Ecology for

Agriculture
Professor Daniele Antichi
Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa

Phone: 0039-050-2218962
Unimap: https://unimap.unipi.it/cercapersone/dettaglio.php?ri=4520
ResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniele-Antichi
ORCID: 0000-0002-5520-2510

Email: daniele.antichi@unipi.it

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Ecosystem definitions

The structure of Habitat (biotope)

Ecosystems Biocenosis

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Definitions of Ecosystems

Tansley (UK), 1935

«the whole system (in the sense of physics) including not only the
organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors
forming what we call the environment of the biome-the habitat factors
in the widest sense. Though the organisms may claim our primary
interest, when we are trying to think fundamentally we cannot
separate them from their special environment, with which they form
one physical system. It is the systems so formed which, from the point
of view of the ecologist, are the basic units of nature on the face of the
Earth»

This was the first organic definition of ecosystem.

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Biocenosis
First definition by Mobius (1877) -> the biotic community
living in a given environment and made by all the living
organisms in the ecosystem.

Group of living beings corresponding, based on its

composition (in terms of number of species and individuals),
to certain mean conditions of a given environment.

Group of individuals bound by mutual dependency that self-

sustain regularly, in a given context, in a permanent way.

If one of the physical average conditions would change or a

given species increase/decrease in number of individuals or
disappear, all the biocenosis would be transformed.

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Biotope and Biocenosis
1. Biotope and biocenosis are inseparable, interact to each
other and mutually affect each other continuously over
time -> the ecosystem characteristics stay unchanged;
2. The most qualifying aspect of an ecosystem is the
functional relationships among its organic and inorganic
components;
3. The ecosystem is shaped by these interactions and,
consequently, develop emerging properties that are
exclusive and peculiar;
4. Separing its components would result in the disappearance
of the ecosystem;
5. The relationships among living and unliving components
allow the first to grow up and to reproduce indefinitely
just by exploiting the environmental resources available.

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Autotrophs (Primary producers)
They use CO2 as C source for metabolic processes. All higher plants,
algae and cyanobacteria do photosynthesis -> few exceptions:
saprophytic and parasitic plants (Cuscuta, Orobanche.. -> do not have
chlorophyll as they feed on sap of other green plants)

Inorganic substances (CO2, NPK, Fe…) necessary to their survival are

extracted from the biotope and transformed into living organic matter
through:
1. photosynthesis (photo-autotrophic organisms)
2. chemiosynthesis (chemio-autotrophic organisms)

Energy needed for biosynthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, etc.

is obtained from:
1. solar radiation (photo-autotrophic organisms)
2. inorganic molecule oxidation (chemio-autotrophic organisms)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Eterotrophs (Consumers)
They need organic compounds for their nutrition and metabolism to
get:
1. Energy (from chemical bonds destruction);
2. C source;
3. Inorganic compounds.

They include: fungi, most bacteria and other microbes, all the animals

Organic matter could be living or dead (produced by autotrophs).

ssi m i l a t ion Organism

A
t io n Nutrients
ge s
Di Excr
FOOD et io n Urine
(Ingestion)
Useless/dangerous Egestion
substances
Faeces

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Eterotrophs (Consumers)
MACRO-CONSUMERS
• HERBIVORES (or phytophagous) -> feed on plant tissues
• CARNIVORES -> feed on other animals (either herbivores
or carnivores)
• OMNIVORES -> feed on plants and/or animals

MICRO-CONSUMERS (DETRITIVORES)
• SAPROPHAGUS -> feed on plant residues and animal
flesh (earthworms, acari, collembola, etc.)
• COPROPHAGUS -> feed on partially degraded organic
material

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Definition
Classification

Ecological factors Resources and conditions

The law of the minimum
Tolerance intervals
Ecological Valence
Environment, habitat, niche

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Ecological factors (EF)
Any physical, chemical or biological variable inthe
environment that can affect the life conditions of an
organism at level of entire life cycle or just single stages, by
modifying its:

a) Growth
b) Development
c) Density

Other longer term potential effects of EF:

a) Migrations
b) Morpho-physiological adaptations (e.g. regulation of
growing cycle -> hibernation, vernalisation..)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Ecological factors (EF)
Abiotic
• Climate
• Water: physio-chemical composition
• Soil: physio-chemical composition
• Light, O, CO2
• Temperatures Biotic
• pH • Individuals
• Salts • Populations
• Communities

Interactions

Interspecific
• Competition
Intraspecific • Predation
• Competition • Parasitism
• Symbiosis

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 EF: resources and conditions

RESOURCE
An EF that is favorable to the vital processes of an organism

CONDITIONS
An EF that is unfavorable to the vital processes of an
organism and that can affect its natural resource use

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 RESOURCES
Organisms and populations react to the availability of a given
resource by increasing their growing rate (quantitatively) up
to the optimal threshold.

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Conditions
CONDITIONS
EF that impede an optimal use of resources by an organism,
the potential productivity of which is then reduced

Conditions include:
• Limiting factors -> all the EF that are present in quantity
lower than needed by a given organism -> e.g. climatic ER:
light; chemicals: nutrients
• Reducing factors -> all the EF that reduce the productivity
of an organism after it reached its potential, then affecting
current and future actual productivity -> weather,
predators, parasites…

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Conditions

EF limiting growth since the EF limiting growth for

beginning of the cycle depletion
(limiting condition) (reducing condition)

Time Time
Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
 Limiting Conditions: Law of the Minimum

Justus von Liebig, 1840

• every organism to survive and
develop in a given environment
should have availability of those
elements and substances needed for
its growth and reproduction. These
vary upon environments and species.
• the growth of a plant is dictated not
by total resources available, but by
the scarcest resource (limiting factor)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Limiting Conditions: Law of the Minimum

The Law of the Minimum is valid only:

1. in absence of any interaction among factors;

2. in absence of any replacement of the factors (for essential
EF is always valid);
3. in conditions of stationary equilibrium.

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Interaction and replaceability
INTERACTION
If the presence of a Factor A causes a change in the effect of
Factor B:

Positive -> COMPLEMENTARITY (complementary factors)

Negative -> ANTAGONISM (antagonist factors)

REPLACEABILITY
If the presence of a Factor A is scarce, the organisms can use in
its place, at least partially, another similar factor (Factor B), then
making indirectly increased the environmental availability of
the resources

e.g. some shellfish can replace Ca with other minerals to build their shell

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Stationary equilibrium

Stationary equilibrium: when ALL the resources needed by an

organism and those available in the environment are constant
over time (normally a long time period)

Example
Autotrophs development in a lake ecosystem is constrained by
CO2 concentration in the water -> this amount is in equilibrium
with the CO2 developed by the degradation of organic material.

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Essential EF

In natural ecosystems, resources can be classified as essential or

not essential.

A resource is essential if:

- Its absence causes anomalous growth or impedes completion

of lifecycle -> death
- The function it plays is highly specific and cannot be played
by any other EF (no replaceability) –> e.g. N for protein
building, Mg for chlorophyll

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 The Law of Tolerance
Every species can grow and reproduce only within a given
interval of climatic and edaphic conditions.

For each EF, every species has its minimum and maximum
need, respectively below and over which it can’t survive
(critical levels).

These levels are called tolerance limits and their difference is

called tolerance interval.

- the tolerance interval can be wide for an EF and narrow for

others;
- the narrower the tolerance interval, the lower the
geographical distribution of a species
Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
 Tolerance intervals
Optimal level of an EF
The level of the factor at which the activity of the organism is
maximum

Optimal armonic level of an EF

The level of the factor at which the specific function is at the
optimal level in consistence with other functions

Max and Min limits

The levels of an EF above and below which a process is stopped

Critical levels
The limits over which an organism is hampered and damaged
irreversibly

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Variation of an EF intensity

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 The Law of Tolerance

The tolerance limits vary upon the life cycle of a given

organism

a. iuvenile, seeds, embryos, eggs normally have narrower

tolerance ranges;

b. reproductive stages normally have narrower tolerance

ranges (e.g. maize at flowering and heat stress);

c. the tolerance to environmental conditions may change

dramatically from iuvenile to adult stages (e.g. resistance to
salty water in alevins of salmons)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Ecological Valence (EV)

Concept linked to tolerance

EV of a species is its capacity to adapt to a range of

environmental conditions differing for one or, generally,
more than one EF interacting to each other

It describes the capacity of a given species to occupy different

environments

Low: steno-…(e.g. halin, therm..)

High: eury-…(e.g. halin, therm..)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

Ecological Valence (EV) variation

Optimal level of valence

a: stenök (micro-ökie)
b: stenök (macro-ökie)
c: euryök

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Ecological Valence (EV)

Narrow tolerance range à specialised forms (max fitness but

low adaptability)

Wide tolerance range à adaptive forms (lower fitness and

efficiency but high adaptability)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 EF classification

We can classify EF based on:

a) Nature
ABIOTIC FACTORS à affect all individuals of the same
species

BIOTIC FACTORS à affect individuals differently

b) Recurrence
PERIODIC FACTORS à primary/secondary

NON-PERIODIC FACTORS

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 PRIMARY PERIODIC EF

• Vary over time REGULARLY, also in the long term (small

oscillations)
• Periodicity: annual, seasonal, daily…
• E.g. photoperiod, solar radiation, temperature, tides
• Can affect individuals’ ADAPTATION
• Depend on CLIMATIC FACTORS (either cosmic and
geographical)

• Identify big areas that are homogeneous from the climatic

point of view and define the boundaries of species
distribution (BIOMES)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 SECONDARY PERIODIC EF

• Vary over time REGULARLY but with short-term

oscillations
• Periodicity: annual, seasonal, daily…
• Variations depend on primary periodic factors
• E.g. all climatic elements but radiation, wind, temperature
• Can affect individuals’ ADAPTATION in the short term
(less precise)
• Tolerance range less defined

• Modify the ABUNDANCE of a species within its distribution

areas but NOT THE SIZE OF DISTRIBUTION AREAS

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 NON-PERIODIC EF

• Can occur SUDDENLY and/or OCCASIONALLY

• Normally have high intensity
• Due to abiotic or biotic factors
• E.g. storms (hail, wind, thunder, dust…), human activities,
predation, parasitism, diseases
• Cannot affect individuals’ ADAPTATION (no time to react)

• Modify the NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS in a given area,

NOT DISTRIBUTION AREAS NOR LIFE CYCLE

• Some EF can move from non-periodic to secondary periodic

if long lasting (e.g. repeated applications of pesticides à
resistence)

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 EFFECTS OF EF

Elimination of species from Geographic

environments with unsuitable distribution of
physical conditions species

Changes in growth, mortality, Migration; population

birth, reproductive rates of density
species (life cycle length)

Hibernation,
Appearence of adaptive aestivation,
morphological and photoperiodical and
physiological modifications thermoperiodical
reactions
Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
 Environment and Habitat

• ENVIRONMENT
Physical (Temperature, Pressure, etc.), chemical (pH, [salts],
etc.) and biological conditions for life;

Ensemble of all the physical, chemical and biological conditions

where an individual, a population, a community can live;

Ensemble of the external conditions that an organism can,

consciously or unconsciously, perceive and that affect its
growth, development and activities.

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Environment and Habitat
• HABITAT
The space, characterised by homogeneous physical, chemical
and biological factors, where an organism can live in
equilibrium with these factors à an organism habitat can be
different areas

Ensemble of physical and chemical environmental conditions

where an organism grows and accomplish with its own life
functions à all the organisms living in one habitat =
COMMUNITY

A habitat is always an environment, but not vice versa

A habitat always hosts life, an environment not always
An environment rules over the habitat properties, but not vice
versa
Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
 Ecological Niche
An ecological niche entails:
1. The spatial position occupied by the species in its habitat;
2. The ecological conditions within which a given species is
able to exploit energy and material resources such as to
reproduce and survive biotic and abiotic stressors;
3. The natural resources exploited by the species in its habitat:
trophic and spatial resources

In general, an ecological niche could be defined as the

ensemble of particular physio-chemical conditions and biotic
relationships, interacting to each others, in the frame of which
a given species:
- uses certain materials, energy and space,
- adapt itself,
- is predated by other species
Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023
 Ecological Niche

According to modern definitions, a niche is not only an

environmental property, but it also entails the role played by
the organism in the environment.

Normally, two organisms cannot occupy really the same niche

à there might be shifting in access to resources or competition
(e.g. predators in Savannah).

Predation and competition regulate the occurrence of several

species in the same niche, characterised by essential EF

Foundation Course – University of Pisa A.Y. 2022/2023

 Ecological Niche

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