The Physics of Fitness

Chapter Two
Active Levers and Neutral Levers

A lever that is perfectly parallel with the direction of resistance is

“neutral”. It does not require any force to hold it in that position. It is
balanced, either over its base or under its pivot.

Conversely, a lever that is perfectly perpendicular with the direction of

resistance is fully “active”. It is at its “heaviest” at that position, in
terms of the effort required to hold it there (other factors being equal).

Therefore, an exercise for a given target muscle, should (ideally

speaking) allow that muscle’s operating lever to encounter a mostly
“active” position, somewhere in its range of motion. This would allow
the target muscle to be loaded with all or most of the available
resistance.

Varying degrees of inefficiency occur when an exercise that does NOT

allow a target muscle’s operating lever to interact with resistance
perpendicularly.

A lever that is mostly “neutral” only loads its operating muscle with a
small percentage of the available resistance. Therefore, one must use
much more weight than is necessary, in order to adequately challenge
the muscle that operates that lever.

- - - - - -
The definition of “efficiency”, as per the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, is: “effective
operation as measured by a comparison of productivity versus cost (effort, time
and/or money)”. In other words, “efficiency” - in the pursuit of muscle growth - means
getting the most amount of muscle load, with the least amount of weight used, and the
least injury risk. “Inefficiency” would be defined as using more weight but without more
load to the target muscle - resulting in wasted effort.

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In the previous chapter, we learned that the amount of muscle force required to move
a weight held by a lever, is greater than the actual amount of weight being used. The
lever “magnifies” the weight that is on the lever, in proportion with the length of the
lever.

In this chapter, we are learning that the amount of resistance that a weighted lever loads
onto its operating muscle also depends on the position of that lever, relative to the
direction of resistance.

In the illustration above-left, the lever is perpendicular with gravity - which makes it a
fully “active” lever. This lever position results in the “heaviest” load to the muscle that
holds the lever (i.e., 100% of the available resistance).

In the illustration above-right, that same lever is parallel with gravity - which makes it a
fully “neutral” lever. This position results in the “lightest” load to the muscle that holds
the lever (i.e., zero resistance).

Regardless of how much weight is placed on the lever - it will always be NEUTRAL,
when that lever is perfectly parallel with gravity (or whatever the direction of resistance
happens to be during that exercise). It requires NO force to hold the lever in that
position. It is balanced directly over (or under) the pivot.

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Therefore, the most efficient exercises are the ones that allow the operating lever of a
target muscle (i.e., the forearm, as the operating lever of the Triceps, for example) to go
through a fully or mostly “active” position, somewhere in the range of motion.
Exercises that are less efficient do not provide an opportunity for the operating lever to
go through a mostly “active” position, somewhere in the range of motion. Some
exercises are extremely in-efficient because the operating lever of the target muscle is
mostly “neutral” through the entire range of motion.

Comparing an Efficient Lever with an Inefficient Lever

Let’s say we want to work our TRICEPS muscle. Below, we see a standard “Supine
Dumbbell Triceps Extension”. Let’s assume this person is using a 20 pound dumbbell in
each hand.

In the above illustration, the forearm (which is the “operating lever” of the Triceps)
moves from a position that is just below horizontal (above-left), up to a position that is
almost completely vertical (above-right).

Even though we cannot see gravity, we know that it always pulls straight down. In
reference to a clock, “free weight gravity” always pulls in a 6:00 direction. For clarity,
I’ve placed a downward arrow in the photos above, indicating the direction of gravity.
This way, you can compare the angle of the forearm, relative to the “direction of
resistance”.

(Note: When using a cable, the “direction of resistance” is toward the pulley, even though gravity
pulls the weight stack straight down.)

When the forearm is horizontal, it is PERPENDICULAR with gravity - and that would
make it fully “active”, at that point. A lever that is perpendicular with resistance is a

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“100% lever” - all of the “available resistance” is loading the muscle which operates
that lever. In this case, it’s the Triceps. Then, as the forearm approaches the end of its
range of motion, it culminates in a near vertical position. At that point, it is almost
parallel with gravity, and therefore mostly “neutral”. A fully neutral lever provides
ZERO load to the muscle that operates it.

Now, let’s do a bit of math to see (approximately) how much resistance each 20 pound
dumbbell loads onto each Triceps, in the exercise above, when the forearm is horizontal
(fully “active”). Keep in mind, the following calculation is a simplified formula. The exact
calculation requires Trigonometry, but it’s not necessary for our purposes. This
simplified method is accurate enough to give us a sense of how this exercise compares
to another exercise - for the benefit of the Triceps.

The average length of an adult male forearm, plus a bit of the hand, is approximately 14
inches. So, any weight held in the hand would be magnified by a factor of
approximately 12 (allowing for a two inch “force arm”) - when the forearm is
perpendicular with resistance. Therefore, we multiply the 20 pound weight by a factor of
12, which equals 240 pounds, and then we multiply it by 100% - because the forearm is
acting as a fully active lever. Multiplying by 100% essentially means that there’s no
“reduction” of resistance.

So, 240 pounds is approximately how much load is loaded onto each Triceps, when a
person uses a 20 pound dumbbell on this exercise (above), and the forearm is at the
most “active” position - perpendicular with gravity.

(Note: There is an additional factor which further magnifies resistance - known as “mechanical
“disadvantage” - which will be discussed in the next chapter. But, for the sake of simplicity, we’ll
assume here that the only magnifier is the forearm length).

- - - - - - - - - -

Now - as a comparison - let’s look the exercise below - Parallel Bar Dips.

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In the photo above-left, we can see that this person’s elbow is bent at approximately
90 degrees, which is the same degree of bend that occurs in the descended position of
the Supine Dumbbell Triceps Extensions. However, during this exercise, the
forearm is mostly parallel with gravity, at the same degree of elbow bend. It only tilts
from the vertical (neutral) position by approximately 10 degrees - if that.

The illustration above-right, is a graph I made to show that the vertical position (90
degrees from horiztonal) - is parallel with gravity, and is therefore “neutral”. The next
line (to the left) is the 80 degree angle, which is 10 degrees less than vertical. This
constitutes 11% of the distance between fully vertical and fully horizontal. Compare that
line, with the angle of the man’s forearm on the left.

So, if a horizontal lever is 100% “active”, and a 90 degree lever is completely “neutral”,
than an 80 degree lever is only 11% “active”.

This means that - during Parallel Bar Dips - the percentage of resistance that is loaded
onto the Triceps is only about 11% of that which is “available.”

Now, let’s do the (simplified) math on these figures.

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Let’s say this man (doing Parallel Bar Dips) weighs 180 pounds. He has two arms, so
that’s 90 pounds per arm. His forearm is the same length as the man doing the Supine
Dumbbell Triceps Extensions, so that results in a magnification factor of 12. He’s using
an 11% lever - so we’ll add these figures into the equation.

180 pounds (bodyweight) divided by 2 (arms) = 90 x 12 (forearm length magnification) x

11% = 118.8 pounds. Each Triceps is being loaded with about 119 pounds of
resistance, in the descended position.

Now, let’s compare the “efficiency” of each exercise. In the first exercise, the man was
lifting a total weight of 40 pounds (two 20 pound dumbbells), which resulted in each of
his Triceps being loaded with 240 pounds. In the second exercise, the man was lifting
his entire bodyweight of 180 pounds, which resulted in each of his Triceps being loaded
with 119 pounds.

Parallel Bar Dips requires the man to use 4.5 times MORE resistance (180 pounds)
than when he is doing Supine Dumbbell Triceps Extension (40 pounds) - but he is
loading his Triceps with less than HALF as much load (119 poudns) as compared with
Supine Dumbbell Triceps Extensions (240 pounds). See the cost / benefit difference?

It should be obvious which is the “better” (more efficient) Triceps exercise, when we
examine the physics of each. The reason Parallel Bar Dips rate so poorly as a Triceps
exercise, is because the forearm (as the operating lever of the Triceps) is barely “active”
throughout the entire range of motion. It is only able to deliver 11% of the available
resistance to the Triceps.

- - - - - -
I’m sure some of you are now thinking that this exercise FEELS like it’s providing more
load than just 119 pounds. And you are correct. 119 pounds is only what is being
loaded onto each Triceps. 180 pounds is certainly much heavier than the 40 pounds
used in the first exercise, so doing Dips would naturally feel much more difficult, than
would Supine Dumbbell Triceps Extensions. In fact, just holding your bodyweight at the
top of the Dipping Bars (below-left) is challenging, even though neither the forearm nor
the upper arm levers are “active” (perpendicular with gravity). There is an enormous
amount of vertical pressure on the arm bones, wrists and hands - even without
descending into the movement.

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In the photo above-right, I’ve place a line that is parallel with this man’s humerus (upper
arm bone), and an arrow indicating the direction of resistance. This shows that the
HUMERUS is very “active” in the descended position. The humerus mostly loads the
Pecs when the elbows are wide, but it mostly loads the Anterior Deltoids when the
elbows are “back”, as occurs during Parallel Bar Dips.

You might now be thinking, “great - I could use some Anterior Deltoid development”.
However, body weight is arguably “too much” resistance for Anterior Deltoid. The
pathway of humeral movement during Parallel Bar Dips is not ideal for the Pectoral
fibers - so it’s compromised as a Pectoral exercise. There are far better Pectoral
exercises, and there are also much better (and safer) Anterior Deltoid exercises.

So, what we have here, with Parallel Bar Dips, is an inefficient lever loading the Triceps,
and an efficient lever over-loading the Anterior Deltoids. We also have a “less than
ideal” humeral pathway compromising the potential Pectoral benefit.

- - - - - -
Below is another example of an exercise that is intended as a Triceps exercise, but
proves to be very inefficient in that effort, because the forearm (as the operating lever
of the Triceps) is mostly in the neutral position throughout the entire range of motion.

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Known as “Bench Dips”, this exercise also causes the operating lever of the Triceps -
the forearm - to be mostly parallel with resistance (gravity), rather than mostly
perpendicular with it. It causes the upper arm bone / lever (the humerus) to be the
more active lever. This (again) causes the majority of the load to be placed on the
Anterior Deltoid, even though that is not the intended goal of this exercise.

In addition, this exercise over-stretches the Anterior Deltoids even more than occurs
when doing Parallel Bar Dips. This should be fairly obvious, based on the fact that the
hands are constantly behind the torso. With Parallel Bar Dips, at least they are mostly
alongside the torso.

Bench Dips is mostly unproductive for Triceps, and it could easily strain the Anterior
Deltoids. When one understands the difference between an active lever and a neutral
lever, this is very obvious when looking at an exercise like the one above.

- - - - - -
Assessing Exercise Efficiency
When assessing a resistance exercise, one of the most important things to identify is
which levers are more perpendicular with resistance, and which are less perpendicular,

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through the range of motion of that exercise. However, identifying this - and putting it
into context - requires that two other factors be known:

1. The direction of resistance (“free weight” gravity, cables, or machine)

2. The muscles which operate those levers

As a prelude to the Anatomy Section, and for the purpose of fully grasping this concept
of “active” and “neutral” levers in exercise assessment, here is a basic list of Physique
Muscles and their corresponding Operating Levers. This helps with item #2 above -
knowing which muscles are operating the levers that are moving during an exercise.

Muscle Operating Lever

Pectorals Humerus (upper arm bone)

Lats Humerus (upper arm bone)
Deltoids (lateral, posterior& anterior) Humerus (upper arm bone)
Trapezius Scapula / Clavicle (shoulder carriage)
Biceps Radius / Ulna (forearm)
Triceps Radius / Ulna (forearm)
Quadriceps Tibia / Fibula (lower leg)
Hamstrings Tibia / Fibula (lower leg)
Glutes Femur (upper leg bone)
Hip Flexors Femur (upper leg bone)
Calves Foot
Forearms (flexors / extensors) Hand
Obliques Spine / torso / pelvis
Abdominals Spine / torso / pelvis
Erector Spinae Spine / torso / pelvis

A limb (e.g., upper arm, forearm, femur, etc.) is usually “operated” by more than one
muscle. For example, the humerus (upper arm lever) is “operated” (moved) by the
Pecs, the Lats, the Deltoids (in 3 directions) and other smaller muscles. So, it’s easy to
become confused as to which muscle is actually “working” when the upper arm is
moving.

In order to know which muscle is moving a limb (the humerus, for example), we simply
need to identify which muscle origin that limb is moving toward, when it is moving
concentrically. For example, if we move the humerus toward the sternum, we can say

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it’s the Pectorals that are causing that to happen. If we move the humerus laterally (to
the sides), we can say it’s the Lateral Deltoids causing that to happen, because the
humerus is moving toward the origin of the Lateral Deltoids. Again, muscles always pull
their corresponding limbs TOWARD their origins.

- - - - - -
Supine Dumbbell Press
(as a Pectoral exercise)

As we’ll learn with more clarity in the Anatomy chapters of this book, the “operating
lever” of the Pectoralis major is the humerus (i.e., the upper arm bone). The origin of
the Pectoral fibers are mostly on the sternum (the “sternal fibers”), with some additional
fibers originating on the clavicle (the “clavicular fibers”) and some on the lower ribs (the
“costal fibers”). However, ALL the Pectoral fibers ultimately attach onto the humerus.
Therefore, contraction of any of the Pectoral fibers requires the use of the humerus, as
its operating lever.

One of the important questions to ask, when assessing this exercise, is “Does the
operating lever of the Pectoralis major (i.e., the humerus), encounter a mostly
perpendicular angle with the direction of resistance, during the range of motion?”. In the
exercise above (Supine Dumbbell Press), we see the answer is “yes”. That “encounter”
occurs when the humerus is parallel with the ground, in the descended position. This is
why this exercise is a considered a “good” Pectoral exercise.

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Is there a secondary lever in play here? Yes, the forearm is involved here, as a
secondary lever. Is that lever mostly “active”, or mostly “neutral”? It is mostly neutral,
because it is mostly parallel with resistance, and that is also good.

Again, there are other factors which also help determine whether this is a “great”
exercise or not. But the first thing to ascertain is whether or not the operating lever of
the Pectorals (which is the humerus) utilizes lever efficiency somewhere in the
exercise’s range of motion. It’s also important to ascertain whether another (non-target)
muscle’s operating lever is more active than that of the target muscle’s. If that occurs, it
would interfere with the loading of the Pecs.

- - - - - -
Hanging Leg Raises
(as an Abdominal exercise)

The primary objective of Hanging Leg Raises (shown above) is to work the abdominal
muscles - specifically, the Rectus abdominis - also known as the Abs.

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Is there an “active lever” here? Yes - it is the femurs (upper leg bones). The femur
bones cross the point that is perpendicular with gravity when they are horizontal. So the
femurs are fully active levers. HOWEVER, the femurs are not the operating lever of the
Abs. So, here’s a perfect example of the wrong lever being active, during an
exercise. The femurs (upper leg bones) are being raised by a different set of muscles,
known as the “hip flexors”.

So, what is the operating lever of the Abs (as per the list above) ? It is the spine /
pelvis. But neither the spine nor the pelvis are in an “active” position during a Hanging
Leg Raise. They are parallel, or mostly parallel with gravity - which means they are
neutral or mostly neutral. Therefore, this is exercise significantly compromised, as an
Abs exercise. There are other reasons as well, but this is the first strike against it.

The Rectus abdominis does not even connect to the legs, as you can see below. The
Abs originate on the pubic bone of the Pelvis, and attach on the bottom font portion of
the ribs. When this muscle contracts, it brings the ribcage toward the pelvis. This
requires flexion of the spine, and does NOT require flexion of the hip (as occurs during
Hanging Leg Raises). Yes, there is a tiny bit of spinal flexion that occurs during
Hanging Leg Raises, but not much. More importantly, the spine is NOT interacting
perpendicularly with gravity.

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So, this exercise fails miserably in both of these criteria. Instead of the primary lever
being most active, it is mostly neutral. And instead of the secondary lever being mostly
neutral, it’s entirely active.

Hanging Leg Raises is a very inefficient exercise. In fact, it could be called “one of the
LEAST efficient exercises” commonly performed in a fitness environment. The energy
cost is very high, and the benefit to the Abs is very low.

- - - - - -
Squats
(as a Quadriceps exercise)

The primary objective of performing weighted Squats is to work the Quadriceps,

followed closely behind (pun intended) by the Gluteus. So, the questions to ask here
are, “How active is the lower leg (as the operating lever of the Quads) and the upper leg
(as the operating lever of the Glutes)? Also, is there any other (non-target muscle’s)
lever that is more “active” than it should be?

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The illustration below shows a good perspective of the levers in play. Specifically, we’re
looking at the degrees of “perpendicular-ness” of each of these levers.

The tibia is tilting forward about 30 degrees from vertical - the protractor reads 60
degrees. This translates to about a 33% tilt (30 divided by 90 degrees). Therefore, we
could say that the Tibia is working with about 33% efficiency.

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The Femur (shown above) is slightly below horizontal - a bit beyond perpendicular with
gravity - so this lever could be called a 100% lever.

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The torso (shown above) is tilting about 30 degrees from vertical (60 degrees).
Therefore, we could say this lever is also about 33% active (30 divided by 90).

The higher the percentage of “active” a lever is, the greater the percentage of the
“available resistance" that will be loaded onto the muscle that operates that lever. Keep
in mind, however, that the “available resistance” also factors in the length of the lever.

For this reason, the Gluteus is not getting quite as much benefit (load) from a Squat as
it would appear. Even though the Femur is 100% active (when in the descended
position, like above), it is being effectively shortened by the “doubling back” of the Tibia
(the secondary lever, as discussed in the previous chapter). So, the Glutes are
working with a femur that is operating with about half its actual length, in this scenario.
Therefore, the femur is delivering 100% of a reduced load, to the Glutes.

The Tibia is about 33% efficient, in the descended position of the Squat, so it’s only
loading approximately 33% of the “available resistance” onto the Quadriceps.

Let’s do a bit of math. Let’s say a man is Squatting with 225 pounds on his back. His
primary goal (ostensibly) is to work his Quadriceps. His bodyweight is 200 pounds, but
only about 3/4 of that is the weight above his legs. So let’s figure that he is effectively
Squatting (150 + 225 =) 375 pounds. Since his Tibia (length) has a magnification factor
of (approximately) 20X, we’ll multiply 375 by 20 ( = 7,500 pounds) and then multiply that
by his 33% lever efficiency factor. It brings it down to 2,475 pounds total (divided by two
legs), which equals 1,238 pounds per Quadriceps.

That may seem like quite a lot of load on each Quadriceps. However, as we’ll soon see,
it’s not as much load as it could be, and the energy cost of that is also much higher than
it could be.

The forward tilt of his torso is like that of the Tibia - so it is equally “active” as the lever
that lever that loads the Quads. Howeve, his torso is a longer lever, than is his Tibia, so
it is magnifying the resistance more that the lever that load the Quads. The barbell is
resting at the very top of the torso lever, allowing the entire length of the torso to
magnify the forward force of the 225 lb. barbell. This means that his Erector Spinae (the
muscle operating the toro lever) are loaded more than are his Quads - even thought this
exercise is not meant as an Erector spinae exercise.

Here’s where we should ask, “Isn’t there a way of getting a greater percentage of the
available resistance to load onto the Quads, and less onto the Erector Spinae and the
spine?”. The answer is “yes”. Simply by changing the direction of resistance, so that
the Tibia (the lower leg) interacts more perpendicularly with resistance, than it does
during Barbell Squats.

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The photos above show a “Cable Squat”. Notice that the added resistance is now
coming from the cables, which are pulling in a frontward / downward direction. Of
course, our own bodyweight is still being pulled straight downward. But for the sake of
simplicity, let’s just say that all the resistance is coming from the cables. Look at the
photo above, farthest right. Notice that the Tibia is completely perpendicular with the
cable. At that point, the Tibia is acting with 100% efficiency.

In addition to the Quadriceps getting 100% of the available resistance, there is very little
downward loading on the spine. Certainly, there is no metal barbell pushing downward
directly on the vertebrae. Further, because the cable handles are held low, the effective
lever length of the torso is lessened, thereby causing less load on the Erector Spinae -
which is also good.

This exercise will be discussed a bit more in Chapter 22 - the section which discusses
Quadriceps. For now, let’s look at some other examples that utilize a fully active lever
(for the Quads), rather than a 33% active lever.

Leg Extensions (on a Leg Extension machine) applies its resistance 100%
perpendicularly against the lower leg - making the lower leg a 100% active lever. So, if
one is using only 150 pounds (75 pounds per ankle), it would load each Quadriceps
with 1,500 pounds (approximately). Compare that to the 1,238 pounds each
Quadriceps wold be getting when Squatting 225 pounds, and consider the difference in
“cost” between the two. Leg Extensions are much more efficient at delivering load to
the Quads, because less weight used still equals more load on the Quads.

Below we see a couple of photos of Rich Gaspari doing an exercise called “Sissy
Squats”, while holding a 25 pound plate on his chest. 25 pounds is significantly less
than the 225 pounds used in the Squat example above. Yet, he’s loading his
Quadriceps more with THIS exercise, than would a 225 pound Barbell Squat.

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Rich’s lower leg levers are almost horizontal (almost fully “active”) when he is in the
descended position. He’s about 5 degrees short of perfectly horizontal (assuming this is
as deep as he goes, in this range of motion). So, the Tibia here has about a 94%
efficiency.

Let’s use the same formula as above. Rich’s total bodyweight is about 200 lbs. (200 -
25% =), so we’ll use 150 as the bodyweight number. We’ll add the 25 pounds he’s
holding, so the total weight he’s using as “resistance” is about 175 pounds. We’ll
magnify that by the 20X figure (Tibia length), and then factor in the efficiency of 94%
(175 x 20 x .94 =). That comes to 3,290 pounds, divided by two legs, equals 1,645
pounds per Quadriceps.

That’s 407 pounds more than the Squat example above. The energy cost in this
exercise (“bodyweight Sissy Squats plus a 25 pound plate”) is also significantly less.
We used 375 pounds with the Barbell Squats, and only 175 pounds on the Sissy
Squats. That’s 53% less weight - which is 53% less energy cost.

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You see, the reason why a person is ABLE to Squat with so much weight (sometimes as
much as 500 pounds, or more), is PRECISELY because of the inefficiency of the Tibia
angle (33%), combined with the shortened Femur length (caused by the doubling-back of
the lower leg).

If the goal is simply “to move the most amount of weight” - even though it doesn’t load
any of the muscles involved as efficiently as possible - than doing heavy Squats is fine.
But, for the purpose of building muscle, it would be much wiser to use better mechanics.
You can load the target muscles MORE with less weight, and put LESS stress on the
bones, joints and non-target muscles.

- - - - - -
When a “Neutral” Lever Is Made Dangerously “Active”

We can use this concept (i.e., active lever versus neutral lever) to determine whether
an exercise is efficient, and we can also use it to determine whether an exercise has a
potential risk of injury.

For example, in Chapter One we discussed the issue of the secondary lever, in regards
to the Supine Dumbbell Press. We talked briefly about the internal and external rotation
of the humerus, caused by allowing the forearm to tilt toward the head or toward the
feet. Those were examples of “neutral levers made dangerously active”. During a
Supine Dumbbell Press, the ideal position for the forearm is to have it be perfectly
vertical (neutral), when viewed from the side.

Tilting the forearm toward the feet, causes the humerus to rotate “internally”, and
forces the “external shoulder rotators” (Infraspinatus and Teres minor) to become
loaded, in order to prevent further forward rotation. This could easily strain the smaller
rotator muscles, given the amount of weight that is typically used during a Supine
Dumbbell Press for the Pectorals.

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The same is also true for allowing the forearm to tilt toward the head, thereby causing
the humerus to rotate “externally”. This would force the internal shoulder rotator
(Subscapularis) to prevent further backward rotation of the humerus, which could strain
the smaller forward rotation muscle.

Below, we see a photo of Arnold Schwarzenegger doing a “Behind the Neck Press’, with
a barbell. Notice that his right forearm (actually both, but we can see the right forearm
more clearly) is tilting “externally” - toward the rear. This tilt is causing the forearm to be
“active” with an external rotational force. Externally rotating the humerus this much
(even without weight), inside the shoulder socket, is already very strenuous to the joint.
Adding a heavy load further exacerbates the problem.

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Below, we see an example of the forearm tilting toward the front, instead of toward the
rear.

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Since the humerus attaches to the torso alongside the head (not in front of, nor behind
the head), using a barbell automatically requires either a backward tilt to the forearms
(which requires “Behind the Neck Presses”) or a forward tilt the forearms (which
requires “In Front of the Neck Presses”) - so as to avoid hitting one’s self on the head
with the barbell. Tilting the forearms either way (forward or backward) - during any kind
of Pressing movement - strains the muscles of the “rotator cuff”. A backward tilt strains
the internal rotators; a forward tilt strains the external rotators.

The photos above show a man forward-tilting his forearm the most in the far left photo,
in order to avoid hitting himself in the head. But even after the bar has passed his head,
he still does not fully “correct” this forward tilt. As mentioned earlier, part of this is due to
the fact that most people do not have enough mobility in their shoulder joint, to rotate
their humerus externally enough to cause their forearm to be perfectly vertical (during
an Overhead Press). Either way, the result in the same. It strains the limits of the
smaller, shoulder rotation muscles.

The Overhead Press would be “less bad” if the forearms could be kept perfectly vertical
(neutral, as seen from the side) - neither tilting backward nor forward. This could
theoretically be done by using Dumbbells, instead of a Barbell - if one has the shoulder
mobility to achieve a perfectly vertical forearm position (i.e., the majority of people don’t
have that degree of shoulder mobility). But the Overhead Press has a few other
mechanical problems as well, which will be discussed in Chapter 20 (“Deltoids”).

- - - - - -
Summary
A lever that is perfectly parallel with resistance (gravity, or a cable, or machine, etc.) is
NEUTRAL, in the sense that it requires no effort from the muscles that operate it, to be
held in that position. Knowing when a lever should be neutral, and when it should be
active, is vitally important for maximizing benefit and minimizing injury risk.

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A lever that is perfectly neutral (parallel with resistance) could be defined as having one
end either directly over, or directly under, its other end - relative to resistance. For
example, a Lamp Post (above left) has its top directly over its base. It is not tilting in
any direction whatsoever. A plumb line has its weight directly under its pivot (above
right).

In fact, the reason a plumb line is used in construction, is to identify the neutral position.
Buildings are built so as to require the least amount of lateral support. Hence, they are
built “parallel with gravity”, using vertical columns, etc.

The human body operates the same way. All of our limbs are levers, and they follow the
same rules of physics as any other physical structure.

If we could view a lever from directly overhead - looking straight down onto it from
above - while it is in its perfectly NEUTRAL position (parallel with gravity / resistance), it
would simply look like a whatever is on top. Its base would be “hidden” under its top, or
its top would be hidden under its pivot, if the lever is hanging down.

This is also true when we are performing any type of Pressing movement.

If we could view a person from directly overhead, while he (or she) is performing a
Supine Dumbbell Press, his forearms and elbow would be “hidden” behind his hand -
because they would be directly under his hand, relative to gravity.

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In the illustration above (a view from above, assuming he is lying flat on his back), we
see that his elbow (the bend of his arm) is hidden under his hand, because his forearm
is perfectly vertical (neutral).

If this person (above) were to tilt his forearm outward (laterally…away from his midline)
it would become active in one particular direction - loading his Biceps - and we would
begin to see the “inside” of his forearm, plus the bend of his arm (between the upper
arm and the forearm).

If he were to tilt his forearm inward (toward his midline) it would become active in a
different direction - loading his Triceps - and we would begin to see the “outside” of his
forearm and his elbow.

If he were to tilt his forearm “internally” (toward his feet) it would become active in yet
another direction - loading his Infraspinatus and Teres minor (external shoulder rotators)
- and we would begin to see the “extensor” side of his forearm.

If he were to tilt his forearm “externally” (toward his head) it would become active in yet
another direction - loading his Subscapularis (internal shoulder rotator) - and we would
begin to see the “flexor” side of his forearm.

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Of course, he cannot rotate IN and OUT at the same time, nor INTERNALLY and
EXTERNALLY at the same time. But he can rotate OUTWARD (laterally) and
EXTERNALLY at the same time, or any one of the other combinations. This sort of
thing happens frequently.

So, when we are doing a Supine Dumbbell Press, it’s important to ask ourselves (while
we are doing the exercise), “is my elbow directly under my hand?”. “Am I allowing my
forearm to tilt outwardly or inwardly, externally or internally, or a combination of these
two possibilities?”

You will find that having your elbow under your hand is best, in terms of maximum
power and efficiency, and also in terms of safety for the shoulder rotators.

It’s often difficult to ascertain this, when we cannot see ourselves - as is the case when
we are lying on our back, on a flat bench. Sometimes, even the view that a mirror gives
us is not quite enough to see if a correction is necessary. A mirror does not allow us to
see ourselves from all sides. It would be difficult arranging two or three perspectives,
simultaneously. But we need to be aware of it, and try to FEEL for it.

Also, in terms of working with maximum efficiency, we should select exercises that allow
the operating lever of our target muscle, to cross perpendicularly with the direction of
resistance, during the range of motion of that exercise. Examples of this would be the
forearm during a Triceps Extension, and a lower leg (Tibia) during a Quadriceps
exercise.

As pointed out above, this does not happen during Parallel Bar Dips, nor during
standard Barbell Squats - and it compromises the efficiency of those exercises. A
“better” version of a Triceps exercise would be a Supine Dumbbell Triceps Extension,
and a better version of Barbell Squats (for Quadriceps) would be Leg Extensions or
Cable Squats - because these allow the operating lever of the target muscle to be
maximally active during the movement

A maximally efficient exercise utilizes a fully active, or mostly active operating lever for
the target muscle. Again, this is defined as a lever that “interacts perpendicularly with
the direction of resistance”. When this occurs, the largest percentage of the weight
being used, is loaded onto the muscle that operates that lever. Therefore, we do not
need to use as much weight. In fact, we are unable to use as much weight, as
compared to less efficient exercises (i.e., exercises that do not allow the target muscle’s
operating lever to interact perpendicularly with the direction of resistance).

Having to use less weight is a sign of efficiency. It means we are maximizing the
load. We should not allow our ego to deter us from doing exercises that obligate us to
use “lighter” poundages.

Conversely, an exercise that allows us to use a large amount of weight, does so

precisely because it is minimizing the load to our target muscles. It typically does this

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my either using shorter levers (using bent arms instead of straight arms), or reducing
the lever effective length of the primary lever by way of a secondary lever, or by utilizing
levers that are only working at 10, 20 or 30% efficiency (i.e., mostly “neutral” levers) - or
a combination of the these.

For those who are pursuing muscular development, the wiser / safer / more efficient
approach is to utilize maximally efficient levers, which magnify resistance more because
they interact perpendicularly with the direction of resistance. This allows us to
accomplish more, with less wasted (unproductive) effort and less risk.

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