CHAPTER 1

Polygraphy and Lie Detection

(Methods and Techniques and its
Historical Development)
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Do you suspect anyone

INTRODUCTION
For as long as human beings have deceived one another, people have tried to develop
techniques for detecting deception and finding truth. Lie detection took on aspects of modern
science with the development in the 20th century of techniques intended for the
psychophysiological detection of deception, most prominently, polygraph testing. The
polygraph instrument measures several physiological processes (e.g., heart rate) and changes
in those processes. From the charts of those measures in response to questions on a polygraph
test, sometimes aided by observations during the polygraph examination, examiners infer a
psychological state, namely, whether a person is telling the truth or lying. Polygraph testing
is used for three main purposes: event-specific investigations (e.g., after a crime); employee
screening, and preemployment screening. The different uses involve the search for different
kinds of information and have different implications. A question asked about a specific
incident (e.g., “Did you see the victim on Monday” or “Did you take the file home
yesterday?”) often has little ambiguity, so it is clear what facts provide the criterion for a
truthful answer. For employee screening, there is no specific event being investigated, and the
questions must be generic (e.g., “Did you ever reveal classified information to an
unauthorized person?”). Both examinee and examiner may have difficulty knowing whether
an answer to such a question is truthful unless there are clear and consistent criteria that
specify what activities justify a “yes” answer. Examinees may believe they are lying when
providing factually truthful responses, or vice versa. Polygraph tests might elicit admissions
to acts not central to the intent of the question and these answers might be judged either as
successes or failures of the test. In this regard, we have seen no indication of a clear and
stable agreement on criteria for judging answers to security screening polygraph questions in
any agency using them. The use of polygraph testing for preemployment screening is even
more complicated because it involves inferences about future behavior on the basis of
information about past behaviors that may be quite different (e.g., does past use of illegal
drugs, or lying about such use on a polygraph test, predict future spying?). The committee’s
charge was specifically “to conduct a scientific review of the research on polygraph
examinations that pertains to their validity and reliability, in particular for personnel security
screening,” that is, for the second and third purposes. We have focused mainly on validity
because a test that is reliable (i.e., produces consistent outcomes) has little use unless it is also
valid (i.e., measures what it is supposed to measure). Virtually all the available scientific
evidence on polygraph test validity comes from studies of specific-event investigations, so the
committee had to rely heavily on that evidence, in addition to the few available studies that
are relevant for screening. The general quality of the evidence for judging polygraph validity
is relatively low: the substantial majority of the studies most relevant for this purpose were
below the quality level typically needed for funding by the National Science Foundation or
the National Institutes of Health.
All polygraph questioning techniques that aim at some form of standardization or
reproducibility involve comparisons of physiological responses to questions of central interest
for the investigation or screening (“relevant questions”) against physiological responses to
other questions (“comparison questions”). Questioning techniques may differ in the nature of
the comparison questions, the sequencing of questions, or the choice of which comparison
questions in a sequence of questions will be compared with which relevant questions. They
are also typically associated with particular approaches to conducting pretest interviews and
interpreting polygraph charts. This module briefly describes some of the main polygraph
questioning techniques and some of their variants.
All polygraph testing techniques normally begin with a pretest interview. The examinee and
examiner discuss the test, test procedure, examinee’s medical history, and details of the test
issues. The examiner also observes the behavior of the examinee and, in test formats that
allow for discretion in question design, may gather information to be used in choosing
comparison questions for the test. Depending on the complexity of the case, examiner-
examinee interactions, and testing technique, the pretest interview may last from 30 minutes
to 2 hours or longer.
The goal of lie detection is the discovery of a truth that is known to one person and concealed
from others. Psychophysiological lie detection, or polygraphy, is based on the theory that
lying produces particular emotions, which produce corresponding measurable physiological
responses. Psychophysiological lie detection dates back thousands of years. Modern
polygraphy measures blood pressure, breathing, and skin conductance. Alternative metrics
such as voice stress analysis and functional magnetic resonance imaging are as yet unproven.
The control question test uses relevant, control, and irrelevant questions. A larger response to
the relevant questions is considered evidence of deception. The guilty knowledge test uses
concealed information questions and irrelevant questions. Critics have questioned the theory
and practice of polygraphy, primarily on the grounds that the emotion-based responses
measured may not always correspond to lying. The polygraph is generally not admissible in
court. Brain fingerprinting directly detects the concealed truth, such as the record of the crime
stored in the brain, by measuring electrical brain responses. It has been ruled admissible in
court.

This module will let you know the different techniques used in a polygraph test, especially the
test questions. To conduct a successful criminal investigative polygraph test, it is important
that polygraphists be familiar with the types of questions used in a polygraph test and how
they should be formulated for more effective outcomes. The recognition of these questions
and how they are formulated is of utmost importance as it determines the success of the
criminal investigative polygraph test.

THERE ARE SEVERAL PHASES TO FOLLOW IN POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION:

PHASES I

PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS
This stage is the preliminary interview with the investigator handling the case or person
requesting it. The group involved in this stage are victims, suspects and witnesses.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
Behavioral observations of the subjects from the time he enters the reception room until he is escorted by
a secretary or receptionist.

PHASES II
This is the stage of the interview of the subjects. The primary purpose of the pretest interview
is to prepare or condition the subject for the test. Below are sample forms to be considered in
this phase.
PHASE III
THE EXAMINATION PROPER
After the pre-test interview, the examiner should proceed to the placement or attachment of
the polygraph sensors. The first to be attached is the Pneumograph, followed by the
Cardiosphymograph and the Galvanograph sensors. During the test, the subject informed that
he will be asked several questions which should be answered by either “Yes or No ONLY”,
and that they are so brief and straight to the point. The subject will be asked to answer the
standard test questions; Relevant Question (unleaded/immaterial), Irrelevant Question
(leaded/material) and Control Questions. Then the examiner will proceed to the stimulation
test which is the inspection of the chart and asks the subject’s reaction to the question.

PHASE IV

This stage includes all consideration that bears on the examination. This is just one after the
instrument is turned off.
 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME

Formulate Test Questions in Polygraph Examination.

Pre-Activity
Instructions: Let us test your resourcefulness. Study further the following phases in polygraph
examination and try to find out how each phase are being done and what are the types of test
questions are being presented in conducting polygraph examination. (You may group
yourselves into two or three and discuss within your group)

SEVERAL PHASES TO FOLLOW IN POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

Phase I Phase II ( The Phase III (The

(Preliminary Pre-test Examination
Preparations) Interview) Proper)

Phase IV (The
Polygraph
Post-Test
Examination
Interview)
 I. IDENTIFY

Instruction: After studying the several phases and types of questions in

Polygraph Examination, you have now acquired knowledge on what are these
phases and how it is being done. As well as the types of questions being
presented in the conduct of the polygraph exam. Refer to the choices below,
which phase/s is referring to each statement. Write the letter only of the correct
answer.

A. B.
PHASE I PHASE II

C. D.
PHASE PHASE
III IV

Questions:
______________ 1. This stage is the initial interview of the investigator
handling the case or person requesting it.
_______________2. The instrument is being attached to the subject.
_______________3. This stage includes all consideration that bears on
the examination. This is just done after the instrument
is turned off.
_______________4. Further questioning after the test are done in this
phase.
_______________5. Polygraph examiners typically conducts the
stimulation test.
_______________6. This is the stage of the pre-test interview of the
subject.
_______________7. The rights of the subject is being informed.
_______________8. Behavior of the subject is observed.
_______________9. The different types of questions may be used in this
stage.
______________10. Technical productions of chart tracing is done.

II. Formulation
Directions: Read the crime scenario below and formulate a different types of
test questions in polygraph examination.

Crime Scene Scenario

Mr. and Mrs. Wart decided to take their family on a very much needed trip at the end of the
summer. Their children Jane and Joe, were excited to be spending a week at the beach before
they had to go back to school. Mr. Wart was concerned about leaving their apartment
unoccupied while they were on vacation, so he arranged to have a friend stop by to check on
things until they returned. Unfortunately, when the family returned home yesterday, they
were shocked to find their home was in disarray and all of their valuables had disappeared.
Mr. Wart called the 911 immediately. When the police arrived, they began to examine the
crime scene. It appeared to be a robbery, but with no obvious clues as to who committed the
crime. There were no signs of forced entry, and there were no fingerprints that could not be
accounted for. It is possible, however, that the perpetrators used gloves.
A forensic specialist was called in to examine the crime scene but there is a minimal evidence
left behind and that small amount of piece of evidence can be measure and tested. Luckily for
the wart family, several different cells were recovered from the scene and had been labeled as
the bag cells from the culprit which he/she used to carry the valuable out of the house of Wart
Family.
As part of the investigation, the police gathered some neighbor statements, too and one
neighbor said he saw someone which he was suspecting loitering in the area a few days ago
before the crime. Same neighbor said, he saw the same suspect outside the house a night
before the Wart Family arrived home.

If the neighbor saw the same person outside of the house while Wart Family is away from
home, it could be was Mr. Wart’s friend whom he called to stop by at their house to check on
things, is the one whom the neighborhood was suspecting. If you are the investigator, you
will be going to interview the neighbor and Mr. Wart’s friend to collect statements in helping
solve the crime. To test both their involvement in the crime scene, you will be conducting a
Lie Detection Examination on both subjects to determine whether their statements are lie or
truth.

Instructions: In relation to crime scenario above, formulate ten (10) sets of test questions you
are going to use in the conduct of Lie Detection Examination, you can use any or all of the
types of test question in polygraph examination.

TYPES OF QUESTION TEST QUESTION

Example: Do you suspect anyone who invade
SKY Question Mr. wart’s home? Do you know for
sure who invades the house of Wart
Family? Did you enter the house of
Wart Family?

(Start here)
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
7.

8.

9.

10.