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INTRODUCTION TO HYBRID ELECTRICAL VEHICLE’S

A general vehicle gets propelled by using fossil fuels as their input, and they run solely
depending on one source as their input. A hybrid vehicle is a combination of two propulsive
sources used for the propulsion and the possible combinations Electric Motor & IC engine,

Electric Motor & Battery, Fuel cells, Gasoline & Flywheel (or) A hybrid vehicle combines
any two power (energy) sources. Possible combinations include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly
wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Typically, one energy source is storage, and the other is
conversion of a fuel to energy. The combination of two power sources may support two
separate propulsion systems. Thus, to be a True hybrid, the vehicle must have at least two
modes of propulsion.
For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives several
electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid. But if the truck has electrical energy
storage to provide a second mode, which is electrical assists, then it is a hybrid Vehicle.
An electric vehicle (EV) is a mode of transport which is powered by electricity. Unlike
conventional vehicles that use a gasoline (petrol) or diesel-powered engine, electric cars and
trucks use an electric motor powered by electricity from batteries or a fuel cell. A key
advantage of EVs over other forms of transport is that they hold the potential to significantly
reduce pollution by having zero exhaust emissions.
HISTORY OF THE ELECTRIC VEHICLE’S:
EVs first came into existence in the late 19th century, when electricity was among the preferred
methods for motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that
cannot be achieved by the primitive IC and SI engines.

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1.1 WORKING AND COMPONENTS OF EV’S:

EVs have an electric motor instead of an internal combustion engine (ICE). The vehicle uses
a large traction battery pack to power the motor and must be plugged in to a charging station
or wall outlet to charge. Most EVs use lithium-ion batteries, which have higher energy
density, longer life span and higher power than most other practical batteries.
There are three main types of EVs. Hybrid EVs (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid EVs are both
powered by petrol and electricity. The former generates energy through the car’s own braking
system to recharge the battery, while the latter can recharge through any external source of
electricity. Meanwhile, battery EVs (BEVs) are fully electric, meaning that the vehicle emits
no emissions from the exhaust and does not contain the typical liquid fuel components, such
as a fuel pump, fuel line, or fuel tank.

1.1.1COMPONENTS OF ELECTRICAL VEHICLE:

1. Traction Battery Pack
2. Power Inverter
3. Controller
4. Electric Traction Motor
5. Other electric components
6. Transmitter
7. DC-DC converter
8. Battery
9. Thermal System Cooling
10. Charging Slot

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 2.TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE’S

There are 4 different types of electric vehicles and they are:

 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV)

BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE:

A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), also called All-Electric Vehicle (AEV), runs entirely on a
battery and electric drive train. These types of electric cars do not have an ICE. Electricity is
stored in a large battery pack that is charged by plugging into the electricity grid. The battery
pack, in turn, provides power to one or more electric motors to run the electric car.
Power is converted from the DC battery to AC for the electric motor. The accelerator pedal
sends a signal to the controller which adjusts the vehicle’s speed by changing the frequency
of the AC power from the inverter to the motor. The motor connects and turns the wheels
through a cog. When the brakes are pressed or the electric car is decelerating, the motor
becomes an alternator and produces power, which is sent back to the battery.

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PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE:
PHEVs typically start up in all-electric mode and operate on electricity until their battery
pack is depleted. Some models shift to hybrid mode when they reach highway cruising speed,
generally above 60 or 70 miles per hour. Once the battery is empty, the engine takes over and
the vehicle operates as a conventional, non-plug-in hybrid. In addition to plugging into an
outside electric power source, PHEV batteries can be charged by an internal combustion
engine or regenerative braking. During braking, the electric motor acts as a generator, using
the energy to charge the battery. The electric motor supplements the engine’s power; as a
result, smaller engines can be used, increasing the car’s fuel efficiency without compromising
performance. PHEV is a type of hybrid vehicle that both an ICE and a motor, often called as
series hybrid. This type of electric cars offers a choice of fuels. This type of electric cars is
powered by a conventional fuel (such as gasoline) or an alternative fuel (such biodiesel) and
by a rechargeable battery pack. The battery can be charged up with electricity by plugging
into an electrical outlet.

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HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE:
This type of hybrid cars is often called as standard hybrid or parallel hybrid. HEV has both an
ICE and an electric motor. In this types of electric cars, internal combustion engine gets
energy from fuel (gasoline and others type of fuels), while the motor gets electricity from
batteries. The gasoline engine and electric motor simultaneously rotate the transmission,
which drives the wheels. The difference between HEV compared to BEV and PHEV is where
the batteries in HEV can only charge by the ICE, the motion of the wheels or a combination
of both. There is no charging port, so that the battery cannot be recharged from outside of the
system, for example from the electricity grid. Has a fuel tank that supplies gas to the engine
like a regular car. It also has a set of batteries that run an electric motor. Both the engine and
electric motor can turn the transmission at the same time.

FUEL-CELL ELECTRICAL VEHICLE:

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), also known as fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) or Zero
Emission Vehicle, are types of electric cars that employ ‘fuel cell technology’ to generate the
electricity required to run the vehicle. In this type of vehicles, the chemical energy of the fuel
is converted directly into electric energy. The working principle of a ‘fuel cell’ electric car is
different compared to that of a ‘plug-in’ electric car. This type of electric cars is because the
FCEV generates the electricity required to run this vehicle on the vehicle itself.

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2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HYBRID ELECTRICAL VEHICLE:

SERIES HEV

HYBRID
ELECTRICAL
VEHICLES

SERIES AND
PARLLEL
PARLLEL
HEV
HEV

SERIES HYBRID ELECTRICAL VEHICLE:

A series hybrid is like a battery electric vehicle (BEV) in design. Here, the combustion
engine drives an electric generator instead of directly driving the wheels. The generator both
charges a battery and powers an electric motor that moves the vehicle. When large amounts
of power are required, the motor draws electricity from both the battery and the generator.

PARLLEL HYBRID ELECTRICAL VEHICLE:

A parallel hybrid is propelled by both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric
motor connected to a mechanical transmission. Power distribution between the engine and
the motor is varied so both run in their optimum operating region as much as possible. There

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is no separate generator in a parallel hybrid. Whenever the generator's operation is needed,
the motor functions as generator. In a parallel mild hybrid, the vehicle can never drive in pure
electric mode. The electric motor turns on only when a boost is needed

SERIES-PARLLEL HYBRID ELECTRICAL VEHICLE:

The vehicle can be powered by the gasoline engine working alone, the electric motor by
itself, or by both energy converters working together. Power distribution between the engine
and motor is designed so that the engine can run in its optimum operating range as much as
possible.

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 3.TYPES OF MOTORS

MOTOR

INDUCTION
DC MOTOR
MOTOR

IPM PMSM BLDC APMDC

MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR

3.1DC MOTOR:
A DC motor or direct current motor is an electrical machine that transforms electrical energy
into mechanical energy by creating a magnetic field that is powered by direct current. When a
DC motor is powered, a magnetic field is created in its stator. The field attracts and repels
magnets on the rotor; this causes the rotor to rotate. To keep the rotor continually rotating, the
commutator that is attached to brushes connected to the power source supply current to the
motors wire windings.

BLDC MOTOR:
Brushless DC motors, known as BLDC motors, are a permanent magnet synchronous electric
motor driven by direct current and an electronically controlled commutation system, the
process of producing rotational torque by changing phase currents. They are also referred to
as trapezoidal permanent magnet motors. The electrical commutation by a BLDC motor is
what differentiates it from brushed DC motors that operate by mechanical contact on a rotor.
A BLDC motor includes a magnet rotor and a stator with a sequence of coils. The permanent
magnet rotates while current carrying conductors are fixed in position. The armature coils are

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switched electronically by transistors at the correct rotor position. The created force causes
the rotor to rotate. Hall sensors sense the position of the rotor and are placed on the stator.
The feedback position of the rotor from the sensors determines when to switch the current of
the armature. The design of brushless DC motors eliminates the need for brushes and makes
BLDC motors quieter and more reliable with an efficiency rating of 85 to 90 percent. The
elimination of brushes removes the wear and tear that brushes experience since very little
heat is produced by the rotating magnet.

PMDC MOTOR:
A permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor is a type of DC motor whose field poles are made
up of permanent magnets. In a PMDC motor, the permanent magnet poles are radially
magnetised and mounted on the inner periphery of the stator of the motor. The stator also
serves as a return path for the magnetic flux. The rotor of the PMDC motor has a
conventional DC armature with commutator and brushes.
In a permanent magnet DC motor, the torque is produced by the interaction between axial
current carrying rotor conductors and the magnetic flux produced by the permanent magnetic
poles.
The equivalent circuit of a PMDC motor is shown in Figure-2. As the field flux in a
permanent magnet DC motor is produced by permanent magnets, hence, the field winding is
not shown in the equivalent circuit.
3.2INDUCTION MOTOR:
An induction motor (also known as an asynchronous motor) is a commonly used AC electric
motor. In an induction motor, the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is
obtained via electromagnetic induction from the rotating magnetic field of the stator winding.
The rotor of an induction motor can be a squirrel cage rotor or wound type rotor. Induction
motors are referred to as ‘asynchronous motors’ because they operate at a speed less than
their synchronous speed.

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PMSM MOTOR:
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) is brushless and has very high reliability
and efficiency. Due to its permanent magnet rotor, it also has a high torque with a small
frame size and no rotor current. Instead of using winding for the rotor, permanent magnets
are mounted to create a rotating magnetic field. As there is no supply of DC source, these
types of motors are very simple and less cost. The permanent magnet synchronous motors are
AC synchronous motor whose field excitation is provided by permanent magnets and that has
a sinusoidal back EMF waveform. The permanent magnets enable the PMSM to generate
torque at zero speed. This motor delivers high-efficiency operations and requires a digitally
controlled inverter.

IPM MOTOR:
For long drives at cruise speed, losing 3% to 4% of energy to generate currents in the rotor
bars is not up to the mark. That's why to overcome this issue Tesla engineers have replaced it
with a PM.  If they use it, they do not experience energy loss in the rotor. There is no need
to generate current, also it produces good torque at high speed.  But here we also have
another issue, back EMF and eddy currents losses. The solution is here, an integration of a
SynRM motor and a permanent magnet motor is used. The PM motor is good for high speed,
whereas SynRM is efficient and it has no back EMF issue. The Magnet has been placed into
the slotted cuts of the SynRM motor, deep within the iron core. This placement will help to
reduce back EMF issues on the stator windings to major extend. This design is the Tesla
Model 3’s Electric motor.

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 4.FUEL CELLS AND TYPES

GALVANIC
FUEL CELL

HYDROGEN FUEL ALKALINE

FUEL CELL
CELLS FUEL CELL

PROTON
EXCHANGE
MEMBRANE
FUEL CELL

FUEL CELL:
A fuel cell is a device which is used to convert the chemical energy into the electrical energy.
HYDROGEN FUEL CELL:

Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity using a chemical reaction. Each fuel cell has two
electrodes; a negative anode and a positive cathode. The reaction to produce the electricity
happens at these electrodes, with an electrolyte carrying electrically charged particles
between them and a catalyst to speed up the reactions. Hydrogen acts as the basic fuel in a
hydrogen fuel cell, but the cell also needs oxygen to work. One of the largest advantages of
these fuel cells is that they generate electricity with very little pollution, as the hydrogen and
oxygen used to generate the electricity combines to produce water as a by-product. Cells that

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use pure hydrogen as fuel are completely carbon-free. Other types of fuel cell system include
those that use hydrocarbon fuels like natural gas, biogas, or methanol. Because fuel cells use
an electrochemical reaction rather than combustion, they can achieve higher efficiencies than
with traditional energy production methods. 

ALKALINE FUEL CELL:

Low temperature aqueous alkaline electrolyte cells have the advantage of being able to start
up easily from cold, and operate usually at 60-80 °C, where the water vapour pressure of the
electrolyte is appropriately high for a controlled removal rate. At these temperatures, highly
active catalysts are required, usually of the platinum family. Silver and high-surface nickel
have been used, however, as catalysts in this system; nickel is conventionally used as a
conducting structural material. Cheaper catalysts normally require higher operating
temperatures; the Bacon cell is an example of a nickel catalyst used at 200-250 °C. At these
temperatures, either a high pressure must be applied to the system or highly concentrated
solutions must be used to prevent water loss. High-pressure systems are not suitable for air
operation, due to the high pumping energy required, whereas high concentration may cause
corrosion, which restricts the choice of construction materials. The intolerance of this type of
cell to carbon dioxide is a major problem; it restricts the choice of fuel to pure hydrogen of
hydrazine, and requires that the air filter removes 0.04% of the CO2 present in the air. The
internal reforming cell is an attempt to get rid of this problem: the fuel electrode is made of
palladium plus silver, and the fuel is either alcohol or a hydrocarbon which is reformed with
steam on a nickel catalyst on one side of the electrode. The hydrogen formed passes through
the electrode and reacts with the electrolyte, but the palladium prevents the CO2 to passes
through and get into the electrolyte.

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GALVANIC FUEL CELL:
A galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell which is allowed to function spontaneously. This
may be in the direction as written in the cell diagram or in the opposite direction. In a
galvanic cell, the two electrodes must be joined externally to complete the electrical circuit
with an external load to avoid short circuit. In this way, this current can be harnessed and be
used to furnish electrical energy in batteries or fuel cells. Thus, the energetically favourable
conversion of chemical substances gives rise to electrical energy. If the two half-reactions
were not separated spatially, then this energy would be liberated as heat. Corrosion is
spontaneous but the electrical circuit is formed without external intervention between anodic
and cathodic sites.

PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL:

The proton exchange membrane fuel cell is unusual in that its electrolyte consists of a layer
of solid polymer which allows protons to be transmitted from one face to the other. It
basically requires hydrogen and oxygen as its inputs, though the oxidant may also be ambient
air, and these gases must be humidified. It operates at a low temperature because of the
limitations imposed by the thermal properties of the membrane itself. The operating
temperatures are around 90 °C. The PEMFC can be contaminated by carbon monoxide,
reducing the performance by several percent for contaminant in the fuel in ranges of tens of
percent. It requires cooling and management of the exhaust water in order to function
properly. There are a number of companies involved in manufacturing PEMFC. Ballard are
probably the leaders, though companies such as DeNora in Italy and Siemens are progressing
fast. The main focus of current designs is transport applications, as there are advantages to
having a solid electrolyte for safety, and the heat produced by the fuel cell is not adequate for
any form of cogeneration. Daimler-Benz has taken a high profile in developing cars powered
by Ballard fuel cells, while Toyota has recently presented a vehicle that is using a fuel cell of
their own design. Other car manufacturers, including General Motors and Ford, are actively
engaged in similar developments. It now appears, however, that there is a strong possibility
of using the PEMFC in very small-scale localised power generation, where the heat could be
used for hot water or space heating. There is also the possibility of a heater/chiller unit for
cooling in areas where air conditioning is popular. If it does prove possible to use this
particular type of fuel cell for both transport and power generation, then the advantages
generated by economies of scale and synergy between the two markets could make the
introduction of the technology easier than in other cases.

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 5.ELECTRICAL VEHICLE THERMAL SYSTEM

This system maintains a proper operating temperature range of the engine, electric motor,
power electronics, and other components. The developed battery thermal management system
is a combination of thermoelectric cooling, forced air cooling, and liquid cooling. The liquid
coolant has indirect contact with the battery and acts as the medium to remove the heat
generated from the battery during operation. Thermal management systems in electric
vehicles are generally more complex than in conventional vehicles featuring combustion
engines. The axle, for example, must be cooled at all times while the battery needs to be
cooled or heated depending on the respective situation.
PELTIER EFFECT:
Thermoelectric coolers operate according to the Peltier effect. The effect creates a
temperature difference by transferring heat between two electrical junctions. A voltage is
applied across joined conductors to create an electric current. When the current flows through
the junctions of the two conductors, heat is removed at one junction and cooling occurs. Heat
is deposited at the other junction. The main application of the Peltier effect is cooling.
However, the Peltier effect can also be used for heating or control of temperature. In every
case, a DC voltage is required

5.1 ELECTRICAL SAFTEY SYSTEM:

Protection against electric shocks Voltage levels on board electric vehicles Typical voltage
levels on electric vehicles are as follows:
 48-120 V for cars and small vans
 96-240 V for large vans
 300-600 V for buses
For AC drives, which are gaining an increasing popularity, higher voltage levels are used;
200 V or more may be encountered even on small vehicles. These voltage levels are to be
compared with the safety voltage levels.
PROTECTION AGAINST DIRECT CONTACT:
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Live parts of the electric traction system should be protected against direct contact by persons
in or outside the vehicle, through insulation or inaccessible position. Insulation such as
varnish, enamel, coatings… are not considered to be insulation as required for protection
against direct contact.
PROTECTION AGAINST INDIRECT CONTACT:
The problem of indirect contacts is closely related to the problem of frame faults. Any spurious
connection between the traction circuit and the vehicle frame is regarded as a fault. Frame faults
can lead to several hazards:

 short circuits
 electrocution uncontrolled operation Following measures should be taken to avoid
these hazards. A fuse shall be built inside the battery pack, preferably in the electrical
centre of the battery the vehicle frame shall be isolated from the traction circuit and
shall not form any part of the power electrical circuit all conductive parts of the
vehicle, particularly accessible parts or parts adjacent to electrical equipment shall be
connected with an equipotential connection. frame fault leakage detection shall be
included in routine maintenance; permanent frame fault monitoring is mandatory for
certain vehicles.
SYSTEM ACTIVATION:
An electric vehicle standing still is in most cases completely silent. To prevent movement
through unintentional actuating of the traction circuit, a warning device shall be present.
POWER ON PROCEDURE:
To avoid possible damage through excessive torque, overcurrent or fierce accelerations, the
power on procedure must be adequately organised: it shall be impossible to activate the
controller with the accelerator depressed. Any unintentional movement of the vehicle during
start-up shall be avoided.
FAIL SAFE OPERATION:
Electromagnetic compatibility Electromagnetic interference, generated externally or by the
controller itself, must not adversely affect controller operation. The controller must be
designed in conjunction with the rest of the vehicle in such a way that no unwanted radiations
are generated.
AUXILIARY NETWORK:
The auxiliary network is used for lighting, windscreen wipers and other similar loads. It is fed
by the traction battery through a DC/DC converter; this should be designed with galvanic
isolation. In most vehicles, an auxiliary battery is also present. The auxiliary battery can be
dispensed with if the DC/DC converter is powerful and reliable to ensure safe operation of
the auxiliary loads in all conditions.
OVERSPEEDING:

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Electric motors, particularly direct-current motors, can be liable to over speeding damage.
Over speeding is mostly caused by excessive downhill speed, but can also be caused by
excitation failure.

CONCLUSION

I conclude that the internship that I have did is very useful and I found at what area I’m
lacking of and my strengths. And this internship helps me to improve my knowledge in
electrical background as well. And I have achieved many of my learning goals. I have spread
my wings on the other side of my comfort. And this really helped me to learn new concepts
and given a chance to experience the assembly work for a moped and allows me to visualize
the real time working of the motor.

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THANK YOU

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