FOR

Failure
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

SPRING 2020-2021
Aloha Airlines flight 243

2
INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives
• Describe the mechanism of crack propagation for both • Define fatigue and specify the conditions under which it
ductile and brittle modes of fracture. occurs.
• Explain why the strengths of brittle materials are much • From a fatigue plot for some material, determine (a) the
lower than predicted by theoretical calculations. fatigue lifetime (at a specified stress level) and (b) the
• Define fracture toughness in terms of (a) a brief fatigue strength (at a specified number of cycles).
statement and (b) an equation; define all parameters in • Define creep and specify the conditions under which it
this equation. occurs.
• Make a distinction between fracture toughness and • Given a creep plot for some material, determine (a) the
plane strain fracture toughness. steady-state creep rate and (b) the rupture lifetime.
• Name and describe the two impact fracture testing
techniques.

3
INTRODUCTION
The failure of engineering materials is almost always an undesirable event for several reasons; these include:
• putting human lives in jeopardy,
• causing economic losses, and
• interfering with the availability of products and services.

Even though the causes of failure and the behaviour of materials may be known, prevention of failures is difficult to
guarantee.

The usual causes are:

• improper materials selection and processing.
• inadequate design of the component or its misuse.

Also, damage can occur to structural parts during service, and regular inspection and repair or replacement are critical to safe
design.

It is the responsibility of the engineer to anticipate and plan for possible failure and, in the event that failure does occur, to
assess its cause and then take appropriate preventive measures against future incidents.

4
FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTURE
Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant
or slowly changing with time) and at temperatures that are low relative to the melting temperature of the material.

Fracture can also occur from fatigue (when cyclic stresses are imposed) and creep (time-dependent deformation,
normally at elevated temperatures).

Although applied stresses may be tensile, compressive, shear, or torsional (or combinations of these), the present discussion
will be confined to fractures that result from uniaxial tensile loads.

For metals, two fracture modes are possible: ductile and brittle. Classification is based on the ability of a material to
experience plastic deformation.

Ductile metals typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation with high energy absorption before fracture. However, there is
normally little or no plastic deformation with low energy absorption accompanying a brittle fracture.

Ductile and brittle are relative terms; whether a particular fracture is one mode or the other depends on the situation. Ductility
may be quantified in terms of percent elongation and percent reduction in area.

Furthermore, ductility is a function of temperature of the material, the strain rate, and the stress state.

5
FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTURE
Any fracture process involves two steps:
• crack formation and
• crack propagation
In response to an imposed stress.

The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the mechanism of crack propagation. Ductile fracture is characterized by
extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of an advancing crack.

The process proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length is extended. Such a crack is often said to be stable—that is, it
resists any further extension unless there is an increase in the applied stress.

In addition, there typically is evidence of appreciable gross deformation at the fracture surfaces (e.g., twisting and tearing).
However, for brittle fracture, cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little accompanying plastic deformation. Such
cracks may be said to be unstable, and crack propagation, once started, continues spontaneously without an increase in
magnitude of the applied stress.

6
FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTURE
Ductile fracture is almost always preferred to brittle fracture for two reasons:
• First, brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any warning; this is a consequence of the spontaneous
and rapid crack propagation. By contrast, in ductile fracture, the presence of plastic deformation gives warning that failure
is imminent, allowing preventive measures to be taken.
• Second, more strain energy is required to induce ductile fracture inasmuch as these materials are generally tougher. Under
the action of an applied tensile stress, many metal alloys are ductile, whereas ceramics are typically brittle, and polymers
may exhibit a range of behaviours.

Brittle fracture
Moderately ductile fracture after some without any
necking. plastic deformation.

Moderately ductile
fracture after some
7
necking.
DUCTILE FRACTURE
Ductile fracture surfaces have distinctive features on both macroscopic and microscopic levels.

The configuration shown is found for extremely soft metals, such as pure gold and lead at room temperature, and other
metals, polymers, and inorganic glasses at elevated temperatures. These highly ductile materials neck down to a point
fracture, showing virtually 100% reduction in area.

The most common type of tensile fracture profile for ductile metals is where fracture is preceded by only a moderate amount
of necking.

Brittle fracture
Moderately ductile fracture after some without any
necking. plastic deformation.

Moderately ductile
fracture after some
8
necking.
DUCTILE FRACTURE
The fracture process normally occurs in several stages:
1. First, after necking begins, small cavities, or microvoids, form in the interior of the cross section.
2. Next, as deformation continues, these microvoids enlarge, come together, and coalesce to form an elliptical crack, which
has its long axis perpendicular to the stress direction.
3. The crack continues to grow in a direction parallel to its major axis by this microvoid coalescence process.
4. Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crack around the outer perimeter of the neck by shear deformation at
an angle of about 45° with the tensile axis—the angle at which the shear stress is a maximum.

9
DUCTILE FRACTURE
Sometimes a fracture having this characteristic surface contour is termed a cup-and-cone fracture because one of the mating
surfaces is in the form of a cup and the other like a cone.

In this type of fractured specimen, the central interior region of the surface has an irregular and fibrous appearance, which is
indicative of plastic deformation.

10
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation and by rapid crack propagation. The direction of crack
motion is very nearly perpendicular to the direction of the applied tensile stress and yields a relatively flat fracture surface.

Fracture surfaces of materials that fail in a brittle manner have distinctive patterns; any signs of gross plastic deformation are
absent.

For example, in some steel pieces, a series of V-shaped “chevron” markings may form near the centre of the fracture cross
section that point back toward the crack initiation site.

11
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Other brittle fracture surfaces contain lines or ridges that radiate from the origin of the crack in a fanlike pattern. Often, both
of these marking patterns are sufficiently coarse to be discerned with the naked eye.

For very hard and fine-grained metals, there is no discernible fracture pattern. Brittle fracture in amorphous materials, such as
ceramic glasses, yields a relatively shiny and smooth surface.

12
BRITTLE FRACTURE
For most brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation corresponds to the successive and repeated breaking of atomic bonds
along specific crystallographic planes; such a process is termed cleavage.

This type of fracture is said to be transgranular (or transcrystalline) because the fracture cracks pass through the grains.

13
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Macroscopically, the fracture surface may have a grainy or faceted texture as a result of changes in orientation of the
cleavage planes from grain to grain.

This cleavage feature is shown at a higher magnification in the scanning electron micrograph.

14
BRITTLE FRACTURE
In some alloys, crack propagation is along grain boundaries; this fracture is termed intergranular. Figure b is a scanning
electron micrograph showing a typical intergranular fracture, in which the three-dimensional nature of the grains may be seen.

This type of fracture normally results subsequent to the occurrence of processes that weaken or embrittle grain boundary
regions.

15
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Stress Concentration
The measured fracture strengths for most materials are significantly lower than those
predicted by theoretical calculations based on atomic bonding energies.

This discrepancy is explained by the presence of microscopic flaws or cracks that

always exist under normal conditions at the surface and within the interior of a body of
material.

These flaws are a detriment to the fracture strength because an applied stress may be
amplified or concentrated at the tip, the magnitude of this amplification depending on
crack orientation and geometry.

This phenomenon is demonstrated: a stress profile across a cross section containing an

internal crack. As indicated by this profile, the magnitude of this localized stress
decreases with distance away from the crack tip.

At positions far removed, the stress is just the nominal stress 𝜎0, or the applied load
divided by the specimen cross-sectional area (perpendicular to this load).

Because of their ability to amplify an applied stress in their locale, these flaws are
sometimes called stress raisers. 16
BRITTLE FRACTURE
If it is assumed that a crack is similar to an elliptical hole through a plate and is oriented
perpendicular to the applied stress, the maximum stress, 𝜎m, occurs at the crack
tip and may be approximated by:

where 𝜎0 is the magnitude of the nominal applied tensile stress, 𝜌t is the radius of
curvature of the crack tip, and a represents the length of a surface crack, or half of the
length of an internal crack.

For a relatively long microcrack that has a small tip radius of curvature, the factor
(a/𝜌t)1/2 may be very large.

This yields a value of 𝜎m that is many times the value of 𝜎0.

Sometimes the ratio 𝜎m /𝜎0 is denoted the stress concentration factor K t :

which is simply a measure of the degree to which an external stress is amplified at the
tip of a crack. 17
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Note that stress amplification is not restricted to these microscopic defects; it may occur at macroscopic internal
discontinuities (e.g., voids or inclusions), sharp corners, scratches, and notches.

Furthermore, the effect of a stress raiser is more significant in brittle than in ductile materials. For a ductile metal,
plastic deformation ensues when the maximum stress exceeds the yield strength. This leads to a more uniform
distribution of stress in the vicinity of the stress raiser and to the development of a maximum stress concentration factor
less than the theoretical value.

Such yielding and stress redistribution do not occur to any appreciable extent around flaws and discontinuities in brittle
materials; therefore, essentially the theoretical stress concentration results.

Using principles of fracture mechanics, it is possible to show that the critical stress 𝜎c required for crack propagation in
a brittle material is described by the expression:

where E is modulus of elasticity, 𝛾s is the specific surface energy, and a is one-half the length of an internal crack.

All brittle materials contain a population of small cracks and flaws that have a variety of sizes, geometries, and
orientations. When the magnitude of a tensile stress at the tip of one of these flaws exceeds the value of this critical
stress, a crack forms and then propagates, which results in fracture. Very small and virtually defect-free metallic and 18
ceramic whiskers have been grown with fracture strengths that approach their theoretical values.
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Fracture Toughness
Using fracture mechanical principles, an expression has been developed that relates this critical stress for crack
propagation (𝜎c) and crack length (a) as:

In this expression Kc is the fracture toughness, a property that is a measure of a material’s resistance to brittle fracture
when a crack is present. Kc has the unusual units of MPa√m or psi√in. (alternatively, ksi√in.).

Here, Y is a dimensionless parameter or function that depends on both crack and specimen sizes and geometries as well
as on the manner of load application.

Relative to this Y parameter, for planar specimens containing cracks

that are much shorter than the specimen width, Y has a value of
approximately unity. For example, for a plate of infinite width having
a through-thickness crack, Y = 1.0, whereas for a plate of semi-infinite
width containing an edge crack of length a, Y ≅ 1.1.

Mathematical expressions for Y have been determined for a variety of

crack specimen geometries; these expressions are often relatively
complex.

19
BRITTLE FRACTURE
For relatively thin specimens, the value of Kc depends on specimen thickness.

However, when specimen thickness is much greater than the crack dimensions, Kc becomes independent of thickness;
under these conditions a condition of plane strain exists.

By plane strain, we mean that when a load operates on a crack in the manner represented there is no strain component
perpendicular to the front and back faces.

The Kc value for this thick-specimen situation is known as the plane strain fracture toughness, KIc; it is also defined
by:

KIc is the fracture toughness cited for most situations.

20
BRITTLE FRACTURE
The I (i.e., Roman Numeral “one”) subscript for KIc denotes that the plane strain fracture toughness is for mode I crack
displacement, as illustrated in a.

The three
modes of crack surface
displacement. (a) Mode I,
opening or tensile mode;
(b) mode II, sliding mode; and
(c) mode III, tearing mode.

Brittle materials, for which appreciable plastic deformation is not possible in front of an advancing crack, have low KIc
values and are vulnerable to catastrophic failure. However, KIc values are relatively large for ductile materials. Fracture
mechanics is especially useful in predicting catastrophic failure in materials having intermediate ductilities. Plane strain
fracture toughness values for a number of different materials are presented Tables.

21
BRITTLE FRACTURE
The plane strain fracture toughness KIc is a fundamental material property that depends on many factors, the most
influential of which are temperature, strain rate, and microstructure. The magnitude of KIc decreases with increasing
strain rate and decreasing temperature.

Furthermore, an enhancement in yield strength wrought by solid solution or dispersion additions or by strain hardening
generally produces a corresponding decrease in KIc. In addition, KIc normally increases with reduction in grain
size as composition and other microstructural variables are maintained constant.

22
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Design Using Fracture Mechanics
Three variables must be considered relative to the possibility for fracture of some structural component:
• fracture toughness (Kc) or plane strain fracture toughness (KIc),
• the imposed stress (𝜎), and
• the flaw size (a) assuming, of course, that Y has been determined.

When designing a component, it is first important to decide which of these variables are constrained by the application
and which are subject to design control.

For example, material selection (and hence Kc or KIc) is often dictated by factors such as density (for lightweight
applications) or the corrosion characteristics of the environment.

Alternatively, the allowable flaw size is either measured or specified by the limitations of available flaw detection
techniques. It is important to realize, however, that once any combination of two of the preceding parameters is
prescribed, the third becomes fixed.

For example, assume that KIc and the magnitude of a are specified by application constraints; therefore, the design (or
critical) stress σc is given by:

23
BRITTLE FRACTURE
However, if stress level and plane strain fracture toughness are fixed by the design situation, then the maximum
allowable flaw size ac is given by:

A number of non-destructive test (NDT) techniques have been developed that permit detection and measurement of both
internal and surface flaws. Such techniques are used to examine structural components that are in service for defects and
flaws that could lead to premature failure; in addition, NDTs are used as a means of quality control for manufacturing
processes. As the name implies, these techniques do not destroy the material/structure being examined. Furthermore,
some testing methods must be conducted in a laboratory setting; others may be adapted for use in the field.

24
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TESTING
Prior to the advent of fracture mechanics as a scientific discipline, impact testing techniques were established to
ascertain the fracture characteristics of materials at high loading rates.

It was realized that the results of laboratory tensile tests (at low loading rates) could not be extrapolated to predict
fracture behaviour.

For example, under some circumstances, normally ductile metals fracture abruptly and with very little plastic
deformation under high loading rates.

Impact test conditions were chosen to represent those most severe relative to the potential for fracture—namely,
(1) deformation at a relatively low temperature,
(2) a high strain rate (i.e., rate of deformation), and
(3) a triaxial stress state (which may be introduced by the presence of a notch).

Two standardized tests, the Charpy and the Izod, are used to measure the impact energy (sometimes also termed notch
toughness).

One of the primary functions of the Charpy and the Izod tests is to determine whether a material experiences a ductile-
to-brittle transition with decreasing temperature and, if so, the range of temperatures over which it occurs.

25
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TESTING

26
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TESTING

Photograph of fracturesurfaces of A36 steel

Charpy V-notch specimens tested at indicated
temperatures (in °C).

27
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TESTING

Influence of carbon content on

the Charpy V-notch energy–
versus–temperature behaviour
for steel.

28
FATIGUE
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses (e.g., bridges, aircraft,
machine components). Under these circumstances, it is possible for failure to occur at a stress level considerably lower
than the tensile or yield strength for a static load.

The term fatigue is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain
cycling. Fatigue is important inasmuch as it is the single largest cause of failure in metals, estimated to be involved in
approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to this type
of failure.

Furthermore, fatigue is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly and without warning.

Fatigue failure is brittle-like in nature even in normally ductile metals in that there is very little, if any, gross plastic
deformation associated with failure.

The process occurs by the initiation and propagation of cracks, and typically the fracture surface is perpendicular
to the direction of an applied tensile stress.

29
FATIGUE
CYCLIC STRESSES

The applied stress may be axial (tension–compression), flexural (bending), or

torsional (twisting) in nature.

In general, three different fluctuating stress–time modes are possible. One is

represented schematically by a regular and sinusoidal time dependence in Figure
a, where the amplitude is symmetrical about a mean zero stress level, for
example, alternating from a maximum tensile stress (𝜎max) to a minimum
compressive stress (𝜎min) of equal magnitude; this is referred to as a reversed
stress cycle.

Another type, termed a repeated stress cycle, is illustrated in Figure b; the

maxima and minima are asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level.

Finally, the stress level may vary randomly in amplitude and frequency, as
exemplified in Figure c.

Also indicated in Figure b are several parameters used to characterize the

fluctuating stress cycle.
30
FATIGUE
The stress amplitude alternates about a mean stress 𝜎m, defined as the average of
the maximum and minimum stresses in the cycle, or:

The range of stress 𝜎r is the difference between 𝜎max and 𝜎min, namely,

Stress amplitude 𝜎a is one-half of this range of stress, or

Finally, the stress ratio R is the ratio of minimum and maximum stress amplitudes:

By convention, tensile stresses are positive and compressive stresses are negative.
For example, for the reversed stress cycle, the value of R is −1.

31
FATIGUE
THE S–N CURVE
As with other mechanical characteristics, the fatigue properties of materials can be determined from laboratory simulation
tests.

32
FATIGUE
A series of tests is commenced by subjecting a specimen to stress cycling at a
relatively large maximum stress (𝜎max), usually on the order of two-thirds of the
static tensile strength; number of cycles to failure is counted and recorded.

This procedure is repeated on other specimens at progressively decreasing

maximum stress levels. Data are plotted as stress S versus the logarithm of the
number N of cycles to failure for each of the specimens. The S parameter is
normally taken as either maximum stress (𝜎max) or stress amplitude (𝜎a).

Two distinct types of S–N behaviour are observed and are represented
schematically in.

As these plots indicate, the higher the magnitude of the stress, the smaller the
number of cycles the material is capable of sustaining before failure.

For some ferrous (iron-base) and titanium alloys, the S–N curve (Figure a) becomes
horizontal at higher N values; there is a limiting stress level, called the fatigue limit
(also sometimes called the endurance limit), below which fatigue failure will not
occur. This fatigue limit represents the largest value of fluctuating stress that will
not cause failure for essentially an infinite number of cycles. For many steels,
fatigue limits range between 35% and 60% of the tensile strength. 33
FATIGUE
Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminium, copper) do not have a fatigue limit, in that
the S–N curve continues its downward trend at increasingly greater N values
(Figure b).

Thus, fatigue ultimately occurs regardless of the magnitude of the stress. For
these materials, the fatigue response is specified as fatigue strength, which is
defined as the stress level at which failure will occur for some specified number of
cycles (e.g., 107 cycles).

Another important parameter that characterizes a material’s fatigue behaviour is

fatigue life Nf. It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a specified stress level,
as taken from the S–N plot (Figure b)

34
FATIGUE
Fatigue S–N curves shown represent “best-fit” curves that have been
drawn through average-value data points. It is a little unsettling to realize
that approximately one-half of the specimens tested actually failed at
stress levels lying nearly 25% below the curve (as determined on the basis
of statistical treatments).

Several statistical techniques have been developed to specify fatigue life

and fatigue limit in terms of probabilities. One convenient way of
representing data treated in this manner is with a series of constant
probability curves, several of which are plotted below. The P value
associated with each curve represents the probability of failure.

For example, at a stress of 200 MPa (30,000 psi), we would

expect 1% of the specimens to fail at about 106 cycles, 50% to
fail at about 2 × 107 cycles. 35
FATIGUE
CRACK INITIATION AND PROPAGATION

(1) crack initiation, in which a small crack forms at some point of high stress concentration;
(2) crack propagation, during which this crack advances incrementally with each stress cycle; and
(3) final failure, which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has reached a critical size.
36
FATIGUE
WHAT ARE THE FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

37
CREEP
Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static mechanical stresses (e.g., turbine rotors
in jet engines and steam generators that experience centrifugal stresses; high-pressure steam lines).

Deformation under such circumstances is termed creep. Defined as the time-dependent and permanent deformation of
materials when subjected to a constant load or stress, creep is normally an undesirable phenomenon and is often the limiting
factor in the lifetime of a part.

It is observed in all materials types; for metals, it becomes

important only for temperatures greater than about 0.4Tm, where
Tm is the absolute melting temperature.

Amorphous polymers, which include plastics and rubbers, are

especially sensitive to creep deformation.

Several theoretical mechanisms have been proposed to explain

the creep behaviour for various materials; these mechanisms
involve stress-induced vacancy diffusion, grain boundary
diffusion, dislocation motion, and grain boundary sliding.

38
CREEP
A typical creep test consists of subjecting a Steady-state creep, the rate is constant.
specimen to a constant load or stress while This is often the stage of creep that is
maintaining the temperature constant; deformation of the longest duration. The constancy
or strain is measured and plotted as a function of of creep rate is explained on the basis
elapsed time. of a balance between the competing
processes of strain hardening and
recovery, recovery being the process by
which a material becomes softer and
retains its ability to experience
deformation.
continuously decreasing creep rate: the
material is experiencing an increase in
creep resistance or strain hardening:
An acceleration
deformation becomes more difficult as
of the rate and
the material is strained.
ultimate failure

Upon application of the load, there is an

instantaneous deformation, that is totally
39
elastic.
CREEP
Creep failure is frequently termed rupture and
results from microstructural and/or metallurgical
changes—for example, grain boundary separation,
and the formation of internal cracks, cavities, and
voids.

Also, for tensile loads, a neck may form at some

point within the deformation region.

These all lead to a decrease in the effective cross-

sectional area and an increase in strain rate.
An acceleration
Possibly the most important parameter from a of the rate and
creep test is the slope of the secondary ultimate failure
portion of the creep curve (Δ𝜀/Δt); this is often
called the minimum or steady-state creep rate .

It is the engineering design parameter that is

considered for long-life applications, such as a
nuclear power plant component that is scheduled
to operate for several decades, and when failure or
too much strain is not an option. 40
CREEP
For many relatively short-life creep situations (e.g.,
turbine blades in military aircraft and rocket motor
nozzles), time to rupture, or the rupture lifetime tr,
is the dominant design consideration.

Thus, knowledge of these creep characteristics of a

material allows the design engineer to ascertain its
suitability for a specific application.

An acceleration
of the rate and
ultimate failure

41
CREEP

Influence of stress 𝜎 and temperature T on creep behaviour.

42
CREEP

43
CREEP

K2 and Qc are constants; Qc is the activation

energy for creep; also R is the gas constant,
44
8.31 J⋅mol/K.
CREEP
The need often arises for engineering creep data that are
impractical to collect from normal laboratory tests.

This is especially true for prolonged exposures (on the order of

years).

One solution to this problem involves performing creep and/or

creep rupture tests at temperatures in excess of those required,
for shorter time periods, and at a comparable stress level, and
then making a suitable extrapolation to the in-service condition.

A commonly used extrapolation procedure employs the Larson–

Miller parameter, m, defined as: m = T(C + log tr).

Where C is a constant (usually on the order of 20), for T in

Kelvin and the rupture lifetime tr in hours.

The rupture lifetime of a given material measured at some

specific stress level varies with temperature such that this Logarithm of stress versus the Larson–Miller
parameter remains constant. parameter for an S-590 alloy.
45
CREEP
Several factors affect the creep characteristics of metals. These include melting temperature, elastic modulus, and grain
size.

In general, the higher the melting temperature, the greater the elastic modulus, the larger the grain size, the better a
material’s resistance to creep.

Relative to grain size, smaller grains permit more grain boundary sliding, which results in higher creep rates.

This effect may be contrasted to the influence of grain size on the mechanical behaviour at low temperatures [i.e.,
increase in both strength and toughness.

(a) Polycrystalline turbine blade that was

produced by a conventional casting
technique. High-temperature creep resistance
is improved as a result of an oriented
columnar grain structure (b) produced by a
sophisticated directional solidification
technique. Creep resistance is further
enhanced when single-crystal blades (c) are
used.
46
CREEP
Stainless steels and the superalloys are especially resilient to creep and are commonly employed in high-temperature
service applications.

The creep resistance of the superalloys is enhanced by solid-solution alloying and also by the formation of precipitate
phases. In addition, advanced processing techniques have been utilized; one such technique is directional solidification,
which produces either highly elongated grains or single-crystal components.

(a) Polycrystalline turbine blade that was produced

by a conventional casting technique. High-
temperature creep resistance is improved as a result
of an oriented columnar grain structure (b) produced
by a sophisticated directional solidification
technique. Creep resistance is further enhanced
when single-crystal blades (c) are used. 47