be particularly close to
repressed unconscious content and that free associations starting from those dream
elements quickly encounter topics causing emotional arousal as the unconscious is
stimulated, followed by resistance to those feelings. He revolutionized the study of
dreams with his work The Interpretation of Dreams.

Freud developed a model of the human personality which has stood the test of time.
Many of the terms Freud introduced, such as Ego, Superego, the Id and the
Unconscious are therefore still used in contemporary psychology. Freud's basic
concept was a construct of the human psyche as an orderly progression through the
developmental stages of childhood to final maturation in adult life.

The Structure of the Personality

Freud's orientation was biological, a natural result of his medical training and of the
period in which he began his work. His conception of the individual was as a reservoir
of dynamic energy, continuously seeking a means of discharge and in turn
continuously needing replenishment.
1. Libido - he genetically inherent energy empowering the life instinct. The
instinctual drive towards survival and replacement of energy requires
translation into more specific terms such as 'food, love, security' etc.
2. Pleasure Principle - Instincts drive and direct behavior, the goal of which is the
satisfaction of needs derived from the instincts. Needs create tension, and
behavior is directed towards reduction of this tension, the attempt to keep
excitation or tension as low as possible. In practice this is the desire for
immediate gratification.
2.1 Id - which included other genetically inherent features, such as the
impulse to love and to seek gratification. The Id strives to bring about
the satisfaction of instinctual needs on the basis of the pleasure
principle. The Id represents the inner world that has no knowledge
of objective reality. Its psychic processes are primary processes -
undirected attempts at immediate satisfaction. It is not governed by
logic; it contains contradictory yet co-existent impulses. It is the
individual's primary subjective reality at the unconscious level.

2.2 . Ego - It develops from the Id because of the organism's need to

cope with external reality for the satisfaction of its instinctual
requirements. Freud described the Ego as a regulating agent and an
intermediary, registering demands and meeting requirements, which
in turn necessitates coordination with the environment - the world of
reality. Although it seeks pleasure and the avoidance of pain, the
Ego is under the influence of the Reality Principle. In Freud's
theory, the Ego mediates among the Id, the Superego and the
external world. Its task is to find a balance between primitive drives,
morals, and reality while satisfying the Id and Superego. Its main
concern is with the individual's safety and allows some of the Id's
desires to be expressed, but only when consequences of these
actions are marginal. Ego defense mechanisms are often used by
the Ego when Id behavior conflicts with reality and either society's
morals, norms, and taboos or the individual's expectations as a
result of the internalization of these morals, norms, and taboos.
The Ego therefore is associated with a set of cognitive functions
such as reality-testing, defense mechanisms, synthesis of
information, intellectual functioning, and memory.
2.3 Superego in Freud is a piece of the higher Id which has direct
access to the Ego and is society's representative in the psyche.
Superego includes a psychic structure that acts in regulating the
relationship between the instinctual drives and Ego, and the outside
world. The concept of superego formation involves the process by
which prohibitions and restraints, once externally imposed, become
internalized. Then the actual presence of the original prohibiting
persons is no longer required. We use the term internalization to
describe that process by which the Ego forms inner or psychic
representations of objects that had originally influenced the child
from without.

The Superego includes a conscious set of ideals, the pattern to

which the individual consciously tries to adapt his life, and an
unconscious set of prohibitions which attempt to prevent the direct
expression of Id impulses. The conscious ideals are formed primarily
through imitation of the parents, but throughout childhood and into
adolescence they are further influenced by many of the adults with
whom the child has contact. The unconscious prohibitions are
formed very early in life from internalized parental ideals and
prohibitions.
 Three Mental Structures of Personality
https://mind-development.eu/freud.html

3. Reality Principle - which is the delay of immediate gratification in recognition

of social requirements or higher needs. It operates by means of secondary
processes - perception, problem solving, and repression - that is, realistic,
logical thinking and reality testing.

The Developing Child

During the early stages of infancy, the fundamental requirements are food, security
and warmth, so that development can proceed without hindrance. This is as near to
that desirable pre-natal condition as it will ever get – hence the very close link that is
formed between mother and child.
1. Oral Stage - the infant's first source of pleasure is oral, deriving from the
mouth. Bonding must occur at this stage or the capacity to form emotional
bonds, as an adult, will be severely impaired.
2. Anal Stage - tension builds up as bowel and bladder functioning demand
attention. When defecation and urination take place, the experience of the relief
from tension is pleasurable. In contrast, frustration produces tensions and is
experienced as pain and discomfort. The Anal Stage includes the child's first
experiences with external regulation of an instinctual impulse, involving the
postponement of the pleasure from relieving anal tensions.
3. Genital Stage - when the child begins to realize that it is a pleasurable
experience to manipulate particular areas of the body, such as the mouth, the
anus and the genitals. At the Anal Stage the child learns to differentiate
between the 'ME versus NOT-ME'. This realization is followed closely by an
immature forerunner of the Genital Stage.

Later on, in the latency period, the child's energy once again focuses on his
genitals. Puberty reactivates the early genital impulses and the person passes
into the mature Genital Stage. The individual develops a strong interest in his
or her sexual feelings. The less energy the child has left invested in unresolved
psychosexual developments of the earlier stages, the greater his capacity will
be to develop normal relationships with a sexual partner. If, however, he
remains fixated, particularly on the Anal or Phallic stages, his development will
 be troubled as he struggles with further repression and defenses. If the
previous stages have been successfully completed, however, the individual will
develop into a well-balanced, warm, and caring adult. Where in earlier stages
the focus was solely on individual needs, an interest in the welfare of others
grows during this stage. The person matures from a narcissistic pleasure-
seeking child into a reality-oriented socialized adult, with much of the Libido
sublimated into group activities, vocational planning and preparation for
marriage and family.

4. Phallic Stage - the instinctual urge is objective and aggressive, whereas

masturbation in the immature Genital period is essentially a subjective
experience.

With a male infant the objective choice is the loved mother, with jealousy of
the father; this is the Oedipus complex in which the boy develops a fear of
castration by the father. After the child realizes that the father is much powerful
as an adversary, reality sets in and the child now begins to understand the
impossibility of his sexual obsession with his mother is. The boy then represses
his desire for his mother and hostility towards his father, with whom he has
identified. As a result of this realization the Oedipus complex is supposed to be
officially resolved.

In the case of a female infant the situation is more complex. The girl develops
a love for the father and corresponding jealousy of the mother. The anatomical
genital difference from her brother raises the fear that she has been castrated,
and for this she blames the mother - this is the Elektra complex. Her love for
the father is also tinged with envy because he has what she lacks. Her Elektra
complex is not repressed but is modified by reality and weakens with time, so
that she remains identified with the mother.

5. Latency period - lasting from about age five or six to puberty. Adolescence,
with its sexual emphasis, gradually channels the sexual impulse into object
choices, and finally merges into adult life. During the state of latency, a child's
sexual impulses are repressed. The reason for this is that during the stage
before Latency (Phallic stage) the child resolves the Oedipus or Electra
Complex which are such traumatic events that the child then repress all of his
or her sexual impulses. The child then realizes that his/her wishes and longings
cannot be fulfilled and will turn away from his/her original desires. Hence,
he/she starts the identification with the parent of the same sex and this will lead
to rapidly evolving sex roles. The energy, previously put in the Oedipus problem
can be used for developing the self.

During the latency phase the drives are decreased and the libido is transferred
from parents to friends, clubs and leading figures. The Superego is already
present, but becomes more organized and principled. Culturally valued skills
and values are acquired and feelings of shame, guilt and disgust arise. The
child has evolved from an animal-like creature with primitive drives to a
reasonable human being with complex feelings. The child learns to adapt to
reality and also begins the process of what Freud terms "infantile amnesia,"
the repression of the earliest traumatic, overly sexual or painful memories.

A child has six developmental tasks in the emotional domain:

1. the creation and sensation of a sense of self as distinct from others,
2. ability to tolerate emotions in self and others,
3. the capacity to manage aggressive urges,
 4. the development of a sense of cause and effect and of control over the
environment,
5. the development of a self-reflective capacity and
6. the capacity to enter into and sustain a state of latency, repressing
inappropriate sexual drives.

Stages of Superego Maturity

Superego development may be divided into layers representing historical phases of

the infantile struggle to master primitive forms of instinct...
1. A primitive layer with punishment for oral-sadistic and anal fantasies;
2. The benign Superego, which derives from the image of the loving and
comforting parent, especially the mother. When a harmonious relation exists
between it and the Ego, there is a feeling of self-confidence and love; when a
state of tension exists between the two there results a feeling of not being loved
and a fear of abandonment out of which develops the feeling of guilt in the
common sense of the word.
3. Oedipally-derived layer containing derivatives of the incest situation, jealousy,
rivalry, hostility, etc.
4. Acquisition of parental standards and values, ideals and injunctions, the
internalization of parental love and protection, prohibition and punishment.
5. Superego death. This occurs when the Ego has become autonomous.

Consciousness and the Unconscious

Freud divided the mind into layers. Perceptual awareness, he termed the conscious
state. But a large part of a person's inner life goes on outside awareness. This
unconscious part of the mind includes some material which has been dissociated from
conscious thinking - the Subconscious; and some that can relatively easily become
conscious - the Preconscious contents. The Preconscious is described as having
no sense of awareness but its contents are available for recall. The unconscious
contains memories which have been repressed, and under normal circumstances
cannot be recalled.

Neuro-psychoanalysis combines the insights of both neuroscience and

psychoanalysis to obtain a better understanding of mind and brain. Neuro-
psychoanalysis has recently validated many of Freud's ideas, in terms of the left-right
lateral axis of organization, the Conscious and Subconscious affective (emotional)
aspects of lateralization are linked to right hemisphere and limbic processes, while the
Conscious and Subconscious cognitive (analytical and verbal) processes are
linked to the left. The Unconscious equates with the Brain Stem, the Cerebellum,
the Pons and other deep brain structures - not specialized laterally; indeed, one of
their functions is to integrate the two hemispheres.
SUMMARY

Intellectual or Scientific revolution is the historical period where the scientific principles
or theories have been widely believed and acknowledged by the society where tested
and contrasted. Charles Darwin's concept of evolution through natural selection took
about one of the greatest intellectual and cultural revolutions in the modern time. It
deeply changed the way we think of science, religion, philosophy – our modern
society. Nicolaus Copernicus was an astronomer who used the term heliocentric
system, which explains that planets orbit around the Sun; that Earth is a planet which,
besides orbiting the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis; and that very
slow changes in the direction of this axis also explains for the existence of the
equinoxes. Sigmund Freud observed and proposed that there are three parts (levels)
of the mind; the conscious, preconscious, and the unconscious. The unconscious is
the part of the mind that stores emotional state, opinions or views, and desires
unaware to the individual.

SUGGESTED READINGS AND WEBSITES

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Copernican-Revolution

https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1051&context=younghi
storians

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/335422/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK230201/
GLOSSARY

Terms Definitions
Astronomy study of objects and matter outside the earth's atmosphere
and of their physical and chemical properties.
Naturalist one that advocates or practices naturalism or studies natural
history like in the field of biology.
Personality the quality or state of being a person or the condition or fact
of relating to a particular person.
Psychoanalyst is a healthcare provider who specializes in the mental health
needs of adults, and children in some cases.
Voyage course or period of traveling other than land routes.

REFERENCES
Barnes, E. M. ( 2018, July 4). "The Origin of Species: "Chapter Thirteen: Mutual
Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs"
(1859), by Charles R. Darwin". Embryo Project Encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/origin-species-chapter-thirteen-mutual-
affinities-organic-beings-morphology-embryology
Desmond, A. J. (2020, April 15). Charles Darwin. Retrieved from Encyclopedia
Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin
Gingerich, O., & Maclachlan, J. (2005). Nicolaus Copernicus, Making the Earth a
Planet. In Oxford Portraits in Science. Oxford University Press, New York,
Oxford.
Jay, M. E. (2020, May 04). Sigmund Freud. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sigmund-Freud
Mitchell, G. (2020). Sigmund Freud and Freudian Psychoanalysis. Mind Development
Courses. Retrieved August 23, 2020, from https://mind-development.eu/
Rabin, S., & Zalta, E. N. (2019). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2019
ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved from
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/copernicus/
Scharf, C. (2014). The Copernicus Complex, Our Cosmic Significance in a Universe
of Planets and Probabilities. Scientific American / Farrar, Straus and Giroux
New York.
Sulloway, F. J. (2008). Darwin and the Galapagos. Biological Journal of the Linnean
Societ, 29–59. Retrieved from Biological Journal of the Linnean Society.
Thornton, S. P. (2020). Sigmund Freud (1856—1939). Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, A Peer Reviewed Academic Resource. Retrieved from
https://www.iep.utm.edu/
Westman, R. S. (2020, May 20). Nicolaus Copernicus. Retrieved from Encyclopedia
Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicolaus-Copernicus

Online Dictionary
Merriam Webster https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/