Endocrine glands 

are ductless glands of the endocrine system that secrete their

products, hormones, directly into the blood. The major glands of the endocrine system include
the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid
gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands. 

Endocrine glands and their hormones

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The hormonal system (called the endocrine system in medical terminology) has various
glands that release different hormones.

Hormones are like the body’s communication system. They take messages from one
part of the body (the gland) to tell another part of the body (the target cell) to do
something important. The endocrine glands influence reproduction, metabolism, growth
and many other functions.

Below is a list of the main glands (see diagram for their location), some of the hormones
they produce and what effects they have on the body.

Hypothalamus: an area in the base of the brain that links the brain to the hormonal
system.

Key actions of adrenaline include

 increasing the heart rate,
 increasing blood pressure,
 expanding the air passages of the lungs,
 enlarging the pupil in the eye
 redistributing blood to the muscles and altering the body’s metabolism, so as to maximise
blood glucose levels (primarily for the brain).

 The flight or fight response is triggered by the release of stress hormones from the adrenal
glands.
 This increases the flow of blood to muscles.
 Blood sugar levels increase.
 Increases RBC count by spleen contraction.
 Rise in heart rate.
 The function of gastrointestinal.
 Adrenaline triggers the body's fight-or-flight response. This reaction
causes air passages to dilate to provide the muscles with the
oxygen they need to either fight danger or flee. Adrenaline also
triggers the blood vessels to contract to re-direct blood toward
major muscle groups, including the heart and lungs. The body's
ability to feel pain also decreases as a result of adrenaline, which
is why you can continue running from or fighting danger even when
injured. Adrenaline causes a noticeable increase in strength and
performance, as well as heightened awareness, in stressful times.
After the stress has subsided, adrenaline’s effect can last for up to
an hour

What happens if I have too much thyroxine?

The release of too much thyroxine in the bloodstream is known as thyrotoxicosis. This may be
caused by overactivity of the thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism), as in Graves' disease, inflammation of
the thyroid or a benign tumour. Thyrotoxicosis can be recognised by a goitre, which is a swelling of
the neck due to enlargement of the thyroid gland. Other symptoms of thyrotoxicosis include
intolerance to heat, weight loss, increased appetite, increased bowel movements,
irregular menstrual cycle, rapid or irregular heartbeat, palpitations, tiredness, irritability, tremor, hair
thinning/loss and retraction of the eyelids resulting in a ‘staring’ appearance.

What happens if I have too little thyroxine?

Too little production of thyroxine by the thyroid gland is known as hypothyroidism. It may be caused
by autoimmune diseases, poor iodine intake or caused by the use of certain drugs. Sometimes, the
cause is unknown. Thyroid hormones are essential for physical and mental development so
untreated hypothyroidism before birth or during childhood can cause mental impairment and reduced
growth.
Hypothyroidism in adults causes reduced metabolism. It can result in symptoms such as fatigue,
intolerance of cold temperatures, low heart rate, weight gain, reduced appetite, poor
memory, depression, stiffness of the muscles and reduced fertility. See the article on hypothyroidism
for more information.
 
 The endocrine
system.

 major hormones — anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin, dopamine,

corticotrophin releasing hormone, thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH),
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH), growth hormone releasing hormone
(GHRH) and somatostatin
 influences — they hypothalamus links the hormonal and nervous systems. Its
hormones keep the body stable. They influence sleep rhythms, alertness,
appetite, body weight, thirst, blood pressure, heart rate, sex drive, learning,
memory, mood and how the body responds to being sick

Pituitary gland: a kidney bean-shaped gland in the base of the brain.

  major hormones — luteinising hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH),
prolactin, growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH),
adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
 influences — the pituitary gland helps control other glands and makes hormones
that control blood pressure, blood sugar levels, response to stress, menstruation,
sperm production, bone growth, muscle mass, contractions during childbirth,
making breastmilk and bonding between mother and baby

Other glands

The Endocrine System and Glands

of the Human Body
Reviewed by Michael Dansinger, MD on June 02, 2019

IN THIS ARTICLE
 What Is the Endocrine System?
 What Is a Gland?
 Endocrine System Functions
 Parts of the Endocrine System
 Health Issues
 Endocrine System Disorders
What Is the Endocrine System?

The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body

that make the hormones that help cells talk to each other.
They’re responsible for almost every cell, organ, and
function in your body.
If your endocrine system isn't healthy, you might have
problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant,
or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily,
have weak bones, or lack energy because too
much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into
your cells where it's needed for energy.
What Is a Gland?

A gland is an organ that

makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in
your body. Endocrine glands release the substances they
make into your bloodstream.
Endocrine System Functions

Your endocrine system:

 Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and

development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction
 Controls how your hormones are released
 Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they
can travel to other body parts
Parts of the Endocrine System

Many glands make up the endocrine system. The

hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are
in your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in
your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the
adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is
behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you're a woman) or
testes (if you're a man) are in your pelvic region.

 Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine

system with your nervous system. Its main job is to
tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making
hormones.
 Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s
master gland. It uses information it gets from your
brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It
makes many important hormones, including
growth hormone; prolactin, which
helps breastfeeding moms make milk; and luteinizing
hormone, which manages estrogen in women and
testosterone in men.
 Pineal gland. It makes a chemical
called melatonin that helps your body get ready to go
to sleep.
 Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone,
which controls your metabolism. If this gland doesn't
make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism),
everything happens more slowly. Your heart
rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And
you might gain weight. If it makes too much
(hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up.
Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And
you might lose weight without trying.
 Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind
your thyroid. They play a role in bone health. The
glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
 Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-
lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a
 child's immune system develops. The thymus starts to
shrink after puberty.
 Adrenals. Best known for making the "fight or flight"
hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine), these
two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids.
They affect your metabolism and sexual function,
among other things.
 Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive
and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes
that break down food. It also makes the
hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you
have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream
and your cells.
 If you don't make insulin, which is the case for people
with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get
dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes,
the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not
enough.
 Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and
progesterone. These hormones help
develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual
cycle, and support a pregnancy.
 Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It
helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It
also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in
making sperm.
 What Can Go Wrong with Thyroxine?
 Having too little thyroxine or too much thyroxine can cause health
problems. If your body releases too much thyroxine, you will suffer
a condition called thyrotoxicosis. This can cause a goiter, which is
a swelling of the neck because of an enlarged thyroid gland.
Thyrotoxicosis can also cause menstrual irregularities, an increase
in bowel movements, weight loss, heat intolerance, fatigue, and
irritability. Thyrotoxicosis is commonly caused
 by hyperthyroidism, tumors in the thyroid gland, or thyroid
inflammation.
 The body can also produce too little thyroxine, a condition known
as hypothyroidism. Low thyroxine levels cause problems with
development if it occurs when an individual is young. In adults,
thyroxine deficiency will lower the metabolic rate, causing weight
gain, memory problems, infertility, fatigue, and muscle stiffness.

Q1c HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a virus that attacks cells that help the body fight infection,
making a person more vulnerable to other infections and diseases. It is spread by contact with certain
bodily fluids of a person with HIV, most commonly during unprotected sex (sex without a condom or HIV
medicine to prevent or treat HIV), or through sharing injection drug equipment.

Q1C2 AIDS is a condition

While HIV is a virus that may cause an infection, AIDS (which is short for acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome) is a condition. Contracting HIV can lead to the development of AIDS.

AIDS, or stage 3 HIV, develops when HIV has caused serious damage to the immune system. It is a
complex condition with symptoms that vary from person to person. Symptoms of stage 3 HIV are related
to the infections a person may develop as a result of having a damaged immune system that can’t fight
them as well. Known collectively as opportunistic infections, they include tuberculosis, pneumonia, and
others.

Certain types of cancer become more likely when an immune system works less effectively as well.

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy can prevent stage 3 HIV from developing.

HIV doesn’t always progress to stage 3

HIV is a virus, and AIDS is the condition the virus may cause. An HIV infection doesn’t necessarily
progress to stage 3. In fact, many people with HIV live for years without developing AIDS. Thanks to
advances in treatment, a person living with HIV can expect to live a near-normal life span.
While a person can have an HIV infection without having AIDS, anyone diagnosed with AIDS has already
contracted HIV. Because there is no cure, the HIV infection never goes away, even if AIDS never
develops.

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Year Retrospective on Thursday, March 11.

HIV can be transmitted from person to person

Because HIV is a virus, it can be transmitted between people just like many other viruses. AIDS, on the
other hand, is a condition a person acquires only after they’ve contracted HIV.

The virus is transmitted from one person to another through the exchange of bodily fluids. Most
commonly, HIV is transmitted through sex without condoms or shared needles. Less so, a mother can
transmit the virus to their child during pregnancy.

HIV doesn’t always produce symptoms

HIV usually causes flu-like symptoms about two to four weeks after transmission. This short period of
time is called acute infection. The immune system brings the infection under control, leading to a period
of latency.

The immune system can’t completely eliminate HIV, but it can control it for a long time. During this
latency period, which can last for years, a person with HIV may experience no symptoms at all. Without
antiretroviral therapy, however, that person may develop AIDS and as a result will experience many
symptoms associated with the condition.

HIV infection can be diagnosed by a simple test

On HIV transmission, the immune system produces antibodies against the virus. A blood or saliva test
can detect those antibodies to determine if the virus is present. It can take several weeks after
transmission for the HIV antibody test to come back positive.

Another test looks for antigens, which are proteins produced by the virus, and antibodies. This test can
detect HIV just days after infection.

Both tests are accurate and easy to administer.

AIDS diagnosis is more complicated

AIDS is late stage HIV infection. Healthcare providers look for a few factors to determine if HIV latency
has progressed to stage 3 HIV.

Because HIV destroys immune cells called CD4 cells, one way healthcare providers diagnose AIDS is to
do a count of those cells. A person without HIV can have anywhere from 500 to 1,200 CD4 cells. When
the cells have dropped to 200, a person with HIV is considered to have stage 3 HIV.

Another factor signaling that stage 3 HIV has developed is the presence of opportunistic infections.
Opportunistic infections are diseases caused by viruses, fungi, or bacteria that would not make a person
with an undamaged immune system sick.

Treatment and life expectancy

If HIV develops into stage 3 HIV, life expectancy drops significantly. It’s difficult to repair damage to the
immune system at this point. Infections and other conditions, such as certain cancers, resulting from
severe immune system impairment are common. However, with successful antiretroviral therapy and
some immune system recovery, many people with stage 3 HIV live long lives.

With today’s treatments for HIV infection, people can live with HIV and never have AIDS develop. It’s
also important to note that successful antiretroviral treatment and a sustained undetectable viral load
greatly lowers the risk of transmitting the virus to a partner.
 HIV AIDS: Myths and Facts
Privacy & Trust Info

 HIV vs. AIDS

 Causes

 Symptoms

 Diagnosis

 Treatment

 Life Expectancy

 Prevention

 Center

 More

What is the difference between HIV vs.

AIDS?
 The difference between HIV and AIDS is in the strict definition of both words. For

example, HIV (also termed human immunodeficiency virus) is defined as a virus that can be

transmitted from person to person and damages the human immune system.

 AIDS (also termed acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is defined as a syndrome or condition

that results when HIV damages the human immune system so severely that the person becomes

very susceptible to additional problems, including infections

like pneumonia or tuberculosis and/or the development of cancers like Kaposi's sarcoma.

 HIV and AIDS are similar only because both of them involve the human immunodeficiency

virus. Confusion exists between these two words because both the public and medical literature

have had a tendency to use HIV and AIDS interchangeably. Strictly speaking, the use of them

interchangeably is incorrect. Consequently, for clarity, HIV should only refer to human

 immunodeficiency viruses and AIDS should only refer to the relatively end-stage syndromes that

develop after HIV has extensively damaged a person's immune system. For example, a person

can have HIV, or better termed, an infection caused by human immunodeficiency virus but not

have AIDS. A person can have AIDS caused by human immunodeficiency virus, but AIDS is a

syndrome (that is, set of signs and symptoms that appear together and characterizes a disease

or medical condition), and AIDS is not the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Types of HIV Testing

There are three main types of HIV tests: antibody tests, RNA (viral load) tests, and a combination test that detects
both antibodies and viral protein called p24 (antibody-antigen test, or HIV Ab-Ag test). All tests are designed to
detect HIV-1, which is the type of HIV in the United States. Some antibody tests and the combination test can also
detect HIV-2 infections, which are usually limited to West Africa. No test is perfect; tests may be falsely positive or
falsely negative or impossible to interpret (indeterminate, see below).

Positive test results are reportable to the health department in all 50 states and include the patient's name. This
information is then reported to the CDC (without names) so that the epidemiology and infection spread rates can be
monitored. The names sent to the state remain confidential and will not be reported to employers, family members,
or other such people. Some states allow anonymous testing in which the patient's name is not recorded.

Read more about HIV tests »

What are causes and risk factors for HIV

and AIDS?
The cause for HIV infection is the human immunodeficiency virus; it is spread by person-to-
person contact mainly by body fluids during unprotected sex and/or the use of needles
contaminated with the human immunodeficiency virus. Other less frequent ways HIV is
transmitted are through contaminated blood or tissue during a transfusion or transplant, to a fetus
by an infected mother, or to an infant via breast milk from an infected mother.

The cause of AIDS is infection by human immunodeficiency viruses that eventually damage the
person's immune system so severely that the person develops additional medical problems like
opportunistic infections or cancers.
The risk factors for HIV and AIDS include

 unprotected sexual contact,

 using contaminated needles,

 mother-to-child transmission,

 having a large number of sexual partners,

 a history of sexually transmitted diseases, and

 receipt of blood transfusions before 1985 in the U.S.

However, AIDS has an additional risk factor; it is increased in people who do not treat HIV
infection or live in areas where there is an epidemic or endemic presence of HIV infections
without good treatment centers available (for example, in sub-Saharan Africa).
 IMAGES

HIV vs. AIDSSee pictures of HIV/AIDS conditions and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)See
Images

What are the signs and symptoms of HIV

and AIDS?
 The initial infection by a human immunodeficiency virus strain may or may not produce

symptoms.

 Acute HIV infections may cause flu-like symptoms about two to four weeks after infection.

 HIV infections may produce flu-like illness with

o fever,

o weakness, and

o a generalized rash.

 Enlarged lymph nodes commonly occur and are often the first indication of HIV infection.

 There are no specific physical findings for HIV infections; the patient's history is important

because if they have had exposure to any risk factors as described above, the doctor will

probably do some additional tests for HIV infection, which are listed below.

 AIDS signs and symptoms may include all of the above because these patients are infected first

with human immunodeficiency virus.

 However, AIDS signs and symptoms are more severe and can result in recurrent life-threatening

infections with opportunistic viruses and bacteria and/or cancers with worsening symptoms if

the patient has additional medical problems like diabetes.

 In addition, patients can develop

o AIDS-associated dementia,

o encephalopathy, and

o a wasting syndrome (severe weight loss and diarrhea).

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How are HIV and AIDS diagnosed?

 Screening tests are recommended for patients who are at risk for developing HIV and AIDS.

 Antibody tests were traditionally used to diagnose HIV.

o An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) blood test was used for screening for

antibodies to the human immunodeficiency virus as evidence of infection.

o Another blood test, the Western blot assay, was then used to confirm HIV infections.

 There are also newer combined HIV tests that can detect HIV infection up to 20 days earlier

than antibody screening tests. These are called combined antigen/antibody tests that look for

the presence of a protein called p24 that's part of the virus that shows up two to four weeks

after infection, as well as HIV antibodies. These combined tests are now recommended by the

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

 Another type of diagnostic test, the nucleic acid test (NAT), identifies the genetic material of the

human immunodeficiency virus. The NAT can detect HIV infection about seven to 28 days after

infection with HIV, but these tests are very expensive and not used for routine HIV screening.

 If a person is diagnosed with an HIV infection, health care providers suggest the patient be

screened for additional infectious diseases (for

example, syphilis, cytomegalovirus, tuberculosis, and others) and/or other diseases that might

indicate AIDS.

 The diagnosis of AIDS is more complex than HIV diagnosis. One major blood test for the

diagnosis of AIDS is the CD4 T-cell count.

o Human immunodeficiency viruses can destroy an immune cell type termed CD4 cells, a

T-cell type in our immune system.

o When an HIV-infected patient has a CD-4 cell count of <200/µl, they are considered to

have AIDS; when CD4 counts reach these low levels, patients often show one or more of

the symptoms or signs (sometimes termed as an AIDS-defining illness) for AIDS listed

above.
 QUESTION

What is HIV?See Answer

What are treatments and medications for

HIV and AIDS?
 Treatments and medications are best managed by an infectious disease consultant who will

design a treatment program for the individual's problems.

 In general, all patients with a history of AIDS with a low CD4 count should be treated with

antiviral drugs.

 You and your physicians should discuss treatment and/or medication options that will best fit

your circumstances.

What is the life expectancy of HIV and

AIDS?
 In patients with untreated human immunodeficiency virus infections, the overall prognosis is

poor, with a life span ranging about eight to 10 years after the initial infection.

 Once the infection has progressed and the diagnosis of AIDS occurs, the survival time is

about two years in untreated patients.

 However, remarkable progress has taken place since HIV infections became common

worldwide; treatment with antiviral drug therapy has increased survival times.

 In addition, aggressive antiviral therapy can delay the onset of AIDS for many years.

 Consequently, treated individuals have a much better chance for a relatively longer life span and

better prognosis if they undergo and adhere to therapeutic protocols.

 Individuals with HIV can live a long time; however, their life spans average somewhat less than

normal.

 Future treatments may allow an HIV-infected person to live a normal life span.
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What is HIV/AIDS prevention?

 It is possible to prevent HIV and AIDS by avoiding all of the risk factors that result in transmission

of the virus. For example, drug users should never share needles.

 Medical personnel need to follow disease-control methods for disposal of medical instruments

and needles.

 Safe sex practices with sexual partners who have HIV infection are some of the methods to

prevent both HIV and AIDS.

 According to the CDC, there is no vaccine currently available to prevent HIV and/or AIDS.

 However, research is going on to develop a vaccine; a vaccine trial termed HVTN 072 is currently

underway to determine if an experimental vaccine regimen can safely prevent HIV infection

among South-African adults.

 Positive results from this trial would be an important step forward in prevention of HIV and

AIDS.

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 Night Sweats
Night sweats are severe hot flashes that occur at night and result in a drenching sweat. The causes of night sweats in
most people are not serious, like menopause in women, sleep apnea, medications, alcohol withdrawal, and thyroid
problems. However, more serious diseases like cancer and HIV also can cause night sweats. Your doctor will treat
your night sweats depending upon the cause. 

You may experience other signs and symptoms that are associated with night sweats, which depend upon the cause,
but may include, shaking, and chills with a fever caused by an infection like the flu or pneumonia; unexplained
weight loss due to lymphoma; women in perimenopause or menopause may also have vaginal dryness, mood
swings, and hot flashes during the day; and low blood sugar in people with diabetes.

Other causes of night sweats include medications like NSAIDs (aspirin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil),
and naproxen (Aleve, Naprosyn), antidepressants, sildenafil (Viagra), and abuse of prescription or illegal drugs and
drug withdrawal; hormone disorders like pheochromocytoma and carcinoid syndrome; idiopathic hyperhidrosis;
infections like endocarditis, AIDs, and abscesses; alcoholism and alcohol withdrawal; drug abuse, addiction, and
withdrawal; and stroke.

A doctor or other health care professional can treat your night sweats after the cause has been diagnosed.

Skin Rash

The word "rash" means an outbreak of red bumps on the body. The way people use this term, "a rash" can refer to
many different skin conditions. The most common of these are scaly patches of skin and red, itchy bumps or
patches all over the place.


 STD Quiz

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rashes, or discharge. Common infections that are sexually transmitted in men include gonorrhea, chlamydia,
syphilis, hepatitis C and B, genital warts, human papillomavirus (HPV), and genital herpes. Some STDs in men are
treatable while others are not. STDs are diagnosed with tests that identify proteins or genetic material of the
organisms causing the infection. The prognosis of an STD depends on whether the infection is treatable or not. Use
of latex condoms can help reduce the risk of contracting an STD but it does not eliminate the risk entirely.

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Sexually transmitted infections like chlamydia and genital herpes are common STDs. Think you might have an STD?
You’re not alone. Find pictures of herpes, gonorrhea, and more. Learn how venereal disease can harm your health,
and how to tell your partner if you have an STD.


 Swollen Lymph Nodes (Glands)

Lymph nodes help the body's immune system fight infections. Causes of swollen lymph nodes (glands) may include
infection (viral, bacterial, fungal, parasites). Symptoms of swollen lymph nodes vary greatly, but may include fever,
night sweats, toothache, sore throat, or weight loss. Causes of swollen lymph nodes also vary, but may include
cancer, the common cold, mono, chickenox, HIV, and herpes. The treatment of swollen lymph nodes depends
upon the cause.

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HIV AIDS: Myths and

Facts
 Reviewed By: Charles Patrick Davis, MD, PhD

Reviewed on 10/20/2020

Having HIV Means You Have AIDS

MYTH. The last stage of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection is AIDS
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome). Once you get an HIV infection, you
have it for life, but it does not progress to AIDS in all people. With antiretroviral
therapy treatment (ART) many people can live a normal life expectancy with HIV
infection.

It's Difficult to Get HIV From Casual Contact

FACT. HIV is not spread from casual contact, air, water, sharing dishes, toilet
seats, or saliva. The virus cannot live for long periods outside the body. HIV is
spread through bodily fluids including blood, semen, and breast milk and it is
possible to spread the disease by having unprotected sex, and sharing needles.
Less commonly, HIV can be passed on through breast milk, blood transfusions
(this is rare because the blood supply in the U.S. is carefully screened), and
being stuck with an HIV-contaminated needle or object.

You Only Have A Few Years to Live

MYTH. At the start of the AIDS epidemic, the life expectancy was only a couple
of years. However, that is no longer the case. New medications and treatments
have extended the lives of people with HIV and many can live a normal life span.
With early intervention you may be able to prevent HIV from becoming AIDS.

You'll Know You Have HIV Because of Your

Symptoms
MYTH. Not everyone has symptoms when first infected with HIV. Many people
have flu-like symptoms, called “acute retroviral syndrome” (ARS) or “primary HIV
infection,” within 2 to 4 weeks of being infected with HIV. Symptoms may include
fever, swollen glands, sore throat, rash, fatigue, muscle and joint aches, and
headache. Symptoms may last a few days to a few weeks. However, these
symptoms resemble many other infections and the only way to know for sure if
you are infected with HIV is to get tested.

HIV Is Curable
MYTH. No drug can cure HIV infection, but there are treatments that can help
control the virus and protect your immune system, and possibly prevent HIV from
becoming AIDS. Right now, there are nine different classes of HIV drugs, as well
as various possible drug combinations.

Anyone Can Get HIV

FACT. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimates that about 1 million
people in the US are infected with HIV, and nearly 38,000 people were newly
infected in 2018. Anyone of any age, race or gender can be infected with HIV.

Sex Is Safe When Both Partners Have HIV

MYTH. Even if both partners are HIV-positive and symptom-free, one may still
carry another sexually transmitted infection (STI). In addition, you and your
partner may have different variations (strains) of the HIV virus. Using condoms
and dentals dams is always safer. Latex condoms protect the best against HIV
infection; lambskin condoms do not provide any protection as the virus can pass
through them.

You Can Have a Baby if You Are HIV-Positive

FACT. Pregnant women who are HIV positive can pass the HIV virus to their
babies. It can happen during pregnancy, during vaginal childbirth, or while
breastfeeding. However, if the mother receives treatment with antiretroviral drugs
during pregnancy, has a C-section delivery, and avoids breastfeeding, she can
greatly reduce the risk of passing the infection on to her baby.
 Schistosomiasis
Introduction
Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia) is a vector-borne parasitic disease caused by trematode flatworms of the
genus Schistosoma.

Freshwater snails act as the vector, releasing larval forms of the parasite into water. These larvae subsequently
penetrate the skin of people who are in that water (e.g. fishermen). The larvae develop into adult schistosomes in the
body, and are either released through urine or cause an immune reaction (if they remain in the body).

There are two main forms of schistosomiasis:

 urinary schistosomiasis – which mainly affects the bladder, ureters and kidneys
 intestinal schistosomiasis – which mainly affects the liver and spleen and causes intestinal damage and hypertension
of the abdominal blood vessels.
The disease can be treated with drugs, while control efforts include those that target the vector.

Onchocerciasis
Key facts
 Onchocerciasis, commonly known as “river blindness”, is caused by the parasitic
worm Onchocerca volvulus.
 It is transmitted to humans through exposure to repeated bites of infected
blackflies of the genus Simulium
 Symptoms include severe itching, disfiguring skin conditions, and visual
impairment, including permanent blindness.
 More than 99% of infected people live in 31 African countries. The disease also
exists in some foci in Latin America and Yemen.
 The Global Burden of Disease Study estimated in 2017 that there were 20.9 million
prevalent O. volvulus infections worldwide: 14.6 million of the infected people had
skin disease and 1.15 million had vision loss
 Community-directed treatment with ivermectin is the core strategy to eliminate
onchocerciasis in Africa. In the Americas the strategy is biannual large-scale
treatment with ivermectin.
 Four countries have been verified by WHO as free of onchocerciasis after
successfully implementing elimination activities for decades: Colombia, Ecuador,
Mexico, and Guatemala
  By the end of 2017, three additional countries had stopped mass drug
administration and completed 3 years of post-treatment surveillance in at least
one transmission area: Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Uganda, and Sudan
 1.8 million people live in areas that no longer require mass drug administration for
onchocerciasis.

Onchocerciasis – or “river blindness” – is a parasitic disease caused by the filarial

worm Onchocerca volvulus transmitted by repeated bites of infected blackflies
(Simulium spp.). These blackflies breed along fast-flowing rivers and streams, close to
remote villages located near fertile land where people rely on agriculture.

In the human body, the adult worms produce embryonic larvae (microfilariae) that
migrate to the skin, eyes and other organs. When a female blackfly bites an infected
person during a blood meal, it also ingests microfilariae which develop further in the
blackfly and are then transmitted to the next human host during subsequent bites.

Signs and symptoms

Onchocerciasis is an eye and skin disease. Symptoms are caused by the microfilariae,
which move around the human body in the subcutaneous tissue and induce intense
inflammatory responses when they die. Infected people may show symptoms such as
severe itching and various skin changes. Some infected people develop eye lesions
which can lead to visual impairment and permanent blindness. In most cases, nodules
under the skin form around the adult worms.

Dracunculiasis eradication
 Dracunculiasis eradication
 The disease
 Eradication campaign
 Epidemiology
 Surveillance and control
 Certification
 Links and resources
About guinea-worm disease
Dracunculus medinensis
 © WHO

Guinea-worm disease is caused by the parasitic worm Dracunculus medinensis or "Guinea-worm". This worm is the
largest of the tissue parasite affecting humans. The adult female, which carries about 3 million embryos, can
measure 600 to 800 mm in length and 2 mm in diameter. The parasite migrates through the victim's subcutaneous
tissues causing severe pain especially when it occurs in the joints. The worm eventually emerges (from the feet in
most of the cases), causing an intensely painful oedema, a blister and an ulcer accompanied by fever, nausea and
vomiting.

Infected persons try to relieve the burning sensation by immersing the infected part of their body in local water
sources, usually ponds water. This also induces a contraction of the female worm at the base of the ulcer causing the
sudden expulsion of hundreds of thousands of first stage larvae into the water. They move actively in the water,
where they can live for a few days. More details.
For further development, these larvae need to be ingested by suitable species of voracious predatory
crustacean, Cyclops or water fleas which measure 1–2 mm and widely abundant worldwide. In the cyclops,
larvae develop to infective third-stage in 14 days at 26°C.

When a person drinks contaminated water from ponds or shallow open wells, the cyclops is dissolved by the
gastric acid of the stomach and the larvae are released and migrate through the intestinal wall. After 100 days,
the male and female meet and mate. The male becomes encapsulated and dies in the tissues while the female
moves down the muscle planes. After about one year of the infection, the female worm emerges usually from the
feet releasing thousands of larvae thus repeating the life cycle.

No drug is available to prevent or heal this parasitic disease – exclusively associated with drinking contaminated
water. Dracunculiasis is, however, relatively easy to eliminate and eventually eradicate.

Guinea-worm disease is rarely fatal. Frequently, however, the patient remains sick for several months, mainly
because:

 The emergence of the worm, sometimes several, is accompanied by painful oedema, intense generalised pruritus,
blistering and an ulceration of the area from which the worm emerges.
 The migration and emergence of the worms occur in sensitive parts of the body, sometimes the articular spaces
can lead to permanent disability.
 Ulcers caused by the emergence of the worm invariably develop secondary bacterial infections which exacerbate
inflammation and pain resulting in temporary disability ranging from a few weeks to a few months.
 Accidental rupture of the worm in the tissue spaces can result in serious allergic reactions.

Medical Definition of
Ventilation
 Medical Author: William C. Shiel Jr., MD, FACP, FACR

Privacy & Trust Info

Ventilation: The exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere so

that oxygen can be exchanged for carbon dioxide in the alveoli (the tiny air
sacs in the lungs).

Ventilation
Ventilating is the process of "changing" or replacing air in any space to provide high indoor
air quality. Ventilation is used to remove unpleasant smells and excessive moisture,
introduce outside air, to keep interior building air circulating, and to prevent stagnation of the
interior air. Ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation
of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable
indoor air quality in buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may be divided into
mechanical/forced and natural types. "Mechanical" or "forced" ventilation is used to control
indoor air quality. Excess humidity, odors, and contaminants can often be controlled via
dilution or replacement with outside air. However, in humid climates much energy is
required to remove excess moisture from ventilation air. Kitchens and bathrooms typically
have mechanical exhaust to control odors and sometimes humidity. Kitchens have
additional problems to deal with such as smoke and grease. Factors in the design of such
systems include the flow rate and noise level. If ducting for the fans traverse unheated
space, the ducting should be insulated as well to prevent condensation on the ducting.
Direct drive fans are available for many applications, and can reduce maintenance needs.

Question 5
(a) (i) What is ventilation? [2 marks]
(iiState five factors that may be considered to ensure proper ventilation When building a home [ 5 marks]
(iii) Give four reasons why proper ventilation is necessary for humans [4 marks]
(b) State five ways of preventing tooth decay. [5 marks]
(c)State two causes each of
(i) constitution;
(ii) indigestion. [ 4 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
________
observation
This question was attempted by many candidates and candidates performed fairly well. In part (a)(i) candidate could
not define ventilation, in (a)(ii) candidate could not state factors that may be considered to ensure proper
ventilation when building a home correctly, in (a)(iii) candidates gave reasons why proper ventilation is necessary
for humans. In part (b) candidates stated ways of preventing tooth decay. In part (c) (i) and (iii) where candidates
were requested to state causes of constipation and indigestion candidates stated the causes correctly.

The expected answers were as follows:

(a)(i) Ventilation
It is a process of displacing state air, with fresh in a room/an enclosure/environment
(ii) Factors considered to ensure proper ventilation when building a home
size of the windows
position of windows
alignment of the building
direction of wind flow in the area
height of the ceiling
adequacy of number of windows
ventilator bricks/perforated walls/ air ways
(iii)Reasons why proper ventilation is necessary for human
prevention of suffocation/sweating
removal of state air/recycling of air
removal of excess heat
removal of body odour/pollutants
to reduce bacteria/microbes
reduces the incidence of respiratory diseases
(b)Ways of preventing tooth decay
teeth must be kept clean/brushed after meals
avoid eating too many sweets
regular visit to the dentist
eating food rich in calcium/phosphorus
avoid eating too hot or cold food to prevent cracking
avoid using the tooth to open bottle tops
use fluoride tooth paste/drink fluorinated water
avoid using sharp/pointed object to pick the teeth
reduce the intake of carbonated drinks.
( c) (i) Causes of constipation
lack of exercise
absence of roughage in the diet
absence of fruits/vegetable in diet
intake of too much dry food/junk food/over eating
not taking sufficient water
(ii) Causes of indigestion
eating at irregular times
improper chewing
over heating
heavy smoking
emotional stress
stomach ulcer
inadequate cooking.

What causes constipation?

There are many causes of constipation – lifestyle choices,

medications, medical conditions, and pregnancy.

Common lifestyle causes of constipation include:

 Eating foods low in fiber.

 Not drinking enough water (dehydration).
  Not getting enough exercise.
 Changes in your regular routine, such as traveling or eating or
going to bed at different times.
 Eating large amounts of milk or cheese.
 Stress.
 Resisting the urge to have a bowel movement.

Medications that can cause constipation include:

 Strong pain medicines, like the narcotics containing codeine,

oxycodone (Oxycontin®) and hydromorphone (Dilaudid®).
 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, like ibuprofen (Advil®,
Motrin®) and naproxen (Aleve®).
 Antidepressants, including the selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (like fluoxetine [Prozac®]) or tricyclic antidepressants
(like amitriptyline [Elavil®]).
 Antacids containing calcium or aluminum, such as Tums®.
 Iron pills.
 Allergy medications, such as antihistamines (like
diphenhydramine [Benadryl®]).
 Certain blood pressure medicines, including calcium channel
blockers (like verapamil [Calan SR], diltiazem [Cardizem®] and
nifedipine [Procardia®]) and beta-blockers (like atenolol
[Tenormin®]).
 Psychiatric medications, like clozapine (Clozaril®) and
olanzapine (Zyprexa®).
 Anticonvulsant/seizure medications, such as phenytoin and
gabapentin.
 Antinausea medications, like ondansetron (Zofran®).

Many drugs can cause constipation. Ask your doctor or pharmacist if

you have any questions or concerns.

Medical and health conditions that can cause constipation

include:

 Endocrine problems, like underactive thyroid gland

(hypothyroidism), diabetes, uremia, hypercalcemia.
  Colorectal cancer.
 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
 Diverticular disease.
 Outlet dysfunction constipation. (A defect in the coordination of
pelvic floor muscles. These muscles support the organs within
the pelvis and lower abdomen. They are needed to help release
stool.)
 Neurologic disorders including spinal cord injury, multiple
sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and stroke.
 Lazy bowel syndrome. The colon contracts poorly and retains
stool.
 Intestinal obstruction.
 Structural defects in the digestive tract (like fistula, colonic
atresia, volvulus, intussusception, imperforate anus,
or malrotation.)
 Multiple organ diseases, such as amyloidosis, lupus,
and scleroderma.
 Pregnancy.
What are the symptoms of constipation?

Symptoms of constipation include:

 You have fewer than three bowel movements a week.

 Your stools are dry, hard and/or lumpy.
 Your stools are difficult or painful to pass.
 You have a stomach ache or cramps.
 You feel bloated and nauseous.
 You feel that you haven’t completely emptied your bowels after a
movement.

DIAGNOSIS AND TESTS

What should I expect when I talk to my doctor about my constipation?

Talking to your doctor – or anyone – about your bowel movements (or

lack of them) is not the most pleasant of topics. Know that your doctor
is there for you. Doctors are trained health professionals who have
discussed just about every health topic you can think of with their
patients.

Your doctor will first ask you questions about your medical history,
bowel movements, and your lifestyle and routines.

Medical history

These questions may include:

 What are your current and past diseases/health conditions?

 Have you lost or gained any weight recently?
 Have you had any previous digestive tract surgeries?
 What medications and supplements do you take for other
disorders and for the relief of constipation?
 Does anyone in your family have constipation or diseases of the
digestive tract or a history of colon cancer?
 Have you had a colonoscopy?

Bowel movement history

These questions may include:

 How often do you have a bowel movement?

 What do your stools look like?
 Have you noticed any blood or red streaks in your stool?
 Have you ever seen blood in the toilet bowl or on the toilet paper
after you wipe?

Lifestyle habits and routines

 What food and beverages do you eat and drink?

 What is your exercise routine?

Your doctor will also perform a physical exam, which includes a check
of your vital signs (temperature, pulse, blood pressure). He or she will
use a stethoscope to listen to the sounds in your abdomen. Your
abdomen will also be touched to check for pain, tenderness, swelling,
and lumps.
Be aware that your doctor will also perform a rectal exam. This is a
finger exam of the inside of your rectum. It’s a quick check for any
masses or problems that can be felt by finger.
Indigestion — also called dyspepsia or an upset stomach — is a general term that describes
discomfort in your upper abdomen. Indigestion is not a disease, but rather some symptoms you
experience, including abdominal pain and a feeling of fullness soon after you start eating.
Although indigestion is common, each person may experience indigestion in a slightly different
way. Symptoms of indigestion may be felt occasionally or as often as daily.

Causes

Indigestion has many possible causes. Often, indigestion is related to lifestyle and may
be triggered by food, drink or medication. Common causes of indigestion include:

 Overeating or eating too quickly

 Fatty, greasy or spicy foods

 Too much caffeine, alcohol, chocolate or carbonated beverages

 Smoking

 Anxiety

 Certain antibiotics, pain relievers and iron supplements

Sometimes indigestion is caused by other digestive conditions, including:

 Inflammation of the stomach (gastritis)

 Peptic ulcers

 Celiac disease

 Gallstones

 Constipation

 Pancreas inflammation (pancreatitis)

 Stomach cancer

 Intestinal blockage
  Reduced blood flow in the intestine (intestinal ischemia)

Indigestion with no obvious cause is known as functional or nonulcer dyspepsia.

Complications

Although indigestion doesn't usually have serious complications, it can affect your
quality of life by making you feel uncomfortable and causing you to eat less. You might
miss work or school because of your symptoms. When indigestion is caused by an
underlying condition, that condition can also have its own complications.