Wind Turbine Maintenance Guide

Wind Turbine Maintenance Guide
2012 TECHNICAL REPORT
12615299

12615299
Wind Turbine Maintenance
Guide
EPRI Project Manager

R. Chambers
3420 Hillview Avenue

Palo Alto, CA 94304-1338
USA
PO Box 10412
Palo Alto, CA 94303-0813
USA
800.313.3774
650.855.2121
askepri@epri.com 1024891
www.epri.com Final Report, July 2012
12615299
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF

WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI).
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NAME, TRADEMARK, MANUFACTURER, OR OTHERWISE, DOES NOT NECESSARILY CONSTITUTE OR
IMPLY ITS ENDORSEMENT, RECOMMENDATION, OR FAVORING BY EPRI.
THE FOLLOWING ORGANIZATION, UNDER CONTRACT TO EPRI, PREPARED THIS REPORT:
Sequoia Consulting Group, Inc.
NOTE
For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or
e-mail askepri@epri.com.
Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHERSHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY are
registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright © 2012 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Acknowledgments The following organization, under contract to the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI), prepared this report:
Sequoia Consulting Group, Inc.

9042 Legends Lake Lane
Knoxville, Tennessee 37922
Principal Investigator
M. Tulay
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
EPRI would like to acknowledge the members of the Technical

Advisory Group for this report:
Ray Chambers EPRI
John Vanacore Joint Safety Institute
Kevin Brydon Los Angeles Department of Water and Power
Charli Dong Los Angeles Department of Water and Power
Kevin Allwine Shermco Industries
Claudia Banner American Electric Power
Robert Stoiber Detroit Edison
EPRI would also like to acknowledge the Operations and

Maintenance team of the Los Angeles Department of Water and
Power, Pine Tree Wind Power Project, Bakersfield, California.
These individuals were instrumental in sharing maintenance practices
and lessons learned to facilitate the development of this report.
This publication is a corporate

document that should be cited in the
literature in the following manner:
Wind Turbine Maintenance Guide.

EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2012.
1024891.
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Product
This guideline provides component-level information regarding the
Description maintenance of major components associated with a wind turbine. It
combines recommendations offered by major equipment
manufacturers with lessons learned from owner/operators of wind
turbine facilities.
Background
With the rush to develop today’s massive wind energy sites, little
attention is being paid to the inevitable need to perform routine
maintenance and develop practical means of assessing the condition of
the components within the nacelles and other outside support
equipment for the wind farms. Current operating models have not
adequately established accurate assumptions or expectations on the
unavailability of the windmills and the impact on lost generation.
Contracts for purchase of their generation output are being affected by
these losses, causing increased concern on overall reliability. The
current business model is not adequately focused on equipment health
and reliability as seen in more conventional power generation facilities.
There is a developing concern among the owners that generation

revenues are being lost at much higher rates than expected due to
unavailable machines. Machines that are offline for long periods due
to equipment degradation and failures do not generate revenues to
pay back the owners’ investments. Even though these machines may
have equipment warrantees or maintenance agreements, there are no
warranties or liquidated damages for lost generation sales when a
windmill is offline due to an unexpected outage.
Objectives
The primary objective of this technical report is to provide
maintenance guidance that exceeds that typically provided by the
original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) of wind turbines, thus
allowing significant strategic improvements by:
 Reducing maintenance-related operation and maintenance

(O&M) costs by ensuring complete understanding of the
technology
 Improving equipment reliability through more detailed

maintenance guidance on critical equipment
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 Providing recommendations on preventive maintenance
optimization to avoid unnecessary expenditures
 Preserving equipment knowledge for workers, necessitated by

industry turnovers
Approach
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) worked with a
collaboration of owners, operators, OEMs, and vendors to develop
tactical guidance on monitoring, predicting remaining life,
condition-based maintenance, O&M program models, and supply
chain programs including third-party supply and refurbishment
services.
Results
This technical report provides comprehensive insights for managers
of wind turbine facilities to effectively address on-going maintenance
issues. The report provides an overview of system design parameters
and familiarizes the user with the components that make up a typical
wind turbine and their functions, but the focus of the report is on
providing site personnel with both insight regarding various failure
mechanisms and detailed guidance for performing preventive
maintenance on the numerous system components of a wind turbine.
The report also provides guidance regarding the repair and
replacement of system components, the components that are typically
repaired or refurbished on site, and troubleshooting guidance.
Applications, Value, and Use

This guideline can be used to develop in-house maintenance crews,
provide training for contract maintenance travelers to overcome the
loss of knowledge due to turnover, and provide a consistent
maintenance program for components and parts on the wind farms
and in the nacelles. By developing a reliability-based program using
standard guidelines, owners can use it as a strength in bidding
maintenance to a larger resource pool, or it can be used as a basis for
specifying long-term maintenance contracts that can be relied upon
and to assist in stabilizing projected maintenance costs.
Keywords
Gearbox Generator
Maintenance Nacelle
Turbine Wind
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Table of Contents
Section 1: Introduction.............................................1-1
1.1 Background...............................................................1-1
1.2 Objectives.................................................................1-1
1.3 Contents of the Report ................................................1-2
1.4 Definitions of Key Terms and Acronyms ........................1-3
1.4.1 Industry Definitions and Nomenclature .................1-3
1.4.2 Acronyms .........................................................1-4
1.5 Listing of Key Points....................................................1-6
1.6 Advantages and Challenges of Wind Energy ................1-7
1.6.1 Advantages ......................................................1-7
1.6.2 Challenges........................................................1-8
1.6.3 Commissioning a Wind Power Turbine ................1-9
Section 2: System Description ..................................2-1

2.1 Types of Wind Turbines ..............................................2-1
2.2 Sizes of Wind Turbines...............................................2-2
2.3 Drive Train Architecture ..............................................2-7
2.4 Materials Used in Wind Turbines .................................2-9
2.4.1 Rotors and Blades............................................2-10
2.4.2 Electronic Controls and Power Electronics...........2-10
2.4.3 Tower and Foundation .....................................2-11
2.4.4 Generators .....................................................2-12
Section 3: Overview of Wind Turbine Failure

Mechanisms ............................................3-1
3.1 Component Failure Cost Impact ...................................3-1
3.2 Component Reliability and Common Failure
Mechanisms ....................................................................3-2
3.2.1 Overview of Gearbox and Generator Failure
Mechanisms ...............................................................3-3
3.2.2 Gear Failures ....................................................3-4
3.2.3 Bearing Failures ................................................3-5
3.2.4 Gearbox Bolt Failures ........................................3-7
3.2.5 Blades – Failures in the Field ...............................3-8
3.2.6 Generator Failures .............................................3-8
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3.3 Resulting Availability of Wind Turbines.......................3-11
3.3.1 Downtime Due to O&M Activities ......................3-13
3.3.2 O&M Downtime for All Six Projects. ..................3-14
3.3.3 Downtime Due to Faults ....................................3-14
3.3.4 Lightning Impacts and Mitigation Activities .........3-15
Section 4: Preventive Maintenance Basis..................4-1

4.1 General Guidance .....................................................4-1
4.1.1 Preventive Maintenance......................................4-1
4.1.2 Corrective Maintenance .....................................4-2
4.2 Wind Turbine System PM Overview .............................4-3
4.2.1 Introduction.......................................................4-3
4.3 Gearboxes ................................................................4-5
4.3.1 Condition Monitoring of Gearbox Assemblies.......4-5
4.3.2 Preventive Maintenance Activities ........................4-9
4.4 Generator ...............................................................4-14
4.4.1 Offline Electrical and Tests................................4-14
4.4.2 Online Rotor Monitoring...................................4-17
4.4.3 Rotor Inspections .............................................4-22
4.5 Foundation and Outer Area ......................................4-34
4.6 Control Cabinets in the Tower ...................................4-34
4.7 Tower Components ..................................................4-37
4.8 Nacelle...................................................................4-38
4.9 Drive Train ..............................................................4-40
4.10 Hub......................................................................4-44
4.11 Typical Preventive Maintenance Template .................4-45
4.11.1 PM Template Information and Definitions..........4-45
4.11.2 Description of Preventive Maintenance Tasks ....4-48
4.11.3 Example of Operator Rounds at a Wind
Turbine Facility .........................................................4-49
Section 5: Repair and Replacement Guidance ..........5-1

5.1 General Guidance .....................................................5-1
5.1.1 Quantifiable Factors for Economic Cost Study .......5-3
5.1.2 Key Qualitative Factors in the Decision-
Making Process ..........................................................5-4
5.2 Repair and Replacement of Wind Turbine
Components ....................................................................5-5
5.3 Repair and Replacement of Gearboxes ........................5-5
5.3.1 Typical Procedure for Gearbox Disassembly .........5-5
5.3.2 Inspection and Maintenance of Gears..................5-8
5.3.3 Maintenance of Bearings..................................5-10
5.3.4 Typical Procedure for Gearbox Reassembly ........5-12
5.4 Repair and Replacement of the Generator ..................5-16
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Section 6: Troubleshooting Guidance .......................6-1
6.1 System Troubleshooting ..............................................6-1
6.2 Troubleshooting of Wind Turbine Components ..............6-3
6.3 Troubleshooting of Gearboxes.....................................6-3
6.3.1 Abnormally High Temperature.............................6-5
6.3.2 Low Oil Pressure................................................6-5
6.3.3 Unusual or Excessive Noise ................................6-6
6.3.4 Excessive Vibration ............................................6-6
6.3.5 Foaming ...........................................................6-6
6.3.6 No Sensor Readings ..........................................6-6
6.4 Generator Troubleshooting..........................................6-7
6.4.1 Cell Slot Liners...................................................6-7
6.4.2 Winding Copper ...............................................6-7
6.4.3 Links and Connections........................................6-9
6.4.4 Retaining Rings..................................................6-9
6.4.5 Collectors and Brushes .....................................6-11
6.4.6 Winding Insulation ..........................................6-12
6.4.7 Contamination.................................................6-13
6.4.8 End Winding Blocking .....................................6-13
6.4.9 Rotor Cooling..................................................6-14
6.4.10 Forging Symmetry Issues.................................6-16
6.4.11 Rotor Shaft....................................................6-17
6.4.12 Rotor Slot Teeth .............................................6-18
6.4.13 Rotor Baffle Assembly.....................................6-19
6.4.14 Slot Liners .....................................................6-20
6.4.15 Rotor Fan......................................................6-20
6.4.16 Slot Wedges .................................................6-20
Section 7: Personnel Safety Issues ...........................7-1

7.1 Personnel Safety Issues ...............................................7-1
7.2 Source Documents......................................................7-1
7.3 Recommended Practices .............................................7-1
7.3.1 Using Approved Written Procedures ....................7-1
7.3.2 Safety Precautions When Working on Low-
Voltage Equipment......................................................7-2
7.3.3 Demarcation of Work Areas ...............................7-5
7.3.4 Identification of the Wind Turbine and Low-
Voltage Equipment......................................................7-6
7.3.5 Automatically or Remotely Controlled Wind
Turbines and Low-Voltage Equipment ............................7-6
7.4 Excavation ................................................................7-7
7.5 Confined Spaces........................................................7-7
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7.6 Occupational Safety Requirements for Work on
Wind Turbines .................................................................7-7
7.6.1 General Guidance.............................................7-7
7.6.2 Safety Issues During the Assembly of Wind
Turbines.....................................................................7-9
7.6.3 Safety Issues During Maintenance of Wind
Turbines.....................................................................7-9
7.7 Safety in Wind Energy When Using Cranes................7-10
7.7.1 General..........................................................7-10
7.7.2 Hazard Analysis..............................................7-10
7.7.3 Assembly/Disassembly.....................................7-10
7.7.4 Inspection .......................................................7-10
7.7.5 Wind/Weather Considerations.........................7-10
7.7.6 Communication ...............................................7-11
7.7.7 Operator Training and Certification...................7-11
7.7.8 Ground Pressures and Travel Paths ....................7-11
7.7.9 Crane Travel Limits ..........................................7-11
7.7.10 Control of the Lift Area ...................................7-12
7.7.11 Lift Plans .......................................................7-12
Section 8: References...............................................8-1
8.1 In-Text References.......................................................8-1
8.2 Bibliography .............................................................8-1
Appendix A: Listing of Key Points........................A-1

A.1 Key O&M Cost Points................................................ A-1
A.2 Key Technical Points.................................................. A-2
A.3 Key Human Performance Points .................................. A-5
A.4 Key Supervisory Observation Points ............................ A-5
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List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Scope and content of this EPRI report .......................1-2

Figure 2-1 Wind turbine components .......................................2-2
Figure 2-2 Typical wind turbine drive train with three-stage
planetary/helical gear arrangement...................................2-8
Figure 4-1 Elements of a preventive maintenance program
for gearboxes ................................................................4-10
Figure 4-2 Insulation resistance over time ...............................4-16
Figure 4-3 Simplified impedance test diagram ........................4-17
Figure 4-4 Modified end teeth...............................................4-33
Figure 5-1 Generic repair vs. replace evaluation.......................5-1
Figure 5-2 Factors considered during the decision-making
process ...........................................................................5-2
Figure 5-3 Tooth contact patterns ..........................................5-10
Figure 6-1 Generic process for system troubleshooting
(preliminary evaluation) ....................................................6-1
Figure 6-2 Generic process for system troubleshooting
(detailed system troubleshooting) .......................................6-2
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List of Tables
Table 2-1 Description of nacelle components ............................2-3

Table 2-2 Description of rotor components ...............................2-5
Table 2-3 Description of tower components ..............................2-6
Table 2-4 Description of the balance of system components .......2-7
Table 2-5 Percentage of materials used in large wind
turbines by weight............................................................2-9
Table 2-6 Wind-turbine manufacturers’ generator designs ........2-13
Table 3-1 Representative costs for replacing drive train
components.....................................................................3-2
Table 3-2 Gear failure modes common to wind turbines ............3-4
Table 3-3 Bearing failure modes common to wind turbines.........3-6
Table 3-4 Generator failure mechanisms ..................................3-8
Table 3-5 Relative frequencies of generator failure
mechanisms...................................................................3-10
Table 4-1 Turbine proposed PM activities .................................4-5
Table 4-2 Types of thermocouples ...........................................4-6
Table 4-3 Preventive maintenance schedule overview ..............4-10
Table 4-4 Semiannual preventive maintenance activities for
the foundation and outer area .........................................4-34
Table 4-5 Annual preventive maintenance activities for the
foundation and outer area ..............................................4-34
the control cabinets ........................................................4-35
control cabinets .............................................................4-36
the tower.......................................................................4-37
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tower............................................................................4-38
the nacelle ....................................................................4-38
nacelle..........................................................................4-40
the drive train ................................................................4-40
drive train .....................................................................4-43
the hub .........................................................................4-44
hub ..............................................................................4-45
Table 4-16 Example PM template for wind turbine system
components...................................................................4-47
Table 5-1 Recommended tightening torques............................5-14
Table 6-1 Troubleshooting matrix for gearboxes........................6-3
Table 6-2 Characteristics of two-pole and four-pole
generator field shorts......................................................6-12
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Section 1: Introduction
1.1 Background
With the rush to develop today’s massive wind energy sites, little attention is
being paid to the inevitable need to perform routine maintenance and develop
practical ways to assess the condition of the components within the nacelles and
other outside support equipment for the wind farms. Current operating models
have not adequately established accurate assumptions or expectations on the
unavailability of the windmills and the impact on lost generation. Contracts for
purchase of their generation output are being affected by these losses, causing
increased concern regarding overall reliability. The current business model is not
adequately focused on equipment health and reliability as seen in more
conventional power generation facilities.
There is a developing concern among the owners that generation revenues are
being lost at much higher rates than expected due to unavailable machines.
Machines that are offline for long periods due to equipment degradation and
failures do not generate revenues to pay back the owners’ investments. Even
though these machines may have equipment warrantees or maintenance
agreements, there are no warranties or liquidated damages for lost generation
sales when a windmill is offline due to an unexpected outage.
1.2 Objectives
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) worked with a collaboration of

owners, operators, original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), and vendors to
develop tactical guidance on monitoring, predicting remaining life, condition-
based maintenance, operation and maintenance (O&M) program models, and
supply chain programs including third-party supply and refurbishment services.
This guideline can be used to develop in-house maintenance crews, provide
training for contract maintenance travelers to overcome the loss of knowledge
due to turnover, and provide a consistent maintenance program for components
and parts on the wind farms and in the nacelles. By developing a reliability-based
program using standard guidelines, owners can use it as a strength in bidding
maintenance to a larger resource pool, or it can be used as a basis for specifying
long-term maintenance contracts that can be relied upon and assist in stabilizing
projected maintenance costs.
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This guideline provides component-level information whose functional details
will exceed most that is provided by the OEMs, thus allowing significant
strategic improvements by:
 Reducing maintenance-related O&M costs by ensuring complete
understanding of the technology
 Improving equipment reliability through more detailed maintenance
guidance on critical equipment
 Providing recommendations on preventive maintenance optimization to
avoid unnecessary expenditures
 Preserving equipment knowledge for workers, caused by industry turnovers
1.3 Contents of the Report
Figure 1-1 illustrates the general structure and content of this technical report.
The figure identifies key sections in the report that provide guidance to owners to
effectively address wind turbine system component maintenance issues.
Figure 1-1
Scope and content of this EPRI report (original PowerPoint drawing)
This section provides an introduction to the report, and Section 2 provides an

overview of system design parameters and familiarizes the user with the
components that make up a typical wind turbine and their functions. The focus
of the report is Sections 3 and 4, which provide insight to various failure
mechanisms and detailed guidance for performing preventive maintenance on the
numerous system components. Section 5 provides guidance regarding the repair
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and/or replacement of system components, and which components are typically
repaired or refurbished on site. Section 6 provides the owner with
troubleshooting guidance. Personnel safety guidelines are provided in Section 7,
and Section 8 provides the user with a complete listing of references that were
used during the development of this report.
1.4 Definitions of Key Terms and Acronyms
1.4.1 Industry Definitions and Nomenclature
corrective maintenance Maintenance tasks that are generated as a result of

equipment failure. Corrective tasks are generated
when equipment is purposely operated to failure and
also when equipment failure is not wanted or
planned. It is the most basic form of maintenance
and also the most expensive. Most plants are moving
away from corrective maintenance, but there will
always be a portion of maintenance being performed
as a result of equipment failure.
elective maintenance The classification of any work on power block

equipment in which the identified potential or actual
degradation is minor and does not threaten the
component’s design function or performance criteria.
facilities Structures, systems, and components not associated

with power generation. Structures may include
training facilities, warehouses, maintenance shops,
and administrative offices. Systems may include fire
protection, plumbing, lighting, sewer, and drainage.
monopile A single totally enclosed structure that supports the

nacelle and is mounted on a deep-buried reinforced
concrete pad using hydraulically tensioned bolted
fasteners.
periodic maintenance “Time-based” preventive maintenance actions taken

to maintain a piece of equipment within design
operating conditions and to extend its life.
predictive maintenance Maintenance tasks that are performed based on

equipment condition. Predictive maintenance relies
on technologies to determine the current condition
of the equipment so that only the required
maintenance is performed before equipment failure.
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preventive maintenance Maintenance tasks that are performed based on a
time or interval basis to avoid catastrophic
equipment failure. Preventive maintenance performs
maintenance tasks on a planned rather than reactive
basis and avoids the losses associated with unplanned
downtime. The penalty of preventive maintenance is
that some tasks are performed that are unnecessary
and costly.
proactive maintenance Maintenance tasks that determine the root cause of

an equipment problem. Chronic problems require
advanced technologies, additional resources, and
time to provide a final solution for an equipment
problem. The problem can be the result of poor
design, inadequate maintenance practices, or
incorrect operating. procedures.
qualified individual For the purposes of concurrent verification and

independent verification, a person who has been
determined by station management to be qualified to
perform verification activities. As a minimum, this
individual shall be trained in human performance
verification techniques.
work instruction Instructions for performance of the work to be

accomplished, the level of detail of which is
dependent on the assigned planning level. When
applicable, approved procedures may be referenced
and may suffice as work instructions.
work order A document used to control work and/or testing

activities.
1.4.2 Acronyms
AGMA American Gear Manufacturers Association
AWEA American Wind Energy Association
CCO certified crane operator
CFRP carbon filament-reinforced-plastic
DC direct current
DIN Deutsches Institute für Normung
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
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ESR electrostatic re-melt
ET eddy current test (also ECT)
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
GRP glass-reinforced plastic
GW gigawatt
HAWT horizontal-axis wind turbine
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IGBT insulated gate bipolar transistor
ISO International Standards Organization
kW kilowatt
LCF low cycle fatigue
MPT magnetic particle test
MW megawatt
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NDE nondestructive examination
O&M operation and maintenance
OEM original equipment manufacturer
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PBT polybutylene terephthalate
PC printed circuit
PFAS personal fall arrest system
PI polarization index
PLC programmable logic controller
PM preventive maintenance
REPP Renewable Energy Policy Project

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RSO recurrent surge oscillography
RTD resistance temperature detector
SCADA supervisory control and data acquisition
SCC stress corrosion cracking
SCR silicon controller rectifier
TDR time domain reflectometry
TVP turbine verification program
UPS uninterruptable power supply
VAR vacuum arc re-melt
VAWT vertical-axis wind turbine
WTG wind turbine generator
1.5 Listing of Key Points
Throughout this report, key information is summarized in Key Points. Key Points
succinctly restate information covered in detail in the surrounding text, making
the key point easier to locate.
The primary intent of a Key Point is to emphasize information that will allow
individuals to act for the benefit of their plant. Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) personnel who reviewed this report assisted in the selection of the
information included in these Key Points.
The Key Points are organized into three categories: Human Performance, O&M
Cost, and Technical. Each category has an identifying icon to draw attention to
it for the benefit of readers who are quickly reviewing the report. The Key Points
are shown in the following way:
Key Human Performance Point

Denotes information that requires personnel action or consideration in order to
prevent personal injury, prevent equipment damage, and/or improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of the task.
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Key O&M Cost Point
Emphasizes information that will result in overall reduced costs and/or an
increase in revenue through additional or restored energy production.
Key Technical Point

Targets information that will lead to improved equipment reliability.
Key Supervisory Observation Point

Identifies tasks or series of tasks that can or should be observed by
maintenance first line supervisors to improve the performance of the
maintenance staff and improve the reliability of the component.
Appendix A of this report contains a listing of all Key Points in each category.
The listing restates each Key Point and provides a reference to its location in the
body of the report. By reviewing this listing, users of this report can determine if
they have taken advantage of key information that the writers of this report
believe would benefit their plants.
1.6 Advantages and Challenges of Wind Energy
Wind energy offers many advantages, which explains why it is the fastest-
growing energy source in the world. Research efforts are aimed at addressing the
challenges to greater use of wind energy.
1.6.1 Advantages
Wind energy is fueled by the wind, so it is a clean fuel source. It does not pollute
the air like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or
natural gas. Wind turbines do not produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid
rain or greenhouse gases.
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It is a domestic source of energy, produced in the United States. The nation’s
wind supply is abundant.
Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind, which cannot be used
up. Wind is actually a form of solar energy; winds are caused by the heating of
the atmosphere by the sun, the rotation of the earth, and the earth’s surface
irregularities.
It is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy technologies available today,

costing between 4¢ and 6¢ per kilowatt-hour, depending upon the wind resource
and financing of the particular project.
Wind turbines can be built on farms or ranches, thus benefiting the economy in
rural areas, where most of the best wind sites are found. Farmers and ranchers
can continue to work the land because the wind turbines use only a fraction of
the land. Wind power plant owners make rent payments to the farmer or rancher
for the use of the land.
Key Human 1.6.2 Challenges

Performance Point
Owners of wind turbine Wind power must compete with conventional generation sources on a cost basis.
facilities should estimate Depending on how energetic a wind site is, the wind farm may or may not be
having approximately one cost competitive. Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically
full-time technician for every in the past 10 years, the technology requires a higher initial investment than
seven to eight wind turbines fossil-fueled generators.
in their fleet.
Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities where the
electricity is needed. Transmission lines must be built to bring the electricity
from the wind farm to the city.
Wind resource development may compete with other uses for the land, and those
alternative uses may be more highly valued than electricity generation.
Key Technical Point
Off-site power is needed in Although wind power plants have relatively little impact on the environment
order to start generation of compared to other conventional power plants, there is some concern over the
electricity. A wind turbine noise produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts, and sometimes
cannot start generating birds and bats have been killed by flying into the rotors. Most of these problems
electricity as soon as the have been resolved or greatly reduced through technological development or by
wind starts blowing. locating wind plants on appropriate sites.
Key Technical Point

Extreme care should be
taken when de-energizing a
wind turbine because
computer hard drive failures
may occur.
 1-8 
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1.6.3 Commissioning a Wind Power Turbine
There are many different contractual arrangements under which an owner can
procure, construct, and commission a wind turbine power plant. Although this
Key O&M Cost Point subject is primarily outside the scope of this report, the following Key Points
When purchasing a fleet of were learned while visiting wind turbine facilities during the development of this
wind turbines, it is not report and should be considered by prospective wind farm owners/operators.
uncommon that a given
subcomponent (for example,
pitch drive, gear drive,
bearings, generator
bearings, etc.) will be
furnished by different
manufacturers. Consequently,
it is possible that no two wind
turbines will be identical. This
can directly affect the scope
and frequency of
maintenance activities (for
example, different gearboxes
may use different types of
grease).
Key O&M Cost Point

When purchasing a fleet of
wind turbines that do not all
have the same exact
subcomponents, it is
beneficial to request a
subcomponent list (bill of
material) for each wind
turbine in order to optimize
maintenance activities.
 1-9 
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Key Supervisory
Observation Point
During the commissioning of
a fleet of wind turbines, care
should be taken to ensure
that the commission teams
are performing activities
consistently and accurately
and that quality control
personnel are providing
oversight in the towers as the
teams are performing
commissioning activities.
Key O&M Cost Point

Turnover of wind turbines
during commissioning should
be staggered so that the
entire fleet is not turned over
at the same time. Individual
wind turbine commissioning
turnover causes the owner to
do 30-day maintenance
activities all at once in order
to remain in warranty, which
puts unnecessary scheduling
and staffing demands on the
owner when
scheduling/optimizing
planned maintenance
activities.
Key Technical Point

Brake adjustment is a critical
activity that should be
integral to and performed
during commissioning.  1-10 
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Key O&M Cost Point
Care should be taken when
procuring maintenance kits
from the original wind turbine
manufacture because not
everything typically included
in a kit will be needed (for
example, brake pads).
Key Technical Point

Specialty tools used for
greasing and torquing
typically have long lead times
for delivery. This should be
considered during initial
procurement and
maintenance planning and
might need to be factored in
to the site’s tool calibration
and rotational use program.
Key Technical Point

Portable electric generators
might be needed when there
is a loss of on-site power to
perform regularly scheduled
 1-11 
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Section 2: System Description
The purpose of this section is to provide owner maintenance and engineering
personnel with an overview of wind turbine design, failure mechanisms, and
construction.
2.1 Types of Wind Turbines

Today’s utility-scale wind turbines are predominately based on a horizontal-axis
wind turbine (HAWT) design. In this type of design, the axis of rotation is
parallel to the ground. A competing class of wind turbines is based on the use of
the axis of rotation perpendicular to the ground, the vertical-axis wind turbine
(VAWT). As will be discussed later, the utility-scale VAWT has disappeared
from the current commercial market.
HAWT rotors are usually classified according to the rotor orientation to the
tower (upwind or downwind), hub design (rigid or teetering), rotor control (pitch
or stall), number of blades (usually three or sometimes two blades), and how they
are aligned with the wind (free yaw or active yaw).
The principal subsystems of a typical HAWT include the following:
 The rotor – This consists of the blades and supporting hub.
 The drive train – This includes the rotating parts of the wind turbine (except
the rotor); it usually consists of shafts, a gearbox, couplings, a mechanical
brake, and a generator.
 The nacelle and main frame – This includes the wind turbine housing,
bedplate, and the yaw system.
 The tower and the foundation.
 Machine controls.
 Balance of the electrical system – This includes cables, switchgear,
transformers, and power electronics.
Design variations in these components form various wind turbine layouts or

“topologies.” In general, these include the following choices:
 Number of blades (usually 2 or 3).
 Power control – This includes stall, variable pitch, controllable aerodynamic
surfaces, and yaw control.
 Rotor position – Upwind or downwind of tower.
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 Rotor speed – Constant or variable.
 Yaw control – Driven yaw, free yaw, or fixed.
 Design tip speed and blade solidity.
 Type of hub – Rigid, teetering, hinged blade, or gimbaled.
 Number of brakes.
2.2 Sizes of Wind Turbines
Utility-scale turbines range in size from 100 kilowatts (kW) to as large as several
megawatts (MW). Larger turbines are grouped together into wind farms, which
provide bulk power to the electrical grid.
Single small turbines, less than 100 kW, are used for homes, telecommunications
dishes, or water pumping. Small turbines are sometimes used in connection with
diesel generators, batteries, and photovoltaic systems. These systems are called
hybrid wind systems and are typically used in remote, off-grid locations, where a
connection to the utility grid is not available.
The majority of wind turbine capacity presently installed or under construction

are HAWTs with rotor diameters between 60 and 90 meters (m) (197 and 295
feet) with rated capacities ranging from 1 to 3 MW.
Figure 2-1 illustrates the major components of a typical wind turbine.
Figure 2-1
Wind turbine components
(U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management)
 2-2 
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The nacelle includes:
 An outer frame protecting the machinery from the external environment
 An internal frame supporting and distributing the weight of the machinery
 A power train to transmit energy and to increase shaft speeds
 A generator to convert mechanical energy into electricity
 A yaw drive to rotate (slew) the nacelle on the tower
 Electronics to control and monitor operation
Table 2-1
Description of nacelle components
(U.S. Department of Energy, Renewable Energy Policy Project [REPP], Wind
Turbine Development)
Subcomponent Description
Low-speed shaft and Transmits rotational work from the rotor hub to the
high-speed shaft gearbox and from the gearbox to the generator.
Gearbox Converts low-speed rotation from the input shaft of the
rotor to high-speed rotation, which drives the high-speed
shaft of the generator assembly. Wind turbine gearboxes
typically use a planetary gear system.
Coupling Attaches the gearbox to the generator. Flexible couplings
may be used to reduce oscillating loads that could
otherwise cause component damage.
Bearings A number of bearings are required for the shafts,
gearbox, yaw mechanism, generator, and other rotating
parts.
Mechanical brakes A mechanical friction brake and its hydraulic system halt
the turbine blades during maintenance and overhaul. A
hydraulic disc brake on the yaw mechanism maintains the
nacelle position when the nacelle is stationary.
Electrical generator Converts high-speed shaft work into electrical energy
Power electronics Couples the generator output to the step-up transformer
input, typically with an insulated gate bipolar transistor
(IGBT) bridge, allowing the generator to run at variable
speed while still outputting 50–60 Hz ac to the grid. Also,
makes reactive power possible.
Cooling unit Drives air with a large fan to convectively cool the
generator and gearbox, and exhausts waste heat from the
nacelle assembly. Ducting directs cool air to the
generator.
 2-3 
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Table 2-1 (continued)
Description of nacelle components
(U.S. Department of Energy, Renewable Energy Policy Project [REPP], Wind
Turbine Development)
Yaw mechanism and Rotates the turbine directly into the wind in order to
four-point bearing generate maximum power. Typically, four yaw sensors
monitor the wind direction and activate the yaw motors to
face the prevailing wind. A four-point bearing connects
the nacelle to the tower. The yaw mechanism turns the
blades 90 degrees from the prevailing winds under high
wind conditions to reduce stress on the internal
components and avoid over-speed conditions.
Electronic controllers (a) A base controller, located at the base of the tower,
utilizes printed circuits (PCs) and fiber optics to monitor
and record performance data, as well as to facilitate
communication between both subcontrollers and external
parties. (b) A nacelle controller monitors activity within the
nacelle assembly. (c) A hub controller, used in newer
models, communicates directly with the nacelle controller
to more precisely monitor rotor activity
Sensors (a) An anemometer, located on the tower, measures wind
velocity and relays data to the yaw mechanism. (b) A
wind vane measures wind direction and relays data to the
yaw mechanism. (c) A cable twist counter monitors cables
within the tower to determine if the turbine has been
yawing in one direction for an extended period of time.
(d) A thermocouple senses temperature within the nacelle
assembly.
The rotor includes:

 Blades, which are generally made of glass-reinforced fiber up to 50 m in
length. Lighter and stronger carbon fibers are being used in the larger blades.
 Extenders attach the blades to the central hub.
 Pitch drives control the angle of the blades.
The rotor typically has three blades because that number provides the best
balance of high rotation speed, load balancing, and simplicity.
 2-4 
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Table 2-2
Description of rotor components
(U.S. Department of Energy, REPP Wind Turbine Development)
Rotor blades Blades use the principles of lift to convert the energy of the
wind into mechanical energy. Stall-regulated blades limit
lift, or momentum, when wind speeds are too great in
order to avoid damaging the machine. Variable-pitch
blades rotate to minimize their surface area and, thereby,
regulate rotational speed.
Pitch drive This system controls the pitch of the blades to achieve the
optimum angle for the wind speed and desired rotation
speed. At lower wind speeds, a perpendicular pitch
increases the energy harnessed by the blades, and at high
wind speeds, a parallel pitch minimizes the blade surface
area and slows the rotor. Typically, one motor is used to
control each blade. Power is either electric or provided by
hydraulics in the nacelle and is supplemented by a
hydraulic accumulator in the event of system failure.
Extenders These steel components support the rotor blades and
secure them to the hub
Hub The hub serves as a base for the rotor blades and
extenders, as well as a place to house the control systems
for the pitch drive. It rotates freely and attaches to the
nacelle using a shaft and bearing assembly.
The tower includes:

 Rolled steel tubes connected in series
 Flanges and bolts joining each section
 A concrete base serving as a stable foundation for the turbine assembly
Concrete segmented towers and hybrid steel/concrete towers may also be used for
large turbines in cases where steel tower section transportation is difficult.
 2-5 
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Table 2-3
Description of tower components
Tower This component is typically made of rolled tubular steel; it is
built and shipped in sections because of its size and
weight. Common tubular towers incorporate a ladder
within the hollow structure to provide maintenance access.
Utility-scale towers range in height from 60 to 100 m and
weigh between 182–363 metric tons.
Base The base supports the tower and transfers the loads to the
foundation soil or bedrock. The foundation size and type
depend on the foundation conditions, but it is typically
constructed with steel-reinforced concrete.
Flanges and bolts These items join the tower segments.
The balance of wind farm components includes:

 Electrical collection system – Transformer, switchgear, underground and
overhead high-voltage cable, and interconnecting substation
 Control system – Control cable, data collection, and wind farm control
station
 Roadway, parking, crane pads, and other civil works
 2-6 
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Table 2-4
Description of the balance of system components
Electrical collection (a) Transformers step up voltage transmission in the
system collector line to convert energy generated by the turbine
into usable electricity for the utility grid.
(b) Underground cables are used to connect the power
lines until a standard 25-kV overhead collector line can be
used.
(c) Reclosers and risers act as circuit breakers and isolate a
section of the line if there is a power fault.
(d) Power substations raise the voltage for standard long-
distance transmission.
Communications The communications subsystem allows the wind turbines to
system monitor themselves and report performance to a control
station. Data collection equipment and fiber optic cables
allow the turbine to monitor and report performance. A
control station consolidates data and routes information to
the local utility.
Civil works Crane pads enable the safe operation of cranes during the
construction of the turbine, and roads provide access
during construction and maintenance activities.
Maintenance buildings house workers during construction
and overhauls.
2.3 Drive Train Architecture
The wind turbine designs used by generating companies have evolved rapidly
since the 1990s. The majority of machines installed in the mid-1990s were rated
at 500 kW or less. In the late 1990s, several manufacturers introduced turbines
rated at 660–850 kW, and through the year 2000, these dominated the new
installations. At that time, the MW-class turbines were introduced, and these
machines, rated up to 2 MW, now dominate the industry. Escalation in capacity
continues with several manufacturers offering turbines rated at 2.55 MW,
primarily aimed at the offshore market, but most of these are still in the
development stage, and the installed base is very small.
Despite the rapid increase in rated capacity, the general drive train arrangement
of the vast majority of wind turbines installed in the United States since the mid-
1990s has remained remarkably consistent. The conventional configuration,
shown in Figure 2-1, consists of a main shaft and bearing, gearbox and generator,
all mounted on a common bedplate made from ductile iron or fabricated steel.
The main shaft is supported by a main bearing on the rotor end and is rigidly
connected to the gearbox input stage. This figure depicts a ”three-point” design,
 2-7 
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where the gearbox case reacts to torque and rotor over-turning moments through
arms that are pinned to the mainframe structure. An alternative arrangement uses
a second main bearing on the gearbox end of the main shaft to react to over-
turning moments; in this case, the gearbox reacts only to main shaft torque
through the torque arms.
Figure 2-2
Typical wind turbine drive train with three-stage planetary/helical gear
arrangement [2]
A flexible coupling, which can be a Cardan shaft in smaller machines, connects

the generator shaft to the high-speed output of the gearbox. The brake disc is
installed on this shaft. The generator is located on compliant isolation mounts to
minimize shock loading and noise transmission into the bedplate. The gearbox
torque arms are also usually connected to the mainframe with some sort of
compliant bushing.
The conventional gearbox design has three gear stages, with a planetary low-
speed section coupled directly to helical, parallel-shaft, intermediate- and high-
speed stages. Since the turbine rotor speed varies inversely with the rotor
diameter and rated capacity, the gearbox speed ratio increases with turbine rated
power, ranging from the high 60s for a 650-kW machine to the high 90s for a
1500-kW machine. Altogether, the gearbox contains 9 gears and between 11 and
16 rolling-element bearings. Lubrication is always provided by a filtered
circulating system, with direct oil supply to the bearings and gears, although in
some designs, the planet mesh and bearings are lubricated as they pass through
an oil sump.
Two types of generators are used in commercial wind turbines, depending on the
type of speed and/or power control employed. Turbines with constant rotor
speed use standard induction (asynchronous) generators. Variable-speed turbines
generally use doubly fed induction generators that feed only a part of the current
through the power converter. Although this limits the overall speed range, the
cost for the power converter with this scheme is significantly less than the cost
for a converter that can handle the entire generator current. From a mechanical
standpoint, both types of generator are much the same, with a straddle-mounted
rotor supported by a bearing at either end. Lubrication is always with grease.
 2-8 
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2.4 Materials Used in Wind Turbines
A wind turbine consists of the following:

 A rotor that has two or three wing-shaped aerodynamic blades that are
attached to a hub
 A nacelle that houses a gear train consisting of a gearbox, connecting shafts,
support bearings, the generator, plus other machinery
 A tower
 Ground-mounted electrical equipment
A 2001 report of the percentage of different materials used in large wind turbines
is given in Table 2-5.
Table 2-5
Percentage of materials used in large wind turbines by weight
Pre- Fiberglass
Component Stressed Steel Aluminum Copper Reinforced
Concrete Plastic
Rotor
Hub - 100 - - -
Blades - 5 - - 95
Nacelle
Gearbox - 98 <2 <2 -
Generator - 65 - 35 -
Frame - 85 8 4 3
Machinery and
Shell
Tower 2 98 - - -
Clearly, steel is the material of choice for all components except the blades,
which are currently primarily glass-reinforced plastic (GRP). The fibers are
usually E-glass (a calciumaluminosilicate glass), although some experiments have
been performed with S-glass (a calcium-free aluminosilicate glass), which is
significantly stronger but much more expensive. New glass fiber compositions
such as Owens-Corning HiPer-tex, which claims the strength of S-glass with a
cost near E-glass, seem promising. The matrix materials in the GRP composites
are mainly thermosets: either polyesters, vinylesters, or epoxies, although
polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) thermoplastic is being promoted by Cyclics
Corporation. Thermoset polymers are crosslinked in place, usually giving greater
strength and a larger elastic modulus than thermoplastics, although at the
expense of recyclability. Thermoplastics return to a viscous liquid state above the
glass transition temperature, while thermosets usually decompose first.
 2-9 
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2.4.1 Rotors and Blades
As blades have grown to 50+ meters in length and weights of 17+ metric tons,
they have come to be important both in the cost of the wind machines and in the
total tower head mass, which ranges from 310 to about 500 metric tons for 5-
MW turbines With these increases has come an increasing need to understand
and address the problems experienced by the blades.
The issues involving rotors are many. Foremost, wind turbine rotors must survive
more than 108 stress cycles in a 20-year lifetime, so fatigue is a critical issue.
Additionally, for the service environment of wind turbines, both creep fatigue
and corrosion fatigue are important. These combined phenomena are even less
well quantified than ordinary fatigue. These effects show up as cracks and
delamination in the composite blades.
Other issues include the following:

 Lightning can cause severe mechanical damage unless adequate protection is
built into the blade.
 Rotor imbalance causes even larger stress amplitudes than normal operation,
shortening rotor life.
 Aerodynamic asymmetry causes additional vibrations of the nacelle and tower
and also causes variations in rotor speed, which may cause a mismatch in the
output power waveform.
 Moisture uptake:
- Causes additional imbalance when non-uniform
- Enhances creep
- May attack glass fiber-matrix interface, degrading the material properties
of the composite
- May increase the growth of existing cracks due to cyclical freezing
 Icing causes surface roughness and may increase the growth of existing
cracks. Also, it may cause imbalance.
 Surface roughness causes early stall of the airfoil, reducing maximum power
output.
 Impact damage during fabrication, transportation, construction, or in service
may cause delamination.
2.4.2 Electronic Controls and Power Electronics
Electronic controls and power electronics make up only about 1% of the cost of a
wind turbine, but they cause 13% of the failures. The cost fraction argues against
doing any condition monitoring at all on the electronics; however, the failure
distribution indicates that significant effort in increasing the reliability of the
electronics may be warranted, even at significant cost. The problems in electronic
controls have many causes, including vibration-induced fatigue of wires and
 2-10 
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printed circuits, corrosion, water ingress or condensation, and dust. The
problems in the power electronics are more often due to thermal management
issues due to overload, loss of cooling, or thermomechanical fatigue due to
variations in load.
The current systems monitor output voltage, current, and phase, and some
monitor temperatures inside the nacelle. Various authors have suggested
thermography as a technique to detect overheating components, but no report of
its application in service was found in the literature survey.
In 2004, Howard concluded that there was “no significant technology

development effort in place” for prognostics in medium-power electronics nor for
either diagnostics or prognostics for high-power electronics. He asserted that
diagnostics for control electronics is “currently available and proven effective,”
while diagnostics for medium-power electronics is “currently available, but
verification and validation not completed.” Some early research in addressing the
prognosis of electronics has been sponsored by NASA and two programs by the
Joint Strike Fighter Program Office. The latter programs have met with limited
success, while the former concluded that, particularly for power electronics, the
timescales for degradation are too fast for corrective action before failure.
Perhaps redundant controls and power electronics, as used in aerospace

applications, are called for in larger and offshore turbines. The electronic systems
are unique in wind turbines in that redundancy is achievable within constraints of
functionality, volume, and mass. The cost of redundant systems should be
considered against the expected loss of revenue, which could be very important in
future wind machines. For the hypothetical 12-MW offshore turbine, the cost of
the electronic controls and power electronics would be about $100,000. A triply
redundant system costing $300,000 would be justified if it could prevent a single
day’s lost production in each of the 20 years of service, or a single outage of 20
days during the 20 years of service. Note that for offshore turbines, any
unscheduled outage may require many more than 20 days of waiting for
acceptable weather to service the turbine. Even for the current 1.7-MW turbine,
where the electronics cost about $17,000, a triply-redundant system would be
justified if it could prevent the loss of about 30 days’ production in 20 years. Even
if triple redundancy is not deemed practical for any current wind turbines, the
example above shows that significant resources can be spent on improving
reliability by, for example, derating critical components such as power transistors
in order to increase their life.
2.4.3 Tower and Foundation
The newest turbines with blades over 50 m long require towers that approach
and even exceed 100 m in height. The cost of the tower is decreasing as a fraction
of the total cost, reaching 12% for the 3-MW turbine. The fractional cost of the
foundation is also decreasing, accounting for only 2% of the cost of the 3-MW
turbine. Neither the tower nor the foundation accounted for any of the failures in
10,000 turbine-years of operation.
 2-11 
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Nevertheless, with the growth of tower height beyond 100 m, tower head mass
beyond 500 metric tons, and continued growth in bending load, some
investigation of condition monitoring is warranted. The tower technology
currently dominant in the market, the steel monopile, is reaching the limit of its
capability. For example, Enercon offers steel towers of 64–98 m for its E-70
turbines, but only prefabricated concrete towers for greater heights.
One industry expert contends that the ideal solution for taller towers would be a
steel lattice spaceframe (like the Eiffel Tower), but that this design is limited by
fatigue of the joints. Nevertheless, towers employing a welded lattice substructure
with a monopile tower are being examined for the Talisman project in the
Beatrice wind turbine farm. Management of fatigue in welded and riveted joints
is an issue of current research in condition monitoring in civil and aerospace
engineering, so this problem may not be insurmountable.
2.4.4 Generators
Generator designs used in wind turbines continue to evolve to produce systems

that are simpler, more efficient, and require less maintenance. Table 2-6 provides
a compilation of types of generators provided by major wind turbine
manufacturers.
 2-12 
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Table 2-6
Wind-turbine manufacturers’ generator designs
Manufacturer Generator Features/Design

Coemi Coemi-G3 turbines claim a very efficient design with a power conversion of 85% because they use an asynchronous
generator that is directly connected to the grid with no need for an inverter.
GE Energy Permanent magnet generator for higher efficiency at low wind speed.
Brushless excitation for simplified maintenance.
Northern Power Systems Permanent magnet (PM) generator.
ENERCON Annular generator.
Among other features, the annular generator is a key component in ENERCON’s gearless wind generator design.
Combined with the rotor hub, it provides an almost frictionless flow of energy, while a smaller number of moving
components ensure minimal material wear. Unlike conventional fast-running generators, ENERCON’s annular
generator is subjected to little technical wear, making it ideal for particularly heavy loads and a long service life.
ENERCON’s annular generator is a low-speed synchronous generator with no direct grid coupling. Output voltage and
frequency vary with speed and are converted for output to the grid via a dc link and an inverter, which allow for high-
speed variability.
Advantages of ENERCON’s annular generator:
 No gear
 Low wear due to slow machine rotation
 Low machine stress due to high level of speed variability
 Yield-optimized control
 High power quality
According to ENERCON’s service life requirements, the copper winding in the stator (the stationary part of the annular
generator) known as closed, single-layer basket winding is produced in insulation class F (155°C). It consists of
individual round wires gathered in bundles and varnish insulated. At ENERCON, the copper winding is done
manually. In spite of increasing automation in other manufacturing areas, in this case preference has been given to
manual labor for good reason. It ensures that all materials used are fully inspected. Furthermore, a special work
process allows continuous windings to be produced. Each wire strand is continuous from start to end.
 2-13 
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Wind-turbine manufacturers’ generator designs
Manufacturer Generator Features/Design

ENERCON (continued) Advantages of continuous winding:
 Errors eliminated when making electrical connections
 High-quality copper wire insulating system maintained
 No contact resistance
No weak points susceptible to corrosion or material fatigue
Lagerwey Wind Direct drive generators
Siemens The gearbox tends to be the most complex component of a wind turbine; consequently, eliminating the gearbox
reduces complexity and increases reliability.
Siemens has opted for a permanent magnet generator for improved efficiency. Unlike an electrically excited machine
with a gearbox, a permanent magnet-excited machine does not expend any energy on the excitation itself. The SWT-
3.0-101 also has an outer rotor, where the rotor spins on the outside of the stator. This design feature allows the rotor
to operate within narrower tolerances, which aids in keeping the dimensions of the nacelle compact.
ABB Low-speed permanent magnet generator
In a direct drive application, the turbine and the generator are integrated to form a compact and structurally integrated
unit. The design gives free access to all parts for easy installation and maintenance. The simple and robust low-speed
rotor design with no separate excitation or cooling system results in minimum wear, reduced maintenance
requirements, lower life cycle costs, and a long lifetime.
 2-14 
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Section 3: Overview of Wind Turbine
Failure Mechanisms
3.1 Component Failure Cost Impact
The turbine drive train components account for between 20% and 25% of initial
turbine costs. The expense associated with a failure is compounded by the
difficulty of removing and replacing these components. In almost all cases, a
crane is required to remove the component, and for some turbines, the entire
rotor must be removed in order to access the gearbox. Assuming that a spare unit
is available, replacement may take two or three days with a crew of three, plus a
crane operator and an oiler. High-wind days, when the wind conditions are too
severe to operate the crane, can add to the swap-out time.
The availability of a crane itself can be a major factor in scheduling a gearbox or

generator replacement. Sites with smaller turbines on towers less than 65 m in
height may be able to use a truck-mounted hydraulic crane to remove the
generator and perhaps the gearbox. Since the required crane size is driven for the
most part by the lift height, turbines on towers over 70 m will usually require a
conventional crane, consisting of perhaps a dozen trailer-truck loads, a helper
crane to erect the boom, and two days on either side of the actual lift to assemble
and dismantle the main crane. Including the time to travel to and from the site,
crane mobilization cost alone can exceed the rebuild cost of the component.
Table 3-1 presents representative costs for replacing generators, main bearings,
and gearboxes of conventional turbine configurations. A crane is not required for
some repairs, designated by the term “up-tower” in the crane-cost column.
 3-1 
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Table 3-1
Representative costs for replacing drive train components
Wind Tower Example Repair Crane

Turbine Height Component cost Cost
Size Range (M) Failure ($1000) ($1000)
Kw Class 60 – 70 Gearbox rebuild $30 - $70 $10 - $40
Kw Class - Generator Bearing $2 - $4 In situ
replacement
Kw Class 60 – 70 Generator Rebuild $10 - $20 $10 - $20
Mw Class 70 – 80 Gearbox rebuild $60 - $160 $40 - $80
Mw Class 70 – 80 Generator Bearing $4 - $8 In situ
replacement
Mw Class 70 – 80 Generator Rebuild $30 - $50 $30 - $60
3.2 Component Reliability and Common Failure Mechanisms
The reliability of drive train components for the most recent generation of large
kW- and MW- sized machines has not met expectations. Although the
components are designed for the 20-year life of the turbine, there are numerous
examples in industry of component failures even in the first few years of
operation. Some of these failures have been attributed to design or manufacturing
faults and have occurred in the first year or two of operation. These have resulted
in fleet-wide, or at least project-wide, retrofits or replacements. Other failures
have not been as obvious, but are starting to affect projects that are leaving or
have left the warranty period.
In this section, degradation of materials used in large horizontal-axis turbines is

reviewed. Several mechanisms have been identified: fatigue, creep, creep fatigue,
corrosion, corrosion fatigue, wear, fretting, and particle erosion, depending on
whether the turbines are largely land-based or offshore.
The most prevalent degradation mechanism is fatigue, due in part to the very
large number of cycles, the complex triaxial and variable-amplitude loadings
involved, and the large number and types of internal interfaces in the composite
material components that are potential weak links. Fatigue degradation of wind
turbine materials, with special emphasis on blades, is presented in detail, and
attempts to develop predictive methodologies for fatigue life assessment are also
reviewed. Offshore turbines with their greater exposure to higher levels of
moisture and salt can suffer from degradation of the blades as well as the metallic
components of the drive train through such degradation mechanisms as
corrosion, corrosion fatigue, creep, and creep fatigue (the creep associated with
moisture-induced softening).
 3-2 
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First, the various wind turbine materials and their properties are presented with a
view to materials selection for turbine blades. Next, degradation mechanisms and
actual degradation behavior of candidate materials are reviewed.
The economies of scale are pushing the size of wind turbines beyond 3-MW
capacities with rotor diameters on the order of 100 m. This is because power
generated is proportional to the rotor’s swept area, and the larger power
generated per turbine offsets the installation costs associated with tower,
foundations, erection, and power collection. These large rotor sizes and the
correspondingly large tower heights needed to accommodate such large blades
have put severe material demands on turbine components in terms of their
allowable weights and the static and dynamic loads that these components will be
required to withstand for periods up to 20–30 years (their design life). In 2005,
worldwide installed wind capacity was passing 40 GW with an annual growth
rate of about 15%. Furthermore, offshore installations are growing exponentially,
especially in Europe, with an installed capacity currently approaching about 1
GW. Because installation costs are much higher for offshore structures, even
larger rotors are favored for economic reasons. Clearly there is a question as to
what the limits are with respect to current materials systems and what the future
materials challenges are, if indeed the sizes have to be pushed even further. This
section will explore current turbine structural materials, their properties, and the
limits to which they can be pushed for large, high-power wind turbine
applications.
3.2.1 Overview of Gearbox and Generator Failure

Mechanisms
The gearbox and generator together make up both the most costly and the least
reliable system in wind turbines. German insurers require on-line monitoring of
these systems or else a complete overhaul after five years or 40,000 hours of
service, whichever comes first. The issues with the cost and reliability of the
gearbox have led to the development of many research turbines and one family of
production turbines (Enercon) that does not use a gearbox, but instead drives the
generator directly from the rotor. This approach also reduces the number of
bearings in the wind machine to two low-speed bearings, at the cost of a large,
multipole generator (84 poles in the 4.8-m diameter generator in the E-40) and
sophisticated power electronics.
The most important issue in the reliability of the drive train is wear of the gear
teeth and bearings. The causes of this wear include the following:
 Particulates in the oil due to contamination during assembly, corrosion, and
wear
 Variations in rotor speed due to imbalance, variations in wind speed, etc.,
which may cause the gear teeth to chatter, causing fretting and generating
particles
 Stress concentrations in gear teeth, due to wear or machining
 3-3 
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 Mechanical interference or other manufacturing problems such as heat
treatments or surface finish out of specification
 Loss of oil or oil circulation
The symptoms of these problems are changes in the vibration signatures of the
gears and bearings, and changes in the size, number, and total mass of
particulates generated in the gearbox oil.
For generators in wind turbines, approximately 40% of the failures were related
to bearings, 38% were related to the stator, and 10% to the rotor. The stator and
rotor problems included phase imbalances and turn-to-turn short circuits. These
problems are easily detected and diagnosed by monitoring the stator and rotor
currents or, alternatively, by identifying the generation of harmonics in the
output power signal. Some other problems with the generator cause a loss of
efficiency that can be detected by monitoring the power characteristic.
One study addressed failures of the transmission housing on a certain series of

wind turbines. These failures appeared as cracks that allowed the oil to drain
from the gearbox, causing shutdown of the turbines. The faults were determined
to be caused by fatigue in the housing, and revisions to the manufacturing
technique (grinding and shot-peening critical locations) extended the predicted
fatigue life to the point that further monitoring was not required.
3.2.2 Gear Failures
Tables 3-2 and 3-3 list common failure modes for gears and bearings, respectively.
Table 3-2
Gear failure modes common to wind turbines
Tooth May result from poor gear steel cleanliness (inclusions),

Cracking improper tooth hardening, or overload during operation.
Severe spalling and debris from other failed components can
contribute to tooth stresses and lead to tooth breakage.
Micro-pitting Very fine pits that develop over the contact area of the teeth;
may not be visible to the naked eye at the start. The cause is not
always clear, but improper tooth grinding and poor lubricant
cleanliness are likely candidates.
Abrasion Can result from poor tooth profile control or a manufacturing
error, exacerbated by poor or dirty lubricant.
Spalling Aside from tooth breakage, Hertzian fatigue is the eventual
failure mode for gear teeth. Poor or dirty lubrication, over-
rolling of debris or contaminant in the mesh, and localized
stress due to misalignment will accelerate spalling fatigue.
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Micropitting and some cases of macropitting have been observed on gears for
many years. Both of these result in surface pits of differing scale that reduce the
effective load-carrying area for contact stress. This increases the local contact
stress, thereby exacerbating the problem, and as a consequence, both can reduce
the life of the parts affected.
Micropitting is a surface fatigue phenomenon that manifests itself as extremely

fine pitting on the gear surface. It has been identified as a function of load, gear
design, tooth finish, and lubricant. It is not a purely a material-specific
phenomenon. One of the problems is that there is not a good, well-accepted
rating method for micropitting risk/resistance. Super finishes (mechanical and
chemical polishing, etc.) and super materials (for example, Caterpillar claims that
they have custom steels that can handle 5 times higher Hertzian or contact stress
than current commercial steels) have been shown to reduce the risk of
micropitting, but so has proper gear design and correct selection of lubricants.
Macropitting and sub-case fatigue can be materials problems that are a result of
improper heat treatment. Alternatively, macropitting can be from a
manufacturing problem where the final grinding of a gear can compromise the
hardened region of the sub-surface (for example, by grinding down through it).
3.2.3 Bearing Failures
Each wind turbine model may use gearboxes and generators from several
manufacturers. There are six major gearbox manufacturers, and at least as many
generator manufacturers. Although components from different suppliers are
designed and built to the same interface and performance specifications, they are
not identical. There are some commonalities between the failures seen in the
various manufacturers’ gearbox or generator designs, but in many cases, the
failure modes are different from design to design, even for the same size
component. Despite extensive research and development efforts directed toward
drive train component failures, the root cause for some failure modes has not
been defined or at least not publicly revealed.
 3-5 
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Table 3-3
Bearing failure modes common to wind turbines
Ring or roller May result from poor gear steel cleanliness (inclusions) or
cracking overload during operation. Severe spalling and debris from
other failed components will eventually lead to cracking. Can
also result from improper fits on shafts or in housings or from
excessive misalignment or force at assembly.
Wear Generally caused by abrasive contaminant in lubricant, but
inadequate lubricant film can promote wear at sliding surfaces
(for example, between rollers and cages).
Spalling Hertzian fatigue is the eventual failure mode for rolling contacts.
Poor or dirty lubrication, over-rolling of debris or contaminant in
the mesh, and localized stress due to misalignment will
accelerate spalling fatigue.
Brinelling Indentations in the raceways can occur from overload during
assembly or transport, especially cyclic loading that occurs with
components that are not rotating. Fluting ridges and troughs
can occur along the roller-raceway contact length when
electrical current passes through the bearing; common with
poorly grounded generator rotors.
3.2.3.1 Bearing Materials
Large bearings have shown an increase in failures due to materials. Some of this
is due to nonmetallic inclusions in the materials used to fabricate bearing races or
rings. Also, some problems have been documented with heat treatment
consistency throughout large rings. The observed problem from this is sub-case
fatigue due to subsurface stresses due to variations in the hardened case depth
(see the discussion below on gear material cleanliness).
Smearing or scuffing has also been observed in bearings. This is a surface wear
phenomenon that occurs commonly within a few hours of operation during the
run-in or initial beneficial wear of conformal surfaces. This can be a materials
problem, but it is frequently the result of one of the following:
 Selecting larger bearings than required
 Using inappropriate bearing configurations
 A lack of appreciation for the system dynamics
3.2.3.2 Gear and Bearing Material Cleanliness
There are some field experiences with gear tooth bending failures due to non-
metallic inclusions in the steel. As gears have gotten bigger for wind turbine
applications and stress levels have increased (due to competitive pressures to
reduce cost and improved gear tooth mesh modeling tools), the cleanliness of the
original gear steel has become critical.
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For high-performance industrial applications such as wind turbines, AGMA
2001-C95 grade 2 quality is normally specified. ISO 6336 – 5:2003 has an
equivalent grade called MQ, which was, more or less, initially based on AGMA
grade 2. When ISO 6336 Part 5 was translated into DIN 3990 Part 5, several
very important requirements such as steel cleanliness were weakened, and many
European gear manufacturers use the DIN and not the ISO standard.
Part of the reason that this shows up with larger parts may be due to the
difficulty of applying more sophisticated re-melt techniques such as electrostatic
re-melt (ESR) and vacuum arc re-melt (VAR) for parts as large as current wind
turbine generator (WTG) gear elements. Application of such high-quality
techniques (used widely in aerospace applications) on large parts requires
extremely expensive retooling at foundries in Europe that are struggling to stay
competitive with foundries in emerging economies.
This is a bit of a concern because some manufacturers have started eliminating

planet bearing outer rings by fabricating the ring directly as the inner diameter of
the planet gear. The hardness surface requirements can vary greatly between
bearing rings and gears, so poor cleanliness could be especially critical at these
locations.
3.2.4 Gearbox Bolt Failures
Bolts have sheared inside gearboxes. Though not only a recent phenomenon, its
frequency of occurrence has not abated in the past few years. The cause is
partially due to materials. But the reasons have been that the bolts supplied and
used were improperly labeled “high-strength bolts.” This practice has been
identified before, but it is difficult to control. This is because bolts are sold as
bulk items with quality grades stamped on them at the factory, and little or no
paper trail exists to identify the source steel, heat treatment, and processing steps.
Standards restrict the use of such bolts inside gearboxes. For instance, ISO/IEC
81400-4:2005 requires that all internal fasteners be metric grade 8.8 or better, but
that grade 12.9 or better should not be used under dynamic loading. It further
requires that high-strength hardware be source controlled and sample tested to
identify mislabeled batches. This is more a quality control problem than a
materials problem.
In some other cases, the bolts were of the correct quality but the shrink disk
assembly that they were included in was undersized. Apparently, the shrink disk
was loaded beyond its yield point, which loosened the clamp, and the resulting
dynamic loads damaged the bolts. Standards demand that internal bolts be
avoided, but if they are used, they should be wired securely as in aircraft
applications.
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3.2.5 Blades – Failures in the Field
Blade failures due to materials have not been observed in the field. Experience
suggests that the strength is not limited by material properties. Instead, in this
limited population (45 failures in a population exceeding 600 blades—type and size
unspecified), the observed failures were due to design and manufacturing details.
These failures observed were due to improper lightning protection (easily

identified by burned areas), insufficient stiffness (evidenced by tower strikes, etc),
and manufacturing issues. The manufacturing issues are, of course, difficult to
separate from those that are purely material specific.
Manufacturing problems may include the following:

 Improper curing (for example, final curing make take place in the field and
result in unwanted twisting or distortion of the airfoil)
 Difficulties with joints and material transitions (for example, steel root
attachment, skin to spar bonding, etc.)
 Ply drops or laminate discontinuities contributing to stress concentrations
3.2.6 Generator Failures
The purpose of this subsection is to present the results of research done by EPRI
regarding the nature and types of generator failures throughout the power
industry. The degree to which these failures may be relevant to generators
installed in wind turbines should be studied further by wind farm
owner/operators. Table 3-4 provides a collection of the reported failure
mechanisms for various generator subcomponents.
Table 3-4
Generator failure mechanisms
Subcomponent Failure Mechanisms

Cell slot liners Migration, liner degradation
Winding copper Copper dusting. copper distortion, copper
foreshortening, moving conductors, spreading of top
conductors, end strap elongation
Links and connections Cracks in damper links, cracks in pole-to-pole
connections, main lead fatigue and cracking, coil-to-
coil jumpers distorted and partially broken, pole-to-
pole jumper distortion
Retaining rings Arcing damage to the retaining ring, retaining-ring
stress-corrosion cracking, retaining-ring pitting,
retaining-ring material removal from multiple
inspections, retaining-ring seating cracks, top tooth
cracking
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Generator failure mechanisms
Subcomponent Failure Mechanisms

Collectors and brushes Collector flashover, carbon brush dust accumulation,
collector ring footprint, and other surface problems
Winding insulation Shorted field windings, partially shorted turns at
speed, insulation deterioration, crushing of insulation,
field grounds, rotor temperature monitoring loss of
calibration
Contamination Construction and manufacture debris, metal
contamination
End-winding blocking Missing blocking, loosened blocking, moved out of
position
Rotor cooling Poor design thermally, insulation blocking gas ducts,
slot liners shifted or migrated and blocking cooling
passages, general overheating
Forging symmetry issues Asymmetrical stiffness of rotor forging, rotor forging
issues
Rotor shaft Cracked shafts, keyway cracking, stub shaft
alignment
Rotor slot teeth Dovetail cracking, galling of the slot dovetails during
wedge installation
Rotor baffle assembly Baffle assembly damage
Slot liners Slot cells end cracking, slot liner cracks, slot liner
migration
Rotor fan Blade diffuser damage
Slot wedges Packing clearance excessive, rotor slot wedge cracks
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Table 3-5 shows the type and number of problems reported by the 118 power
plant units that provided information to the EPRI research effort.
Table 3-5
Relative frequencies of generator failure mechanisms
Reported Failure Count

Mechanism/Problem
Shorted field turns 20
Retaining-ring stress-corrosion concerns 15
Liner issues 9
Movement of winding copper 8
Distortion of winding copper 6
Main lead cracking 6
Dovetail galling and cracking 6

Contamination issues 3
Radial stud issues 3
Tooth top cracking issue 3
Hydrogen seal problems 3
Bearing grounds 2
Brush rigging grounds 2
End turn blocks loose and missing 2
Forging concerns 2
Retaining ring arcing 2
Shaft cracking 2
Slot wedge cracking 2
Cooling problems 1
Fan cracking issues 1
Low IR reading 1
Generator motoring event 1
Winding connection cracking 1
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3.3 Resulting Availability of Wind Turbines
There are a number of different ways to define and track availability for
individual wind turbines and wind power plants. To ensure consistency
throughout the industry, the turbine verification program (TVP) definition of
availability takes into account all downtime experienced by the individual wind
turbines in a generating site or wind farm facility and divides the available hours
by the total hours in the period. For example, in a 100-hour period, a turbine
may be shut down for 5 hours because a site tour is in progress, 5 hours to repair
a component under warranty, and 5 hours due to a line outage. The TVP would
count 15 hours of downtime in the 100-hour period and report an availability of
85%. This is a conservative approach, which generally results in greater stated
downtime compared to other methods.
The TVP availability method satisfies the needs of a utility that is interested in
the total project downtime when the project is unable to produce power,
regardless of the cause. Turbine vendors and operators are more interested in an
availability definition that includes only turbine reliability downtime for which
Key Technical Point they are responsible. The vendors and operators have no responsibility or control
EPRI worked with the DOE over the downtime hours resulting from a utility line being down or force majeure
and several EPRI members events. As a result, the TVP definition of availability is not necessarily a measure
to help establish methods of of turbine reliability.
tracking wind turbine
performance: In general, the TVP availability is lower during the summer months, in part due
1. Fort Davis; in Fort to retrofit work and scheduled maintenance. At the Fort Davis project, aileron
Davis, Texas, owned by failures, inspections, and repairs have caused significant amounts of downtime
American Electric since the project began operation. Enron no longer offers turbine models with
Power (AEP) ailerons, primarily due to the experience gained through this project. Response
2. Springview; Keya Paha time to faults affected availability at Glenmore, and rotor lightning damage was a
County, Nebraska, major cause of downtime at Springview. The next subsection provides a more
owned by Nebraska detailed description of the downtime causes at each project.
Public Power District
(NPPD) Although downtime and availability are commonly used as performance measures
3. Searsburg; Searsburg, in the wind energy industry, it is important to understand the time of occurrence
Vermont, owned by and the cause of the downtime along with the actual number of downtime hours.
Green Mountain Power Obviously, 10 hours of downtime during a low-wind period is less significant
(GMP) than 10 hours of downtime during a high-wind period because of the lost
4. Glenmore; Glenmore, opportunity to produce energy during the higher-wind period. As discussed in
Wisconsin, owned by the next section, the two highest wind-speed months at Fort Davis were April
Wisconsin Public and May, and they had the lowest project availability, resulting in relatively
Service (WPS) greater lost energy. Also, the year’s highest wind-speed month at Springview was
5. Algona; Algona May, which was one of the lowest project availability months, while the lowest-
Municipal Utilities in availability month, July, also had the lowest mean wind.
Algona, Iowa
6. Kotzebue; Kotzebue,
Alaska, owned by
Kotzebue Electric
Association, Inc.
 3-11 
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The cause of downtime and the cost to return a turbine to service are also
important considerations. For example, 10 hours of downtime due to a fault that
is reset without additional action has less impact on the project than 10 hours of
downtime due to a repair that requires significant labor, equipment, and parts
replacement, assuming that the winds are comparable during both periods. The
downtime categories include the following:
 O&M – All troubleshooting, inspections, adjustments, retrofits, and repairs
performed on the turbines and the downtime that accumulates while waiting
for parts, instructions, or outside services not available on site but required to
place a turbine back online. Downtime associated with the SCADA system
is not included in this category if the turbine continues to operate. O&M
downtime accounted for nearly 51% of the total 1999 downtime at the six
projects, ranging from 17% at Glenmore to 63% at Fort Davis.
 Faults – Turbine faults that required a reset with no further action. If a
maintenance activity immediately followed a fault, the downtime associated
with the fault was combined with the repair hours, and the event was
included in the O&M category. In some cases, faults are not cleared until
personnel or parts are available or until after a repair is made. In these
instances, the fault time was also reclassified as an O&M event if sufficient
information was available to make that determination. When faults occur in
the evening or on weekends, they are often reset in the morning of the next
business day. The response time before the fault was reset is included in the
fault category as long as the fault was not followed by repair work requiring
tower climbing or other maintenance. High wind and certain cable twist
“soft” faults are not counted as downtime because they are considered a
normal part of turbine operation and are reset automatically. Faults
accounted for 19% of the total downtime at the six projects during 1999,
ranging from less than 2% at Kotzebue to more than 63% at Glenmore.
 Line outages – Time when the entire project was offline due to a utility line
outage at the site. Although no line outages occurred at Glenmore and
Springview, line outages accounted for nearly 7% of the downtime at Fort
Davis and 5% of the total 1999 downtime for all six projects.
 Other – Routine maintenance, inspections, miscellaneous troubleshooting,
site tours, and time associated with repairing and removing additional
instrumentation and data acquisition systems to support testing activities.
Although more than 7% of the downtime for Kotzebue’s Phase 1 turbines
was attributed to these activities, most of the TVP projects had little or no
downtime in this category, which accounts for less than 1% of the total 1999
downtime at the six projects. Kotzebue’s “other” downtime was due in part to
the construction activities on the Phase 2 and 3 turbines, which caused some
project-wide shutdowns.
 Unknown – Periods when no documentation related to downtime is available
due to missing data or the periods were prior to SCADA installation. The
cause is unknown for 12% of the total 1999 downtime at the six projects,
ranging from 1% at Searsburg to 20% at Springview. Analysis of the downtime
associated with O&M activities and faults is discussed below.
 3-12 
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3.3.1 Downtime Due to O&M Activities
Unscheduled maintenance involves responding to any unexpected event, ranging

from minor activities, such as resetting sensors or circuit breakers, to major
repairs, such as removing a nacelle from a tower to replace the yaw gear. These
activities can involve any level of effort from two operators working for less than
an hour to a large crew using a crane for a full day or more.
The majority of O&M downtime occurs in April and May. In general, the
frequency of O&M events was high relative to their durations at most TVP sites.
In other words, the downtime tended to be associated with events that did not
require significant time to repair or troubleshoot. Some general observations are
provided below:
 Rotor-related – Aileron components on the Z-40A turbines at Fort Davis
continued to fail during 1999 in spite of a major retrofit to replace aileron
hinges, bolts, and bell cranks during 1998. Bolt replacements and push tube
repairs continued throughout the year. All turbines at Fort Davis were taken
offline in late April 1999 after ailerons were thrown from two turbines due to
the failure of blade-side inboard hinge bolts. Tip brakes on the AOC 15/50
turbines at Kotzebue also required considerable troubleshooting and
accounted for 32% of the 1999 O&M downtime for the Phase 1 turbines.
Blade damage from lightning strikes accounted for 24% of O&M downtime
at Springview. While very little rotor-related downtime occurred at
Searsburg, Glenmore, and Algona during 1999, rotor-related retrofit and
repair work accounted for 68% of the O&M downtime at Fort Davis and
nearly 54% of all O&M downtime at the six projects during the year.
 Controller – Control system events included troubleshooting and replacing
damaged components, software upgrades, and modifications to control
settings. Firing boards, silicon controller rectifiers (SCRs), and SCR cables
required the most attention. Lightning damage to controller components
contributed significant downtime to several of the TVP projects, although a
retrofit developed with assistance from TVP has improved the lightning
resistance of the controllers. Controller downtime accounts for 20% of all
1999 O&M downtime at the six projects, ranging from less than 0.1% at
Glenmore to more than 45% at Searsburg.
 Hydraulic system – All projects except Kotzebue experienced some
downtime for repairs and troubleshooting on hydraulic systems. Hydraulic
system repairs and parts delays account for more than 58% of the 1999
O&M downtime at Glenmore, but only 7% of the total.
 3-13 
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3.3.2 O&M Downtime for All Six Projects
The following discussion summarizes O&M downtime for all six of the projects
included in the EPRI report Wind Turbine Verification Project Experience
(1000961):
 Generator – Four generators failed at TVP projects during 1999, at
Searsburg in March and December, at Algona in September, and at Fort
Davis in October. No generator downtime occurred at Kotzebue or
Glenmore during 1999. Generator repairs account for 9% and 7% of O&M
downtime at Searsburg and Fort Davis, respectively, and averaged nearly 6%
of all 1999 O&M downtime at the six projects.
 Scheduled maintenance – Scheduled maintenance consists of several basic
tasks and includes inspecting the condition of components (for example,
checking the wear on brake pads); servicing items that require some type of
activity on a regular basis (for example, retorquing bolts); and replacing
consumable items at or before a specified age (for example, replacing filters
or changing the oil in the gearbox). All of the projects received routine
inspections during the year, ranging from less than 2 hours per turbine at
Fort Davis and Kotzebue to more than 38 hours per turbine at Glenmore.
Scheduled maintenance activities account for more than 16% of Glenmore’s
1999 O&M downtime, but only 2% of the total 1999 O&M downtime for
all six projects.
 Other – The remaining downtime consists of miscellaneous hub bearing,
blade pitch, tower cleaning, and brake repair events on various turbines.
Occasionally, neighboring turbines are taken offline for safety reasons during
O&M work to use components for troubleshooting activities. This category
accounted for 7% of the total 1999 O&M downtime for the six projects.
Additional information on the types and timeframe of O&M downtime

experienced at each project is included in TVP Program annual operational
reports.
3.3.3 Downtime Due to Faults
Faults accounted for more than 19% of the total downtime at the six TVP
projects during 1999. As previously noted, the faults in this category are only
those “nuisance” faults for which the site operator takes no action other than to
reset the turbines. The act of resetting a turbine takes only a small fraction of an
hour; therefore, most of the hours in this category represent the time it took the
operator to become aware of the fault condition and respond with a reset action.
The most common faults related to the hydraulic, generator, and electrical
systems generally increase in frequency during periods of high winds and often
occur at the same time, usually as over-line voltage and generator over-current, or
over-line voltage and generator over-speed. Yaw system faults such as rotation
errors occur during sudden wind direction changes when the turbine rotor begins
to spin backward because the winds are blowing from behind the turbine due to
gusty and turbulent conditions. On average, each turbine faulted approximately
 3-14 
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3.6 times per month and was down for an average of 4.0 hours for each fault
during 1999. Although Searsburg experienced nearly three times the number of
faults, its average fault duration was half the average duration at the other sites,
indicating exemplary response time.
3.3.4 Lightning Impacts and Mitigation Activities
As part of their technical support to the host utilities and turbine vendors, the
TVP staff and consultants have engaged in a variety of lightning-related research
activities. The need for this work became apparent following the installation and
initial experience at the Fort Davis project where lightning caused repeated
damage to turbine components during storms. The research has proven to be
vital in improving the wind industry’s understanding of lightning protection for
wind turbines. At the time of the first TVP installations, there was limited
experience in the United States with wind turbine operation in high-lightning
areas, and wind industry experts had conflicting opinions about “good practices”
for lightning protection measures and grounding designs, particularly within
reasonable cost constraints.
 3-15 
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Section 4: Preventive Maintenance Basis
4.1 General Guidance
The following sections provide an overview of the various types of maintenance

activities that can be performed on a wind turbine and its system components.
4.1.1 Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance (PM) tasks are performed based on a time or interval

basis to avoid catastrophic equipment failure. PM performs maintenance tasks on
a planned rather than reactive basis and avoids the losses associated with
unplanned downtime. The penalty of PM is that some tasks are performed that
are unnecessary and costly. The following subcategories of PM are based on
scheduling of the actions:
 Grace period preventive maintenance – Any PM task that is to be
performed beyond its original due date but prior to the late date for that
activity. Normally, this time period (due date to late date) is an additional
25% of the original schedule interval for the PM task. No engineering
evaluation is required. The grace period is provided as reasonable flexibility
to allow for alignment with surveillance activities and functional equipment
group bundling and to better manage the use of station resources.
 Deferred preventive maintenance – A PM task that exceeds its original late
date with an approved engineering evaluation that determines the
acceptability for the extension to a new due date, before the original late date
is exceeded.
 Delinquent (overdue) preventive maintenance – A PM task that exceeds
its late date (grace period) without an approved extension or deferral.
The distinction between predictive maintenance and periodic maintenance is

presented below.
 4-1 
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4.1.1.1 Predictive Maintenance
Examples of predictive maintenance are the following:

Key Technical Point  Vibration analysis for all rotating equipment
Predictive maintenance tasks
are performed based on  Thermography for temperature surveys on electrical equipment, leak
equipment condition. detection, overheating, etc.
Predictive maintenance relies  Oil analysis (tribology) to determine the equipment condition and also the
on technologies to determine lubricant condition
the current condition of the
equipment so that only the  Electrical testing for motor and generators
required maintenance is
performed before equipment
4.1.1.2 Periodic Maintenance
failure.
Periodic maintenance may be performed to prevent breakdown and can involve
servicing such as lubrication, filter changes, cleaning, testing, adjustments,
calibrations, and inspections. Periodic maintenance can also be initiated because
of the results of predictive maintenance, vendor recommendation, or experience.
Examples of periodic maintenance are the following:
 Scheduled valve repacking because of anticipated leakage based on previous
Key Technical Point
experience
Periodic maintenance consists
of “time-based” preventive  Replacement of bearings or pump realignment as indicated from vibration
maintenance actions taken to analysis and/or lubrication oil analysis
maintain a piece of  Major or minor overhauls based on experience factors or vendor
equipment within design recommendations
operating conditions and to
extend its life.  Instrument calibrations use to meet plant specifications that are not part of a
routine surveillance
4.1.2 Corrective Maintenance
As a rule, if the specific component requiring maintenance is substantially

degraded (for example, packing or bearing degradation) or failed, the action
Key Technical Point required to repair it is classified as corrective maintenance.
Corrective maintenance tasks
are generated as a result of To be considered corrective maintenance, the component must have failed such
equipment failure. Corrective that it cannot meet its intended functions, or for degradation identified during
tasks are generated when PM, the component will reach this state before the next scheduled PM interval.
equipment is purposely There may be cases where corrective maintenance could include standing PM
operated to failure and also orders/procedures specifically invoked to correct anticipated component
when equipment failure is not degradation. If the degradation does not meet these criteria, it should be
wanted or planned. It is the considered elective maintenance.
most basic form of
maintenance and also the
most expensive. Most plants
are moving away from
corrective maintenance, but
there will always be a portion
of maintenance that is
 4-2 
performed as a result of
equipment failure.
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A component should be considered failed or significantly degraded if the
deficiency is similar to any of the following examples:
 It is removed from service because of actual or incipient failure.
 It is significant component degradation that affects system operability. The
component may be determined operable by engineering assessment, but the
degradation is significant and requires immediate corrective action.
 It creates the potential for rapidly increasing component degradation.
 It releases fluids that create significant exposure or contamination concerns.
Minor leaks that can be controlled and managed by simple drip catch
containments would not be included here.
 It adversely affects controls or process indications that directly or indirectly
impair the operator’s ability to operate the plant or that reduce redundancy of
important equipment.
 Significant component degradation is identified from conducting predictive,
periodic, or preventive maintenance, which, if not resolved, could result in
equipment failure or significant additional damage prior to its next scheduled
PM period.
Detailed guidance regarding the repair of system components is provided in

Section 5 of this report.
4.2 Wind Turbine System PM Overview
4.2.1 Introduction
Preventive maintenance aims to increase the reliability and extend the lifetime of
generators by providing appropriate servicing at the right time. It consists of
annual system inspections and component replacements based on a generator-
specific maintenance schedule. The formation of defects in wind turbine
generators is normally a long process, so systematic PM can prevent unplanned
shutdowns.
4.2.1.1 Comprehensive Maintenance
PM includes the labor and parts needed to perform on-site work as specified by
the maintenance schedule:
 Visual inspection of the generator and its operating environment
 Inspection of the connections
 Checking of the generator mounting bolts and alignment
 Inspection, testing, and cleaning of the stator and rotor
 Condition monitoring of the bearings and lubrication
 Cleaning and checking the bearing shield insulation
 Inspection and cleaning of the slip ring assembly
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 Cleaning of the cooling system
 Inspection and/or testing of the accessories
 Inventory of the generator spare parts
Once the maintenance work has been completed and the inspection data fully
analyzed, a detailed service report should be provided. This includes
recommendations for service actions, for spare parts, and for special tools for
future actions.
4.2.1.2 Preparations for PM
The effectiveness of the PM work depends on the quality of the information

provided by the system owner in service reports. In general, PM is more effective
when the information provided is as comprehensive as possible. If the
information available is not sufficient, it is recommended that a site survey be
performed on the generator before the PM is carried out. During the shutdown,
maintenance providers should have free access to the generator for maintenance
purposes as agreed. PM must be planned well in advance in order to ensure that
the required resources and service parts are available.
4.2.1.3 Maintenance Schedule
Experience indicates that generators become more likely to fail after a number of
years in operation. The failing interval depends on the component and how
punctually and duly the commissioning and scheduled maintenance have been
done. Another determining factor is the life expectancy of the individual
component. The main reason is aging of the components, but operating
conditions also play a major role. Failure of a component may cause damage to
other parts of the machine, including the stator and rotor.
The maintenance schedules should be based on extensive know-how, and they

should provide an effective and systematic way to maintain a specific type of
generator. The maintenance schedules should generally comply with any
specifications issued by the component suppliers. Environmental and operating
conditions should also be taken into account. Tough conditions—such as high
ambient temperatures, high vibration levels, high operating altitude, humidity,
dirt, or heavy loads—can significantly shorten component lifetime and reduce
maintenance and component replacement intervals. In order to ensure optimum
performance over the entire lifetime of a generator, most manufacturers typically
recommend that annual inspections are carried out in addition to regular
maintenance.
 4-4 
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The following table is an example of proposed preventive maintenance activities
for wind turbine generators recommended by a leading manufacturer.
Table 4-1
Turbine proposed PM activities
Please note that the given recommendations are suggestions only.

Tailor made application may differ from the recommendations.
4.3 Gearboxes
4.3.1 Condition Monitoring of Gearbox Assemblies
Gearbox instrumentation may be furnished by the manufacturer to accommodate

condition monitoring of certain performance parameters in the field. The
following performance parameters may be monitored by plant personnel in
accordance with the guidance discussed in this section:
Key Technical Point
Typically, after the initial  Temperature
warranty period is over,
 Oil pressure
sound wave attenuation
testing (vibration monitoring)  Noise and/or vibration
and borescopic inspections
 Oil flow
should be considered to
detect abnormal or Additionally, the condition monitoring of the lubricant furnished with the
accelerated wear of gearbox gearbox is critical to ensuring design performance.
components.
4.3.1.1 Temperature Measurement
Temperature is an important indicator of the operation of any gear system. The

actual point of measurement is determined by what performance characteristic
the user is interested in monitoring.
On a splash-lubricated unit, housing temperature is a common area of concern

for troublefree operation. In a pressure-lubricated system, inlet and outlet oil
temperatures will give a good indication of both the lubrication system and
gearbox health. In critical and high-speed applications, the ability to determine
 4-5 
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the actual operating temperatures of the individual bearings, in addition to the
previously discussed monitoring, is beneficial in determining changes in
component health and potential future failures.
 Thermometers – These are the simplest of all gearbox temperature
monitoring devices. They are generally used to report oil temperature in the
gearbox supply or drain lines. Thermometers are slow to respond to changes
and require visual examination and human input to evaluate the operational
health of the gearbox.
 Temperature switches – These are mechanical switches that open and close
as temperatures reach predetermined set points. These devices can be used to
automatically activate alarms or shutdowns when equipment exceeds
predetermined acceptance levels.
 Thermocouples – These simple and rugged instruments are highly reliable
and produce a voltage output, which requires additional equipment to read.
This signal can be used to read actual temperature at remote locations and
activate alarms or shutdowns when equipment exceeds predetermined
acceptance levels. A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals that
produce a known voltage as the temperature varies. There are seven metal
combinations used in the gear industry; therefore, the type of thermocouple
should be known to determine the temperature. Table 4-2 lists these metal
combinations.
Table 4-2
Types of thermocouples
(Used with permission from Philadelphia Gear Corporation)
Thermocouple Type Metal Combinations

T (most common) Copper – Constantan
J Iron – Constantan
E Chromel – Constantan
K Chromel – Alumel
B Rhodium – Platinum (30%)
R Rhodium – Platinum (13%)
S Rhodium – Platinum (10%)
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The most common problems encountered with thermocouples are using a
different metal combination than those with which the reading equipment was
set and using extension wires that are not the same metal combinations as the
thermocouple to which they are connected.
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) – These are devices that contain
an electric circuit formed of solid conductors (usually a wire). The most
common conductors are platinum, iron, and copper. The resistance varies
with temperature, and this resistance change can be used to determine the
temperature at the tip of the sensor. This signal can be used to activate
alarms or shutdowns when equipment exceeds predetermined acceptance
levels. RTDs are not as rugged as thermocouples, and care must be taken to
ensure that the conductor is not damaged in operation due to handling or
vibration. RTDs can be installed in the oil flow path to measure oil
temperature, or they can be installed in fluid film bearings to read bearing
babbitt temperature.
 Infrared thermography – Infrared thermography has gained favor in recent
years in helping troubleshoot problem areas where high temperatures are
present. The “thermal picture” typically gives indications of where excessive
temperature is a problem.
4.3.1.2 Oil Pressure Measurement
Pressure is one of the most important indicators of the effectiveness of a

pressure-lubricated system’s capability to meet its design function. Pressure is
typically measured on a gearbox with either a pressure gauge or pressure switch:
 Pressure gauges – Pressure gauges are visual devices that display the pressure
at a particular monitoring point. They are usually used to observe oil pressure
in the gearbox lubrication system. Pressure gauges require both visual
examination and human input to evaluate the operational health of the
lubricant supply system.
 Pressure switches – Pressure switches are mechanical devices that open and
close as pressure reaches predetermined setpoints. These devices can be used
to automatically activate alarms or shutdowns when equipment exceeds
predetermined acceptance levels.
4.3.1.3 Noise/Vibration Measurement
Vibration measurement is an indication of the condition of the mechanical

components of the gearbox. It is extremely useful in evaluating fitness for service
for both new units and in predicting potential operating problems for installed
equipment. Every mechanical system has a vibration signature. A change in a
vibration signature over time is a useful preventive maintenance indicator;
therefore, both the current signature and historical signature are often required to
properly diagnose a problem.
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The key vibration characteristics, which are useful in evaluating a gearbox’s
health, are the frequency of vibration and the magnitude of vibration. Magnitude
is expressed as either movement (displacement), speed (velocity), or rate of
acceleration. Examples of typically used devices are:
 Proximity probes – Proximity probes are electrical devices that sense the
distance a metal body is from the tip of the probe. This type of displacement
measurement device is used to determine the movement of a shaft within the
bearings and housing. To accomplish this, two probes are needed per shaft at
90 apart. Proximity probes are best used for detecting balance, instability,
and misalignment problems and require a probe driver and accompanying
readout. They are also particularly useful for lower-frequency vibrations such
as shaft rotation frequencies.
 Velocity pickups – Velocity pickups are transducers that detect the velocity
(speed) of a surface (usually a gear case) to which it is attached. Vibration is the
physical movement of an object during operation. The movement is usually so
small that it is not obvious with the naked eye, but a velocity pickup can detect
the actual speed of the surface movement. Because it is often difficult to
determine the optimum location for placement of the transducer, the velocity
should be measured in all three directions (horizontal, vertical, and axial) in
order to ensure that complete and accurate data are obtained. Velocity pickups
are also capable of identifying moderately high frequencies such as higher-
frequency structural resonance and lower tooth-passing frequencies.
 Accelerometers – Accelerometers are similar to velocity transducers, except
that in accelerometers the transducers output the acceleration of the
monitored surface (usually the gear case), as opposed to the velocity. They are
also similar in that it is often difficult to determine the optimum location for
placement of the accelerometer. And, as is the case with velocity transducers,
care should be taken to measure acceleration in all three directions in order to
ensure that complete and accurate data are obtained. This equipment is
capable of identifying high frequencies such as tooth-passing frequencies.
 Noise measurement – Abnormal noise can result from excessive vibration of
the gearbox assembly or its internal subassemblies. Detecting the following
types of abnormal sounds may be helpful in identifying problems prior to
major failures of the gearbox components:
- Roughness – possibly indicating poor meshing of the gear teeth
- Grinding of gear teeth – possibly indicating a gear tooth failure
- Clashing – possibly indicating misalignment or poor meshing of the gear
teeth
- Whining – possibly indicating partial seizure, high friction, or a partial
loss of lubricant
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4.3.1.4 Oil Flow Measurement
Flow measurement is used to verify and monitor gearbox lubrication system

operation. Gearbox lubrication systems depend on proper oil flow and
distribution to perform their function. During gearbox testing, flow is measured
to ensure that the oil being supplied to the drive is in agreement with the design
requirements. After gear drive installation, a flow monitor should be used to
identify changes in the lubrication system performance. The changes can be due
to anything from a pump failing to a clogged filter or oil supply line. Examples of
the most commonly used instrumentation are;
 Visual flow monitors – Visual flow monitors are the most basic of flow-
measuring devices. The most common of these devices is a simple sight
window with a paddle or a flow indicator with a dial gauge. Both devices
indicate the presence or absence of oil flow. Visual flow monitors can be used
on the supply-side or return-side oil lines. However, these devices are usually
of very low accuracy, and their response varies greatly with temperature and
operating conditions. Some of these monitors have a switch that allows
remote notification of an abnormal occurrence.
 Flow sensors (flow meters) – Flow sensors and transducers are available in a
wide range of sizes and accuracies. These devices generate an electric signal
that is proportional to the flow passing through the device. These devices are
usually not supplied with commercial equipment, but they are widely used in
laboratories and testing facilities. These devices are significantly more
expensive than the visual flow monitors usually supplied with gearboxes.
4.3.2 Preventive Maintenance Activities
A complete preventive maintenance program for a gearbox should include the

elements shown in Figure 4-1. The figure illustrates how a combination of visual
inspections, condition monitoring, regular lubricant analysis, and lubricant
change contribute to ensuring optimum performance of the equipment.
 4-9 
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Figure 4-1
Elements of a preventive maintenance program for gearboxes [6]
Key Technical Point
The most important facet of a Section 5 of this report discusses several maintenance activities that require
preventive maintenance gearbox disassembly and that would be performed in most cases to address a
program for a gearbox is the known failure or degraded gearbox performance.
regular inspecting, analyzing,
and changing of the lubricant. 4.3.2.1 Maintenance of Gearbox Lubrication Systems
Table 4-3 illustrates that maintenance activities regarding the lubrication system
are performed at various intervals, some of which are on a daily basis.
Table 4-3
Preventive maintenance schedule overview
Key Technical Point (Used with permission from Lufkin, Inc.)
Gearbox oil should typically
be sampled every six months. Frequency PM Activities
Filters should be changed Daily Check oil temperature.
every year. Gearbox oil
Check oil pressure.
should be changed every two
years, but some wind turbine Check for vibration.
manufacturers recommend Check for excessive noise.
changing the oil on a three-
Check for oil leaks.
year cycle.
Monthly Check operation of auxiliary equipment.
Check operation of alarms.
Check for oil contamination.
Quarterly Analyze oil sample.
 4-10 
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Preventive maintenance schedule overview
(Used with permission from Lufkin, Inc.)
Frequency PM Activities
Annually Check bearing clearance and end play.
Check tooth contact pattern.
Visually inspect couplings and check alignment.
Inspect tags and labels showing replacement part
numbers.
Inspect safety warning signs and caution labels.
General information on lubrication is as follows;

 Initial lubricant change period – The initial startup and operating oil of a
new gear drive should be thoroughly drained after a period of 500 operating
hours or four weeks, whichever occurs first. The importance of a thorough
gear case cleaning with flushing oil to remove particle matter during the first
lubricant change cannot be overemphasized. Consult the manufacturer if this
is intended to be a fill-for-life application.
 Subsequent lubricant change interval – Under normal operating
conditions, the lubricant should be changed every 2500 operating hours or six
months, whichever occurs first. Extending the change period may be
acceptable based on the type of lubricant, amount of lubricant, system down
time, or environmental consideration of the used lubricant. This can be done
by proper implementation of a comprehensive monitoring program. Such a
program may include examining for any of the following parameters:
- Lubricant viscosity – A rapid change in viscosity may be caused because
gear oil is “sheared” as it lubricates the meshing gear teeth. This shearing
eventually causes the oil to thin out and lose its film thickness. A rapid
decrease could mean oxidation. A decrease of 10% is excessive.
- Lubricant oxidation, (for example, total acid number) – Check if the
total acid number increases by 2. For example: new oil might have a total
acid number of 0.4. When this number increases to 2.4 or above, the oil
should be changed. This acid number increase is associated with
oxidation of the oil, which results in oil breakdown.
- Water concentration – Water concentration should not exceed 0.1%.
Water in oil causes the oil to lose its film strength and also will cause
corrosion to gear elements and bearings.
- Contaminants concentration – Contaminant concentration limits are
typically established based on plant-specific operating experience. For
example, based on the experience at one site, the oil was considered dirty if
the silicon content is above 50 ppm. Similarly, contaminant concentration
of iron content above 200 ppm was considered unacceptable.
 4-11 
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- Percentage sediment and sludge
- Additive depletion
- Change in appearance and odor
An alternative method of establishing change-out periods that is gaining

Key Technical Point acceptance is to change oil only when change is needed based on tests. This
Trending contaminant means reliance on “leading” indicators of change, such as additive depletion and
concentrations is important contaminant concentration. When “following” indicators, such as viscosity and
because it provides an oxidation, are used, and significant change is observed, it is already too late to
indication of significant save the oil.
increases over time. In some
cases, an increase of only 10 New lubricant specifications should be used to establish a baseline for
ppm of iron is significant comparison. Follow unit manufacturer’s and lubricant supplier’s
because iron contamination recommendations for appropriate subsequent testing intervals. General
indicates contamination from recommendations and actions concerning lubrication systems are the following:
gear wear particles.
 Cleaning and flushing – When the gear drive reaches normal operating
temperature, the lubricant should be drained immediately after shutdown.
The drive should be cleaned with a flushing oil. Flushing oil must be clean
and compatible with the operating oil. Oils specially blended for flushing, or
clean operating oil is commonly used for flushing.
- Cleaning with solvents – The use of a solvent should be avoided unless
the gear drive contains deposits of oxidized or contaminated lubricant
that cannot be removed with a flushing oil. When persistent deposits
necessitate the use of a solvent, a flushing oil should then be used to
remove all traces of solvent from the system. CAUTION: When solvents
are used, consult the unit manufacturer to ensure compatibility with
paint, seals, sealant, and other components.
- Used lubricants – Used lubricant and flushing oils should be completely
removed from the system to avoid contaminating the new charge and
properly disposed of. CAUTION: Care must be exercised not to mix
lubricants with different additive chemistry.
 Protective coatings – For gearing that may be subjected to extended
shipment or storage periods, consideration should be given to applying a
protective coating that is formulated to prevent rusting. These coatings must
be compatible with the lubricant to be used in service and all other
components. CAUTION: Some lubricants may foam due to reaction with
rust preventives. If necessary, flush residues from the unit.
 Filtration – Gear drives with pressurized oil systems should have a filter on the
pressure side of the system to remove contamination particles. As a guideline,
in the absence of specific manufacturer’s recommendations, the filter should be
no coarser than 50 μm (microns) absolute for gear drives with ball or roller
bearings and 25 mm absolute for gear drives with journal bearings. In addition,
a screen can be used on the suction side to protect the pump. This should be in
combination with a filter and must have a coarse mesh to avoid flow restriction.
CAUTION: Lubricants should not be filtered through fuller’s earth or other
types of filters that could remove the additives of the original formulation.
 4-12 
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 Gear tooth wear – There are numerous modes of damage associated with
gear teeth. Proper selection, application, and maintenance of lubricants are,
therefore, essential to avoiding premature wear. If premature wear occurs,
lubricant selection should be reviewed. As a guide, if rapid increases of any of
the following materials are detected, the probable origins of that material are
listed below:
- Alloy steel – Gear teeth, bearings
- Mild steel – Oil pump, slinger, or baffle rubbing gear case
- Cast iron – Oil pump
- Aluminum – Oil seal, seal guards, or carriers
- Babbitt – Journal bearings
4.3.2.2 Preventive Maintenance for Gearbox Couplings
In many cases, the coupling gets neglected during corrective maintenance

activities on the adjoining machines. Once the coupling and all its parts are
removed, its component parts may be placed in appropriate packaging (bag or
box), and set in a corner somewhere until the machines are reassembled. It may
then be taken out of temporary storage, possibly cleaned without much
observation to the condition, and reinstalled.
To ensure optimum performance and reliability, the coupling should be checked

thoroughly during maintenance activities. Placing a worn or damaged coupling
back in service leaves one open not only for operational problems, but also
machine problems and the potential for catastrophic damage or personal injury.
Comprehensive guidance regarding preventive maintenance activities for flexible

shaft couplings is provided in EPRI report Flexible Shaft Couplings Maintenance
Guide (1007910).
4.3.2.3 Protecting Gearboxes from Moisture
In some cases, gearboxes might operate in a humid, moist environment. The

following common sense approach can effectively protect gearbox internals from
excessive moisture and subsequent corrosion:
 Educate maintenance staff to avoid direct jetting of water at ingression
points, such as shaft seals, breathers, and others.
 If water spray is inevitable, use passive shields and deflectors to avoid direct
water spray on shafts, dipsticks, fill-caps, breathers, and others.
 Use high-performance seals that suffer less wear and offer better protection
against contaminants.
 Regularly inspect and maintain gaskets on fill-caps, hatches, and so on.
 4-13 
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 Replace dipsticks with level indicators.
 Keep hatches closed tight.
 Replace a basic vent breather with a desiccant breather, which dehydrates
incoming air, or an expansion chamber, which allows the system to breathe
without ingesting external air.
4.4 Generator
Predictive and preventive maintenance provides the means to ascertain a rotor’s

material condition and affords an opportunity to take prompt early action, if
needed, to forestall major rotor and field problems. Obviously, properly
maintaining the generator rotor will extend the service life of the generator and
minimize power degradation and outages. An improperly maintained rotor could
be subject to minor flaws that will worsen over time if neglected.
Although tests, inspections, and periodic maintenance cannot guarantee extended

rotor and field life, they do provide assurance of continued generator operation
for the next operational cycle. Some even say that a reliable estimation of
remaining life is not possible; however, the predictive and preventive tests,
inspections, and tasks are essential for preventing major—or even catastrophic—
failures from developing. Analyzing and assessing information from past
inspections and tests, operating events and data, industry experience with similar
units, recommendations from the OEM, and any current inspections and tests
are critical for ensuring the reliability of the generator rotor during the next
operational cycle. For further detailed information on rotor maintenance, review
EPRI report Optimized Maintenance of Generator Rotor (1004951).
4.4.1 Offline Electrical and Tests
Field winding problems include shorts, grounds, and bad connections. Most
winding problems can be detected by periodic electrical testing, although some
conditions may require that some severity develops before they can be detected. For
example, a shorted winding turn might not be detected because the short is often a
high-resistance connection that might not significantly change the total measured
winding resistance. Additionally, most electrical testing has the limitation that it
can be performed only during an outage. Consequently, degradations that occur
during operation cannot be detected and assessed by electrical testing until an
outage. Complicating matters more is that some grounds and shorts can occur only
at speed. Centrifugal forces and thermal expansion may cause a fault that clears
when the generator is shut down and cooled.
However, this observation is not intended to indicate that electrical testing is not
beneficial. The relatively low cost of the testing versus the high cost of the
problems of which it can forewarn, provides a high benefit-to-cost ratio. While
continuing to perform periodic generator electrical testing, plants need to be
aware of testing limitations and adopt other technologies to augment the
 4-14 
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electrical testing. Heat sensitive paint or tags, air-gap flux monitoring, and field-
ground detection relays are all methods that can be employed while the generator
is running and can provide additional critical information on the condition of
the field.
EPRI report, Tools to Optimize Maintenance of Generator-Excitation System,

Voltage Regulator, and Field Ground Protection (1004556) provides more detailed
information on electrical testing. Consult that report for further information on
field testing and maintenance. The following is a brief overview of the common
field electrical tests typically performed at each maintenance outage.
4.4.1.1 Insulation Resistance
Insulation resistance (commonly referred to by the trade name Megger) consists of

applying a fixed dc voltage between the field winding and rotor forging. The
applied voltage produces a small current through the winding's ground insulation
that is proportional to the insulation resistance by Ohm’s Law. Typically,
insulation resistance meters are scaled to read resistance instead of current. IEEE
Standard 43-2000 provides recommendations for testing insulation resistance,
including test voltage levels and acceptance criteria.
Low insulation resistance indicates possible insulation trouble. Moisture and

contamination are often causes of low insulation resistance. Cleaning the exposed
windings along with the rest of the field circuit, such as collector rings if
applicable, can help improve the resistance reading. Additionally, for windings
where moisture is causing low readings, applying a low heat, blowing dry air, or
applying a dc current to the windings should dry the windings and improve the
resistance measurement. Any applied current to dry the winding must be limited
to well under the winding’s ampere rating.
In addition to problems with moisture and contamination, the insulation

resistance test is useful for detecting other problems including insulation
degradation, such as abrasion wear and cracking; copper dusting, where
applicable; and shifted or displaced insulation.
4.4.1.2 Polarization Index
The polarization index or PI test is often performed in conjunction with the

insulation resistance test. A PI test performed by applying the insulation
resistance test voltage for 10 minutes and taking insulation resistance
measurements at 1 minute and 10 minutes. The PI is equal to the ratio of the 10
minute reading over the 1 minute reading. Unless the leakage current is
abnormally large, the PI should be greater than 1. For most windings, the value
should be greater than 2. However, in cases where the insulation resistance is very
high, more than 5,000 megohms, the PI reading is considered unimportant, and
a low PI reading with high insulation resistance is acceptable. IEEE Standard
43-2000 also provides guidance on performing and analyzing PI test results.
Changes to insulation resistance and test current over time are illustrated in
Figure 4-2.
 4-15 
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Figure 4-2
Insulation resistance over time
4.4.1.3 Winding Resistance
The total field winding resistance measure from one polarity to the other should
stay fairly consistent from one testing cycle to another. Some variation in
resistance due to winding temperature will occur and have to be accounted for in
analyzing the test results. Standard formulas exist to correlate winding resistance
readings to resistance values at a standard temperature. The winding resistance
measurement verifies winding continuity, identifies possible bad connections, and
possibly detects short turns. IEEE Standard 115 provides recommendations for
resistance measurements.
4.4.1.4 Winding Impedance Test
The winding impedance test is typically better than a winding resistance test for
detecting shorted turns. With the impedance test, an ac test voltage is applied to
the winding in incremental steps. The test voltage is applied in four or five
incremental steps, up to a final test voltage of 120–150 volts. The current is
measured after it stabilizes at each step. The theory of the test is that at the lower
voltage values, current will not flow through a short between turns, as typically
the shorts are not solid electrical connections. However, at the higher test
voltages, the turn-to-turn voltage can be significant enough to bridge the short.
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Once the short is bridged, the turn is effectively removed from the winding, and
the winding impedance decreases, allowing more current to flow. Although a plot
of the test voltage versus current may not be strictly linear, any abrupt change in
the plot, indicating an abrupt impedance change, is an indication of a turn-to-
turn short. Figure 4-3 illustrates a simplified impedance test diagram.
Figure 4-3
Simplified impedance test diagram
4.4.1.5 Recurrent Surge Oscillography
Recurrent surge oscillography (RSO) can be used to identify and locate faults in
the field windings. RSO is a variation of the time domain reflectometry (TDR)
method to locate faults in cables. The field must be isolated from the rest of the
excitation circuit in order to perform an RSO test. The RSO test set is connected
to the winding ends, and identical pulses are injected into the field from both
ends. If the field winding and its connections are in good condition, the
reflections from both pulses should be identical. A ground condition or an
interturn short causes a partial pulse reflection from that location that can be
detected by the test set. The timing of the reflection indicates how far into the
field winding the fault is located.
Special RSO test equipment is required to perform this test, as well as training
for the technician who will conduct and interpret the test results. Many plants
may not have the equipment or in-house expertise for this test. However, a
service shop or a testing company with the equipment and expertise can be
brought in during an outage to perform the RSO test, along with other tests
and services.
4.4.2 Online Rotor Monitoring
Various online monitoring techniques that provide an indication of rotor

condition are available to plants. Some are common in plants and are typically
utilized; while others, though beneficial, are not yet regularly employed.
Commonly used online methods to monitor rotor and field conditions include:
 Ground detection relays
 Vibration monitoring
 Field temperature monitoring
 Field voltage and current monitoring
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4.4.2.1 Field Ground Detection
The field ground detection system is pretty straightforward. The detector, usually a
ground detection relay, applies a small voltage between the field circuit and ground
and senses the current produced by this voltage. If the ground insulation of the
field circuit is good, a negligible amount of leakage current flows. Deterioration of
the ground field insulation allows more current. If the current exceeds a certain
calibrated value, the detector actuates to alert the plant operators of a possible
grounded field circuit. Many generators have a continuous ground detection system
wired directly to the field excitation circuit, upstream of the collector rings and
brushes. Brushless generators may still employ a brush that is specifically installed
to field ground mounting and that is periodically applied to check for field grounds.
The ground detection system should be tested and verified periodically through the
application of a test ground, typically designed and built into the detection circuit.
A detected field ground can have a number of causes including degraded ground
wall insulation, copper dusting, and contamination; it may even be due to trouble
off the rotor, a ground on the excitation circuit leading the generator. A single
ground by itself is not a significant problem in that the generator field is normally
an ungrounded circuit. The single ground is not a completed path for the field
Key Technical Point voltage and, thus, does not produce a fault current. The concern with a field
Generator brushes should ground is the possibility of a second ground that completes the fault path.
typically be replaced every Depending on where two or more grounds occur in the field winding, a
three years. significant and damaging fault current can flow.
Utilities implement different procedures for response to the detection of a field

ground. Some require taking the generator offline as soon as possible. Others
require taking the generator offline during the next period of low load within a few
days. Still others may permit continued operation for longer periods of time—until
a convenient time for an outage is reached. All plants must have a careful risk
assessment of their intended actions, balancing the risk of potential generator
damage and lost generation against lost revenues and also grid effects from an
outage. As has been mentioned previously, the OEM’s and experienced service
providers’ recommendations, as well as that of experienced plant personnel, must be
considered in determining the course of action. Additionally, insurers, grid
operators, and regulatory entities may have requirements that need to be followed.
Upon receipt of a field ground, plants should verify the presence of the ground
and assess the nature of the ground. Typically, the ground detector circuit has a
test point at which the detector's ground current can be measured. This test point
might be designed into the circuit, or it may have been designated procedurally as
a wire to be lifted. Either way, an ammeter measures the ground current, and
technicians and engineers can determine the amount of ground current. This
provides verification that the ground detector did operate properly and also
verifies whether there is a weak or a strong ground present. Additionally, by
measuring the voltage at the detector’s field wire to ground, it can be ascertained
whether the ground is on the positive or negative side of the field. Some
detectors may have voltage and current instruments built in to aid in
troubleshooting and assessing the ground.
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Some visible inspection can be performed with the generator still online to
determine if the ground is due to a fault external to the rotor, although personnel
safety issues must limit the extent of the inspection. Where applicable and
possible, switching off diode banks and other portions of the excitation circuit
can be done to try to locate and isolate the ground. EPRI report Tools to Optimize
Maintenance of Generator-Excitation System, Voltage Regulator and Field Ground
Protection (1004556) provides more detailed information on ground location.
4.4.2.2 Field Voltage and Current
The field’s voltage and current provides insight into how well the field winding is
capable of maintaining generator excitation. Field winding troubles, such as
shorted turns and poor electrical connections, will cause changes in either the
voltage, the current, or both. Although it is not possible to directly monitor field
current on some generators, monitoring the excitation system’s output for these
machines can indirectly provide similar insight into the field’s condition.
Whether field voltage and current are monitored directly or indirectly, these
parameters should remain consistent for a given generator output. Other field
circuit problems can also impact current and voltage, including brush problems,
diode and fuse failure, poor lead termination, and instrumentation errors.
However, variation in the current or voltage of a particular generator output
still can indicate a problem, whether in the winding or elsewhere in the
excitation system.
Field voltage and current monitoring involves periodic review of recorded values
for variations that are not due to generator loads or other acceptable influences.
The review should also consist of a comparison with past data to detect slowly
increasing changes. The periodicity of the review is often once per week,
although some plants may choose to use either a shorter or longer period. Based
upon their own experiences and needs, plants should decide the scope and
frequency of review, but they should also include in the decision process OEM
and service provider recommendations and any requirements of insurers and
regulatory groups. Additionally, the field voltage and current should be checked
once per shift to note any sudden or abrupt variation from normal values.
4.4.2.3 Field Temperature
The field temperature monitoring system typically reads the field voltage and
current and computes the field winding temperature. This computation is based
upon Ohm’s Law to determine electric resistance and the temperature coefficient
of resistance for the winding copper in order to provide an average temperature
reading of the field winding. On a generator employing collector rings and
brushes, the voltage and current transducer are wired directly to the excitation
circuit upstream of the brushes. Brushless generators can employ a wireless
transmitter mounted on the rotor to relay temperature data.
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The field winding temperature should be checked periodically during the shift to
note abnormal temperature changes. Often an alarm is used to alert the plant’s
operator if the temperature rises above a predetermined value. Additionally, the
field winding temperature should be trended weekly—or at most monthly—to
note gradual variations that can be indicative of problems.
Field problems that the temperature monitoring system can indicate include bad
electrical connections, high field current, clogged or blocked cooling passages,
fouled cooling heat exchanges, and other cooling system issues. The temperature
monitor shows an average field temperature and does not indicate localized
heating. Wind turbine personnel should be aware of this limitation as well as the
capabilities and usefulness of the monitor. Another method employing heat-
sensitive material is useful for identifying localized hot spots and is discussed later
in this section.
In addition to showing the average field temperature, the temperature monitor–if

it is continually recording the temperature reading—can show certain brush and
field circuit problems. Since the temperature monitor is actually sensing voltage
and current, any variation in voltage causes a variation in the computed
temperature value. The voltage regulator and inductance of the field winding will
act to keep a constant field current to maintain generator output. Intermittent
connection problems within the field circuit, including the brushes if applicable,
will cause voltage to spike, which can show as a spike or a series of spikes on the
temperature recording.
4.4.2.4 Vibration Monitoring
Certain rotor and field problems can manifest themselves as rotor vibration.
Significant cracking can create asymmetric stiffness of the rotor, causing uneven
flexure of the rotor from its weight as it rotates. Shorted turns create uneven
current distribution, thus producing uneven rotor heating. This uneven heating
in turn causes uneven thermal expansion of the rotor, thereby producing a slight
bow in the rotor. Additionally, shorted turns produce uneven magnetic flux in
the field winding, which causes a varying force on the spinning rotor.
Generators are typically equipped with vibration monitoring. Significant

vibration levels on most generators will cause the monitors to alarm, thereby
alerting the operators of high vibration. More severe levels will cause the
monitors to trip the generator offline. Below the vibration levels that alarm and
trip, vibration signals can exist that indicate possible rotor problems that should
be investigated. Routine periodic collection and analysis of the generator’s
vibration signals are beneficial to detecting rotor and field problems before they
become severe.
Vibration data collection for periodic analysis can be performed with installed
instrumentation or with probes placed temporarily for data collection. Not all
plants have installed vibration instrumentation, and thus have to use temporary
probes. Periodicity of the data collection and analysis will vary with equipment
condition, plant experience, results from past analysis, and industry experience
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with similar units. Typically a period of once a month for data collection and
analysis is sufficient. Generators which are experiencing problems, or have a
history of trouble, may require more frequent monitoring in order to trend the
equipment condition and forewarn of severe equipment degradation. Generators
in good condition may have a longer period between analyses, but generally no
longer than once a quarter.
Torsional Vibration
Increased attention is being paid to the effects of torsional vibration on the rotor.
Torsional vibration produces a twisting of the rotor; some experts believe that
this twisting may significantly impact the rotor forging, the retaining rings, the
rotor shaft, and other components. Back and forth twisting can create metal
fatigue over time, possibly leading to cracking and eventually to failure. System
transients, such as line switching, heavy loads coming on and going off, nearby
power generation, and faulty power system stabilizers, can induce torsional
vibration or oscillations in a generator.
For most generators, torsional vibration is rare and does not present a problem.
However, plants need to know if their generators may be or have been subjected
to torsional vibration. Because of unawareness of the problem in the past and the
sophisticated equipment that was required, torsional vibration monitoring was
not commonly practiced. A number of plants have installed monitors in recent
years as the equipment has become more practical and economic. The installation
of a torsional vibration monitor can now often be beneficial, detecting the
presence of torsional vibration and providing a measurement of the severity if the
vibration exists.
4.4.2.5 Online High-Temperature Detection
Online rotor temperature monitoring systems beyond those systems that use field
current and voltage can be quite beneficial in early detection and identification of
field hot spots. Formulations with specific chemical compositions can be applied
to areas on the rotor and other parts of the generator.
The specific composition of an application is designed to release a signature gas

above a certain temperature into the generator’s cooling gas. A detector samples
the cooling gas and monitors for traces of the signature gases from the various
applications in the generator. A key advantage to this system is its ability to
detect localized heating of the field. Detecting rotor localized hot spots provides
an indication of a winding short or poor connection. A field temperature monitor
that relies on the field current and voltage can provide only an average field
winding temperature indication.
An example of a signature chemical for detecting field hot spots is dihexyl amic
acid in a blue alkyd paint formulation that is applied to the rotor surfaces.
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4.4.2.6 Air Gap Monitor
Several of the responses to the surveys used in the preparation of this report
recommended the use of online air gap flux monitoring. Air gap flux monitoring
has been used in large motors and generators for a number of years; it has proven
to be beneficial not only in detecting winding faults, but also in the analysis and
assessment of machine problems.
Air gap flux probe installation requires rotor removal and the removal of some
stator slot wedges. The flux probes are installed in the stator slot and sense the
magnetic field in the air gap between the stator and rotor. Installation obviously
requires a generator outage with rotor removal and can increase the outage work
scope, especially if stator slot wedge work activities are not planned for the
outage. However, the additional work to install the flux probes can be well worth
the cost. Detection of small problems during operation, particularly when no
other detection means are available, can save expense and time in determining
causes of operational issues and problems, such as rotor vibration. Identifying and
ascertaining field problems during operation can be an advantage in planning and
implementing corrective actions for the next outage.
Usually the air gap flux probes are connected to a monitoring system that allows
viewing and analysis of the air gap flux signals. A number of users reported
checking and analyzing monitor readings periodically, typically once a week, to
ensure no field degradation. If an abnormality is found, the flux monitoring
system signals are analyzed to determine the nature and extent of the problem.
The frequency of checking and analyzing is increased to determine if the
degradation is worsening or if it is stable. Several users reported that due to the
success of the installation and use of the air gap flux monitor in one generator,
they have installed, or plan to install, the monitor system in other units.
4.4.3 Rotor Inspections
Rotor inspections mainly require removal of the rotor from the generator and can
require some disassembly. It can be possible to perform very limited inspections
without rotor removal to provide some level of confidence in the rotor’s
condition. A limited inspection is not recommended for replacing a full
inspection, but it may be performed to provide an indication of rotor condition
until an outage when the rotor can be removed. The main areas of concern to
most are retaining rings, dovetail areas, and end teeth tops. Other areas may be of
more concern to some plants with certain generator models. The OEM and
experience from other units with similar generators can provide beneficial
information on required inspections.
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4.4.3.1 Retaining Rings
Several practices regarding inspecting and examining retaining rings were

supplied from utilities and service providers. While these practices varied
somewhat in frequency and content, there were similarities that show a general
set of practices. These practices for examining 18Mn5Cr retaining rings at five-
to-ten-year intervals during outages include the following tasks:
 Visual inspection
 Dye penetrant inspections
 Eddy current inspections
 Defect and flaw assessment and analysis
The area around grooves, holes, and other stress concentrators on the retaining
rings should receive more attention during inspections because these areas are
most likely to produce stress-related cracking and flaws. This is not to say that
other areas should be neglected or receive less than adequate attention, as
cracking and other flaws may still occur in these other areas. Also, the centering
or balance rings used for rotor-mounted retaining rings need a thorough
inspection whenever the retaining rings are removed. Particular attention should
be paid to the locking key or ring grooves and other high-stress areas on both the
retaining ring and centering rings.
Visual Inspection
The retaining rings do not necessarily have to be removed if there is no

indication of defects or moisture. However, as always, the OEM guidance and
advice from experienced service providers should be heeded with regard to
removal and examination of the retaining rings. Visual inspection of the rings
should be thoroughly and carefully performed on all accessible surfaces, including
borescopic inspection of the interior surfaces if possible. Any deflect, corrosion,
signs of moisture, and other flaws must be documented for further evaluation.
Surface coatings, such as varnish, will make visual inspection more difficult and
will require a more thorough examination to locate ring problems. Consideration
may be given to removal of the surface coating to allow for better inspection of
the ring surface, although coating removal should be done only after consultation
with the OEM. If the coating is to be removed, it should first be inspected for
moisture indications, and obviously, removal and cleaning agents must not
contain water.
Moisture indications and new or worsened defects and flaws can be reasons to
remove the retaining rings for thorough interior inspections. Even though
removing the rings is a costly and time-consuming process; avoiding the risk of a
catastrophic generator failure is well worth the effort.
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The advice of experienced utility personnel, the OEM, and service providers
should be given high value in the determination of whether to remove the rings.
With indications of moisture and flaws, it is better to err on the side of safety and
remove the rings for further inspection.
Dye Penetrant Inspection
Fluorescent dye penetrant inspection should follow the visual inspection. The dye
penetrant inspection can identify cracks, pits, and other defects too small for
visual inspection. A fluorescent dye is better for detecting small cracks and pits.
Any surface coating, such as varnish, can mask cracks and pits and will need to be
removed for the inspection. The precautions regarding coating removal in the
previous information on visual inspection should be followed.
Pitting or cracks found in a linear array or in groups require special attention

because these may indicate ongoing stress corrosion cracking. All findings from
the inspection should be carefully documented and, if possible, photographed. If
it is determined that the defects and flaws found are acceptable for continued
operation, documentation of the current findings will provide a baseline for
future inspections to better ascertain if the flaws are growing or worsening.
During ring interior surface inspections, particular attention should be paid to

critical areas. These areas are locations in which moisture can be trapped, such as
grooves, and locations containing stress raisers, such as grooves and slots.
Additionally, the shrink fit area of the ring is always under stress when mounted
on the rotor and should receive special attention.
Eddy Current Inspection
Eddy current inspections should follow the visual and dye penetrant inspections.
Flaws undetected by the other inspections may be found by the eddy current
inspection. Additionally, the size and depth of cracks and pits found by the visual
and dye penetrant inspections may be determined from the eddy current test
results. Determining the dimensions of the flaws is invaluable to ascertaining
whether continued operation is acceptable, and it also provides baseline data for
future inspections. If the flaws are too severe to allow continued operation,
determining the size of the flaws provides valuable data for guiding the rework
that is required to repair the rings.
For further analysis, if needed and for baseline data, the inspection results should
be recorded and stored. The inspection results should be evaluated to determine
the nature of any defect and to determine whether the rings are acceptable or
whether a repair or replacement is required. Expert personnel, the OEM, and
experienced service providers should be consulted to determine ring condition if
needed.
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Ultrasound Inspection
Some companies reported trying ultrasound testing to further inspect the

retaining rings. Ultrasound has the advantage of seeing through the material,
potentially sensing defects on both the exterior and interior surfaces, as well as
inside the material. Phased-array ultrasound can provide improved capabilities,
sweeping through the material at various angles and covering more volume in a
shorter time.
Others have reported no success or limited success with ultrasound testing of the
retaining rings. Difficulties arise from the coarse grain structure of 18Mn5Cr
stainless steel, which can scatter the ultrasound waves, mask potential flaws, and
produce inconclusive results. The complex geometry of the retaining rings further
complicates the inspection, especially the area around grooves and slots where
stress-related flaws may be more probable.
The results of the surveys conducted for this report indicate that present
ultrasound technology is not very feasible for examining the 18Mn5Cr retaining
rings. This does not rule out ultrasound technology and techniques being
developed to better inspect retaining rings; nor does it mean that some plants
may not find some benefit in the present technology for inspecting their specific
rings.
End Wedge Gap
Faults, load unbalances, switching transients, and other operational occurrences

produce negative sequence currents in the generator stator, which, in turn,
induces current flow around the circumference of the rotor. These induced
currents travel across the surface of rotor forging and take paths through slot
wedges and the retaining rings. Current flow between the slot wedges can
produce arcing and high heat as the path between the slots and rings is not
typically a solid electrical connection.
To prevent current flowing between the wedges and the rings, many generators
are designed to have a gap between the slot wedges and the retaining rings. Rotor
flexure at low speeds and on turning gear may cause axial movement or shifting
of the wedge, closing the wedge gap and retaining ring gap. This shifting and
closing of the gap allows for possible wedge-to-ring current flow during negative
sequence and motoring events, with arcing and resistive heating.
Not all generators have a designed wedge-to-retaining-ring gap; some rotors are
designed to have a good electrical connection by a tight fit between the wedges
and the rings. In these rotors, the tight ring-to-wedge connection and the use of
aluminum wedges provide for a damper winding on the rotor. In these cases, it is
important to maintain the tight electrical connection.
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On the generators that require a wedge-to-ring gap, the gap should be checked
whenever the rotor is accessible. If necessary, the wedges will have to be shifted
away from the ring to restore the gap and locked in position. If needed, the
OEM should be consulted regarding methods for locking the wedges in position.
If the OEM is not available, an experienced service provider may be able to
provide proper methods for securing the wedges.
In-Generator Ring Inspection
Even during outages in which the rotor is not to be removed from the generator,
some inspection of the retaining rings may be possible. Borescopes and small
cameras operated from the ends of the generator can be use to some measure to
determine the condition of the surfaces of the retaining rings. Service providers
offering these ring inspections should preferably have references and a proven
record of their inspection methods. It is important to note that if the in situ ring
inspection finds an indication of moisture, arcing, cracks, pitting, and other
flaws, the rotor will have to be removed for a more thorough inspection and
evaluation.
Outage Precaution
With 18Mn5Cr retaining rings, it is important to prevent contact with moisture

not only during operation, but also during outages. Given that retaining rings are
heat-shrunk on the rotor, they are still under great stress even when the generator
is shut down. Stress corrosion cracking can still occur, regardless of whether the
rotor is in or out of the machine, if moisture is present. During periods of
generator shutdown, the rotor should be maintained moisture free by the use of
dry hydrogen, carbon dioxide, or an inert gas such as argon, which some have
begun testing. Tenting the rotor when it is removed from the generator and
using heaters or dehumidifiers will greatly aid in minimizing moisture-induced
stress corrosion cracking. Even if the retaining rings are made from less
susceptible stainless steel, such as 18Mn18Cr, it is still a good practice to
maintain dryness of the rotor environment. While 18Mn18Cr stainless steel
rings are less susceptible to stress corrosion than 18Mn5Cr, they can still be
susceptible to moisture-related problems and should be protected.
4.4.3.2 Rotor Forging
The generator is subjected to various forces and stresses that can contribute to rotor
damage. A common type of damage is dovetail cracking, which has been widely
believed to be caused by fretting. Dovetail fretting is caused by the movement of
wedges in the slot. This is most pronounced with short steel wedges, occurring at
the location of the wedge joints. However, some experts believe that all wedges,
including aluminum wedges, cause fretting to some degree.
During operation, the wedges are held firmly in place by centrifugal force. It is
during startup, shutdown, and turning gear operation that wedge movement can
occur. It had been thought that this fretting and low-cycle fatigue (LCF) was
responsible for dovetail cracking. Rotors that are subjected to higher amounts of
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LCF are more susceptible to dovetail cracking. These rotors include those with a
high number of stop and start cycles, such as with two-shifting. A high length-
to-diameter ratio, generator motoring events, and negative sequence current
occurrences are also significant factors in the initiation of dovetail cracking.
Recently, a number of generator experts, including a major OEM, have

performed analyses and studies and have come to believe that dovetail fretting by
the slot wedges is not responsible for the initiation of cracking. Their findings
indicate that surface currents flowing around the circumference of the rotor are
more responsible for crack initiation.
The rotor surface currents, caused by negative sequence currents in the stator or
by motoring the generator, can produce heating and arcing on the rotor. The
heating and arcing will be more prevalent in areas that concentrate the current
and where the current must cross a joint, such as the between the dovetails and
the wedges. Pitting and material property changes due to the arcing and heating
allow for more metal fatigue from cyclic stresses in the affected areas.
Regardless of the mechanism that initiates dovetail cracking, the cracking can
often be repaired by machining if it is discovered in time. A thorough inspection
and nondestructive testing of the dovetail areas should be performed whenever
the retaining rings and wedges are removed. The OEM recommendations on
inspection tests and schedules should be followed to forewarn of possibly
significant damage that could require substantial repairs and extended outages.
Significantly advanced cracking might be noticed by high vibration during

operation. Typically, complete rotor mechanical failure will not occur as the high
vibration forewarns of the cracking problem. However, having vibration
monitoring is not a reason to forego rotor inspections. Rotor inspections can
prevent excessive repair costs and lengthy outage requirements by providing
earlier identification of cracking than is possible by vibration analysis.
Following a generator motoring event or significant negative sequence

occurrence, the rotor should be removed and inspected for damage. Although an
inspection might not be necessary before returning the generator to service
immediately after the event, the significance of the event or occurrence should be
determined; and the OEM, or at least an experienced service provider, should be
consulted for recommendations.
At the time of this report, a few generator experts believe that inspections for
dovetail cracking may be unnecessary unless a motor or negative sequence event
has occurred or if the generator has been subjected to prolonged periods of
negative sequence currents. However, unless there is verifiable proof that a
generator has not been subjected to negative sequence currents, a baseline
inspection should be performed to verify that the rotor is in good condition.
Furthermore, unless the plant uses a negative sequence current monitor to verify
that the generator will not be subject to negative sequence currents, additional
periodic inspections will still be necessary.
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The OEM recommendations regarding rotor inspections and dovetail cracking
should be followed. Recommended time periods may be shortened due to
operational events, experiences and findings on similar generators, and advice from
in-house and vendor experts. However, the time periods should not be lengthened
beyond the OEM’s recommendations unless concurrence is given by the OEM.
Rotor Cleanliness
Dirt, oil, and other debris may hide cracks and other flaws on the rotor and in the
wedges and other components. The rotor should be visually inspected prior to
cleaning to detect abnormalities, such as copper dusting, oil deposit, excessive
dirt, signs of overheating, etc. It is important to identify any presence of rust and
other evidence of moisture.
After the initial visual inspection, in order to be better able to detect cracks and
other flaws and perform NDE inspections, the rotor should be cleaned as much
as physically possible. It is important to ensure a clean rotor to provide cooling
and electrical insulation of the field and to provide for thorough inspections. If
moisture indications such as rust are found, a thorough inspection of the
retaining rings should be performed. Particularly for 18Mn5Cr rings, the rings
may need to be removed for interior inspection.
Copper dusting, if excessive enough, can lead to field winding grounds and
interturn shorts. Electrical winding tests should be conducted, if dusting is found
during inspections, to detect the presence of shorts or grounds. Although
significant grounds may be detected by the field ground detection relay, an
insulation resistance test should be performed to detect weak grounds.
Inspection Methods
As mentioned in the previous information on cleanliness, the rotor surface should

be visually inspected prior to cleaning and also prior to removing retaining rings
and wedges, if these are to be removed. The inspection should seek to identify
any signs of contamination, debris, moisture, overheating, copper dusting, and
other problems, as well as cracks, pitting, and other mechanical defects. If
problem indications are found, their location and description should be
documented for further evaluation. Additionally, photographs will be beneficial
for evaluation purposes and as a historical record. If wedges are to be removed,
another inspection should be performed as well, because the wedges may have
blocked signs of fretting, dusting, and other problems. Additionally, the wedges
themselves should be inspected for defects such as cracking.
After cleaning and wedge removal, if applicable, a thorough inspection of the

rotor should be performed to identify cracks, fretting, and other mechanical flaws
that may have been hidden before the cleaning of the rotor. Special attention
should be paid to stress concentrators on the rotors and other components, such
as holes for cooling gas flow. The holes and other concentrators may be more
prone to developing cracking and other defects. Portable lighting and small hand
mirrors will aid in inspecting difficult areas.
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Defects identified in the inspections should be documented and photographed
for evaluation and for added attention during NDE inspections. The
characteristics of the defects need to be noted in the documentation, whether
they appear to be due to fretting, cracking, overheating, arcing, etc. The size of
the defects is important to note; include the length, width, and, if possible, the
depth. The OEM, service provider, or in-house generator expert needs to be
made aware of identified defects as soon as possible in case further inspection is
required or if corrective action will have to be taken. Certain flaws, if minor, may
have been identified and documented in previous outages. This documentation is
important to verify whether these flaws have worsened or remained the same.
Documentation from inspections in previous outages can be beneficial to the
inspectors by identifying known flaws and where added attention may be needed.
Some of the NDE inspection methods that can be used are the following:
 Dye penetrant inspection
The dye penetrant inspection, or penetrant test (PT), can detect cracks or
small defects down to approximately 0.060 inches (1.5 mm). The fluorescent
dye penetrant provides better visibility, allowing for possible defect detection
down to 0.030 inches (0.8 mm). The better visibility from using fluorescent
dye is achieved by using a UV light in a darkened environment. Under
normal lighting conditions, the use of a fluorescent dye is not advantageous
over the use of a nonfluorescent dye. The penetrant test is used mainly when
the wedges are removed because the dovetail region of the slots is the main
area of concern for fretting and crack initiation.
In addition to the dovetails, the wedges and other areas of the rotor can and
should be inspected with dye penetrant as needed. A detailed rotor inspection
is not necessarily a routine task to perform whenever the rotor is removed since
this can be very time consuming. However, as a result of OEM guidance, a
generator motoring event, or a negative sequence current occurrence, a
somewhat-detailed inspection of certain areas on the rotor surface might be
prudent. Particular areas that might receive special attention would be around
cooling passage holes and other stress risers and also similar areas that might
concentrate current flow during a motoring or negative sequence current event.
 Magnetic particle inspection
The magnetic particle inspection offers similar capability as dye penetrant for
detecting surface cracks and flaws and typically can performed in a shorter
period of time. This inspection is also referred to as “mag” particle, magnetic
particle test, MT, or MPT. Magnetic particle inspections can be performed
only on magnetic materials. Nonmagnetic items, such as aluminum wedges,
require another inspection technique.
The same rotor areas and components that can be inspected with dye penetrant
can be inspected with magnetic particle, except for the nonmagnetic
components. Magnetic particle inspection may be difficult to perform in rotor
slots due to space and configuration limitations. To perform dovetail
inspections, a special probe may be required to reach inside the rotor slots.
 4-29 
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Cleaning is required after performing a magnetic particle inspection. Care must
be exercised during application, performance, and clean up to prevent particle
material from getting into windings, cooling passages, and other areas. The
rotor should be checked for residual magnetism before returning to service.
 Eddy current inspection
Eddy current inspections are more sensitive and faster than dye penetrant
and magnetic particle inspections. This inspection is also referred to as eddy
current test, ET, or ECT. This technique can be employed on any
conductive material; thus, it can be used to inspect aluminum wedges.
The equipment to perform eddy current inspections is more expensive than

dye penetrant material and magnetic particle inspection material and
equipment. Additionally, a higher skill level is required both to perform the
eddy current inspection and to analyze the results. Fretting, arc strikes, and
other surface abnormalities may prevent the detection of small cracks
beneath them.
Still the eddy current method offers a number of advantages for inspecting
the rotor, including higher sensitivity. Also, once initially purchased, the
eddy current inspection does not require additional purchases of expendable
inspection materials. Because no inspection material is required, no cleanup
is needed after the inspection.
 Ultrasound inspection
Ultrasound inspections, like eddy current inspections, require skilled and
experienced inspectors and are typically quicker than either the dye penetrant
or the magnetic particle methods. The ultrasound method provides the
ability to see inside the material being inspected and even may allow
inspection of an opposite surface through the material. Thus, there is some
capability to allow dovetail inspection without wedge removal.
The complex geometry of a volume under test can make ultrasound
ineffective; scattered sound waves and reflections can cause some flaws to go
undetected and may produce false indications. Skill and experience are often
required to correctly position the probe and scan the material under test, but
even then, the shape of the material may prevent accurate readings.
Some have reported success with phased array ultrasound in inspecting rotor
dovetail areas from the rotor surface with wedges installed. In phased array,
several ultrasound waves of the same frequency are emitted from the test
probe with each wave’s phase shifted, based upon from where on the probe
the wave is emitted. The shifted phasing, which is adjustable, steers the
ultrasound beam at a desired angle from the probe. Thus, the probe can be
held flat against the rotor surface, while the beam is directed at an angle to a
side surface, such as the dovetail area. Additionally, by varying the phase
shifting, the beam can be swept through various angles to sweep and inspect
a wider area without moving the probe.
 4-30 
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To be able to verify that an ultrasound inspection will be able to provide
accurate results of the dovetail surface or any other far surface through a
material volume, a calibration block should be used. A calibration block is a
sample of similar material and with the same geometry as the volume to be
inspected. For dovetail inspection, the calibration should be a replica of a
short length of a rotor tooth with the same cross-sectional shape and
dimensions. The calibration block should have defects created in it at known
locations, with the defects made to the actual defect sizes that should be
detected by the inspection. To verify the ultrasound inspection procedure,
the inspector needs to inspect the calibration exactly as will be done on the
rotor. The results should identify all known defects and not produce any false
positives.
Rotor Inspection Practices
Based upon information provided by utilities and service providers, the following
is an overview of typical dovetail inspections. Not all plants necessarily follow the
overview exactly; but many that have provided information to this project have
indicated processes similar to the following:
 Perform visual inspection of the rotor and wedges.
 Clean the rotor.
 Perform a second visual inspection after cleaning.
 Perform a magnetic particle inspection if the wedges and winding are
removed.
 Perform an eddy current inspection if the wedges are removed, regardless of
whether the magnetic particle inspection was performed.
 Use dye penetrant to inspect areas that may not have been adequately
inspected by the other techniques or where inconclusive results were
obtained.
 Perform ultrasound testing if the wedges are not removed.
 The retaining rings should be inspected with the rotor.
 If the rings are removed, the end teeth will need to be inspected also, with
attention given to top tooth cracking on units known to be susceptible to this
problem.
 Rotor fans, couplings, the rotor shaft, and other rotor components also
should be inspected with the rotor forging inspection.
Items in the above list should not be used if it they contradict OEM
recommendations. The OEM recommendations and guidance should be
followed. The rotor does not typically need to be inspected during every outage;
but it should be done whenever OEM recommendations specify or sooner, based
upon past inspection findings, operational history, on-line monitoring, and
advice of in-house or vendor generator experts.
 4-31 
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If the generator was exposed to significant negative sequence currents or if it was
motored by being connected to the power grid without its field being energized,
the rotor will need to be inspected for possible damage. Whether the generator
should be allowed to return to operation prior to an inspection will depend upon
the severity of the event and upon recommendations by the OEM or other
experienced generator experts.
Regardless of whether the generator is permitted to return to operation, the rotor

will still need to be inspected as soon as practical. Minor damage to the rotor may
not have an immediate impact on continued operation for a limited time period,
but the damage may worsen over time. Consequently, it needs to be detected and
repaired when possible.
Hardness testing may be required in areas where overheating from high current
and arcing occurred. High heat may have soft or hardened the rotor steel in these
areas. Affected areas may require shot peening to correct the hardness or may
require machining to remove the affected material. Rotor machining will require
carefully analysis and evaluation to ensure that rotor strength is not adversely
affected. The OEM or an experienced service provider will usually need to be
brought in to support, if not direct, the project.
Based upon the findings from the inspections, additional inspections may be
required. If wedges were not removed and ultrasound inspection identified possible
cracks in the dovetail area, the wedges will need to be removed for further
inspection of the affected area. Depending on the number and extent of defects
identified, all wedges may need to be removed for a complete rotor inspection or
possibly only just enough wedges to inspect the slots in the affected area.
Identified defects should be well documented, preferably accompanied with

photographs. Include in the documentation the size, location, and depth of the
defects and other pertinent data as well. The documentation will serve to provide
data for evaluating the condition of the rotor, provide baseline data for future
inspections, and if repair is required, will give information needed to properly plan
and implement the required work. Required work may include machining the
cracks and other defects out of the rotor and also possibly machining portions of
the rotor to remove stress risers to prevent future problems. The OEM or an
experienced service provider will need to be brought in to direct, or at least support,
the project to ensure that the structural integrity of the rotor is not compromised.
Top Tooth
Certain rotor designs with rotor- or body-mounted retaining rings have the
potential for top tooth cracking, particularly in older generators. Susceptibility of
this problem varies with rotor design. Pressure from the heat-shrunk ring
significantly stresses the teeth under the ring, and during operation, centrifugal
force reduces these stresses. Cyclic operation of the generator varies the stresses
on the teeth, creating metal fatigue. The locking key groove concentrates the
stresses and increases the fatigue. On susceptible rotors, when cracking occurs, it
typically forms between the groove and tooth end.
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The tooth tops under the retaining rings should be inspected and have
nondestructive examinations performed whenever the retaining rings are
removed. To thoroughly inspect the tooth tops, the end wedges will have to be
removed. Inspection of the end teeth is similar to inspection of the rotor teeth for
dovetail cracking; involving visual inspection, dye penetrant, eddy current, and
ultrasound as needed.
Due to the expense of removing the rings and wedges, plants may want to plan
tooth top inspections based upon their own and industry experience with the
particular rotor design; however, they should still follow OEM recommendations
to the extent practical. Deviations from the OEM recommendation should have
OEM concurrence or at least involve consultation with the OEM to ensure that
the plant has accurate knowledge of the potential risks involved.
As mentioned previously, areas such as the locking key groove can be stress
concentrators and be prone to crack initiation. Inspectors need to pay extra
attention to these areas on rotors with body-mounted rings. If cracking is found
in the tooth top areas, a repair is frequently possible. Repairs often involve
machining out the cracks and other defects. Furthermore, to prevent
reoccurrence of this issue, the repair will usually include modifying the shape of
the end teeth, the locking groove, and other stress concentrators (see Figure 4-4).
The OEM should be consulted on recommended repairs and modifications
because they likely have had experience with repairs on other similar generators.
The following image shows smooth bends machined into the dovetails of the end
teeth to remove the sharp-angled stress risers.
Figure 4-4
Modified end teeth
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4.5 Foundation and Outer Area
Table 4-4 provides an overview of typical PM activities that should be considered

for the foundation and outer area that are typically performed on a six-month basis.
Table 4-4
Semiannual preventive maintenance activities for the foundation and outer area
Component/ PM Activities Performed Semiannually

Assembly
Outer area Visually inspect stairs, catwalk, board, and railing for
corrosion or physical damage.
Exterior lighting Perform a 1-hour functional test.
Grouted joints Visually inspect for physical damage, flaking, and water-
tightness.
Table 4-5 provides additional PM activities that should be considered for the
foundation and outer area that are typically performed only on an annual basis.
Table 4-5
Annual preventive maintenance activities for the foundation and outer area
Component/ PM Activities Performed Annually

Assembly
Transformer Perform a visual inspection of the transformer station in
station accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendation.
Foundation Visually inspect the base pad for signs of excessive cracks,
physical damage, or flaking.
4.6 Control Cabinets in the Tower

for the control cabinets in the tower that are typically performed on a six-month
basis.
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Table 4-6
Semiannual preventive maintenance activities for the control cabinets

Assembly
Main cabinet Visually inspect the general condition, the tightness of connections
with various components, doors, coatings, and electrical leads.
Perform a functional test of controls, doors closing properly,
ventilation, and cable clamping.
Visually inspect the general condition and cleanliness of the filter
element.
Set the thermostat at 25C, and verify operability of temperature
control with the filter fan and thermostat returned to service.
Ensure that the proper version of the programmable logic
controller (PLC) software is installed.
Verify that all parameters of the PLC software are properly set.
Ensure that the proper version of the turbine process computer
(PC) software is installed.
Check the parameters of the turbine PC software in accordance
with the software provider’s recommendations.
Perform a disk defragmentation of the turbine PC.
Perform a functional test of the uninterruptable power supply
(UPS) to ensure that the system remains in operation for at least 5
minutes.
Low-voltage Replace the fan filter as needed.
main Visually inspect cables and cable terminals for corrosion,
distribution insulation, abrasion, spark marks, and physical damage.
system Visually inspect the contactor relay for tight connection and spark
marks.
Visually inspect the connection of circuit breaker (synchronization
switch), for arc marks, cleanliness, and the condition of the arc
chamber and contacts.
Perform a functional test of the terminal for tight connection and
contact, as well as switching function.
Perform circuit breaker maintenance in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
Verify that all circuit breaker parameters are properly set.
Visually inspect the filter element. Clean and replace it if needed.
Frequency Visually inspect the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) power
converter circuits, capacitors, battery, over-voltage protection of dc link,
cabinets heating, grid protection, fuse gear and tripping units, and
insulation resistance.
Visually inspect the general condition of the filter element, and
replace it if needed.
 4-35 
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control cabinets that are typically performed only on an annual basis.
Table 4-7
Annual preventive maintenance activities for the control cabinets

Assembly
Low-voltage Visually inspect the circuit breakers for tight connection, spark
main marks, and cleanliness.
distribution Perform a functional test of the circuit breakers to ensure tight
system connection and contact switching functions.
Visually inspect the cable terminals for signs of corrosion and
spark marks.
Visually inspect the grounding system for physical damage,
corrosion, and spark marks.
Perform a functional test of the grounding system to ensure tight
connection and alignment of the torque stripe mark.
Visually inspect the fuse amperage, contacts, and inspect for arc
marks.
Frequency Visually inspect the cabinet for general condition, vibration
converter damage, attachment of bed plates, corrosion, deposits, spark
cabinets marks, seals, filters, insects, and rodents.
Perform a functional test of the ventilation system, fan, doors,
sensors, and dissipater.
Visually inspect the cables and cable terminal connections,
insulation, corrosion, arc marks, abrasion, breaks, discoloration,
and penetrations.
Perform a functional test of cables and terminal connections to
ensure good contact.
Visually inspect the temperature/moisture sensor of the low-
voltage section control circuit for tightness and moisture.
Perform a functional test of the low-voltage control section, and
ensure that the doors are closing properly.
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4.7 Tower Components

for the tower components that are typically performed on a six-month basis.
Table 4-8
Semiannual preventive maintenance activities for the tower
Key Technical Point
Initial maintenance of the
Assembly
wind turbine should
include retorquing the Door/entrance Visually inspect the door for tightness and corrosion.
bolts. area Perform a functional test to ensure that the entrance door
closes and locks and that the ventilation grid is functional.
Anchor bolts Visually inspect for corrosion and paint damage.
Verify pre-tension of the bolts.
Adjust the tension of the bolts as needed in accordance with
the manufacturer’s recommendation.
Tower flanges Verify the torque of the tower flange bolts (typically, 10%
every cycle).
Visually inspect the flange grounding for corrosion,
connection security, and electrical contact.
Tower wall Visually inspect for corrosion, deposits, cracks, welds, and
danger signs.
Perform a functional test of the electrical sockets and lamps.
Power supply Visually inspect the power and control cables for attachment,
damage to insulation, integrity of the cable baskets, twisting,
and tightness of the compression fittings.
Visually inspect to ensure that the cable twist does not exceed
three turns in each direction.
Perform a functional test of the cable to ensure that the twist
corresponds with the yaw direction and degrees or with the
analog value of the nacelle revolution.
Visually inspect the cable untwisting switch for damage, dirt,
and security of attachment.
Perform a functional test of the cable untwisting switch for
actuation, signal errors, and yaw limit switch actuation.
Check the alignment of the automatic untwisting system by
comparing the untwisted cable harness with the zero-degree
yaw position.
Visually inspect the deviation of the zero-degree position of
the nacelle with the zero-degree yaw position.
 4-37 
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tower components that are typically performed only on an annual basis.
Table 4-9
Annual preventive maintenance activities for the tower

Assembly
Platforms and Visually inspect the attachments and hinges for corrosion and
hatches physical damage.
Interior Visually inspect the interior components (platform and ladder
components connections, bolted connections for cable terminal strips, guide
tubes, and power cable) for damage, cracks, welds, missing
components, and abrasion.
Hoisting Visually inspect and test the hoisting passenger suspension device
passenger (climb assist) in accordance with the manufacturer’s
suspension recommendation.
device Visually inspect the fall protection/ladder for damage, attachment,
alignment during ascent, bolted connections, cracks, fractures, and
stability.
Visually inspect the chain hoist in accordance with the
4.8 Nacelle
for the nacelle components that are typically performed on a six-month basis.
Table 4-10
Semiannual preventive maintenance activities for the nacelle

Assembly
General Visually inspect insulating material for cracks and detached pieces.
Visually inspect the nacelle for cracks, tightness, and lighting.
Visually inspect the attachment of the nacelle/base frame, rail,
weather station, and navigation lights, grounding strip, and
ventilation system.
Check the tightness of the nacelle enclosure fasteners.
Visually inspect the ground cable for corrosion, connection, and
electrical contact.
Visually inspect the nacelle hinged cover for missing or loose parts
and to ensure that it seals properly.
Tread of the Visually inspect the tread of the steps and grating to ensure tight
steps/grating connections and no accumulation of dirt and for corrosion/physical
damage.
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Semiannual preventive maintenance activities for the nacelle

Assembly
Top box Visually inspect the contactor sensor to ensure secure electrical
continuity, the general condition, and that no arc marks are
present.
Visually inspect the contactor sensor control elements, keyboard,
cable terminals, and electrical connections.
Perform a functional test of the contactor sensor control system.
Perform a functional test of the rotational speed sensor.
Safety chain Perform an operational test of the safety chain emergency stop
button and system.
Perform a functional test of the safety chain vibration switch.
Perform a functional test of the safety chain rotor lock switch.
Wind vane and Visually inspect the wind vane and anemometer for physical
anemometer damage, corrosion, sealing, and attachment.
Perform a functional test of the anemometer readings.
Perform a functional test of the heating system for the wind vane
and anemometer.
Visually inspect the heating system for the wind vane and
anemometer to ensure that the cables are securely attached and
positioned correctly.
Navigation Visually inspect the navigation lights for loose or missing parts and
lights secure cable connections.
Perform a functional test of the lamps and emergency power supply.
Yaw system Perform a wear test of the brake pads.
Visually inspect the yaw drive for leakage, oil level, cleanliness,
and attachment.
Empty the yaw drive grease collection container/pan.
Check the torque of 10% of the bolted connections of the yaw drive
to the base frame.
Check the torque of 10% of the bolted connections of the yaw
bearing to the top tower flange.
Lubricate the yaw bearing in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations.
Visually inspect the yaw bearing for signs of grease leakage and
for seal and lubricant line integrity.
Visually inspect the cleanliness and attachment of the position
sensor.
Perform a functional test of the position sensor, and adjust the
setting as needed.
 4-39 
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nacelle components that are typically performed only on an annual basis.
Table 4-11
Annual preventive maintenance activities for the nacelle

Assembly
Base frame Visually inspect the base frame for cracks, corrosion, and
physical damage.
Visually inspect the welds of the base frame and generator
mount for cracks, corrosion, and physical damage.
Check the torque of the bolted connections for the generator
mounting frame.
Safety chain Visually inspect the safety chain over-speed monitor for
cleanliness, setting, and proper attachment.
Perform a functional test of the safety chain over-speed
monitor and signaling device.
Yaw system Visually inspect the dismantled brake piston for even
lubrication and wear.
Lubricate the brake piston in accordance with the
Visually inspect the clear ring and driving pinion for
corrosion, wear, and tooth contact pattern.
Lubricate the clear ring and driving pinion in accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
4.9 Drive Train
The following guidance regarding maintenance of the drive train may be

considered to supplement the detailed guidance on gearboxes provided in Section
4.3 of this report and on generators provided in Section 4.4 of this report. Table
4-12 provides an overview of typical PM activities that should be considered for
the drive train that are typically performed on a six-month basis.
Table 4-12
Semiannual preventive maintenance activities for the drive train

Assembly
Connection of Visually inspect the connection for signs of wear or
the rotor/shaft corrosion.
Check the torque of all bolted connections of the rotor
shaft/hub.
 4-40 
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Assembly
Main bearing Visually inspect the main bearing for signs of leakage,
cracks, and corrosion.
Perform a functional test to detect unusual noises emanating
from the bearing.
Empty the main bearing grease collection container/pan.
Lubricate the main bearing in accordance with the
Perform a visual inspection of the main bearing lightning
protection system for cleanliness and brush wear.
Replace the lightning protection system brushes if needed.
Gearbox Visually inspect the gearbox for leakage, oil level, gear-
tooth system/roller bearing.
Take oil samples in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendation.
Visually inspect the gearbox oil cooler for leakage,
attachment, and integrity of the oil hoses.
Clean the oil cooler chiller and fan assemblies.
Slip-ring unit Visually inspect the carbon brushes.
Lubricate the slip-ring assembly.
Replace any broken or blue-brushed brushes.
Check the brush alignment.
Replace the carbon brushes if needed.
Visually inspect the housing seal for signs of wear or
physical damage.
Brake system Visually inspect the brake pads for broken parts or excessive
wear.
Readjust the brake, and check the adjustments.
Replace the brake pads if needed, and reset the air gap.
Visually inspect the brake disk for signs of uneven wear,
cracks, and freewheeling of the disk and to ensure that the
brake pads are parallel to the brake disk.
Visually inspect the brake caliper for corrosion or leakage.
Check the torque of the bolted connections of the brake
gearbox.
Visually inspect the wear sensor for signs of physical
damage.
Perform a functional test of the wear sensor and “pads
worn” switching signal.
Perform a functional test of the brake positioning system.
 4-41 
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Assembly
Brake system Visually inspect the hydraulic hose lines for damage,
(continued) embrittlement, deformation, leakage, and fittings.
Visually inspect the hydraulic unit for signs of corrosion,
leakage, and oil level. Fill with oil if needed.
Perform a functional test of the pressure switch and switch
timing.
Bleed or purge the brakes if needed.
Perform a functional test of the pressure relief control valve.
Check the pre-charging pressure of the active brake
accumulator.
Bleed or purge the hydraulic unit if needed.
Coupling Visually inspect the general condition of the coupling for
damage, cracks, defective disks, red rust between the steel
disks, and bolt corrosion/loss of coating.
Visually inspect the rotor lock of the high-speed shaft for
wear and loose or missing parts.
Generator Visually inspect the generator for coating damage and signs
of corrosion on the connecting leads.
Visually inspect the bearing for leakage.
Perform a functional test of the bearing for signs of excessive
noise and vibration.
Lubricate the bearing in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations.
Check the torque of the bolted connections of the generator
damper.
Check the torque of the bolted connections of the terminal
box.
Visually inspect the generator sound insulation for abrasion,
cracks, and corrosion.
Check the tightness of the bolted connections of the
generator sound insulation system.
Visually inspect the length of the power circuit carbon
brushes, and replace them if needed.
Visually inspect the dust filter, and replace it if needed.
Visually inspect the length of the grounding carbon brushes,
and replace them if needed.
Perform a functional test of the fan and clean air ducts if
needed.
Visually inspect the fan motor for wear or corrosion, and
replace it if needed.
 4-42 
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drive train components that are typically performed only on an annual basis.
Table 4-13
Annual preventive maintenance activities for the drive train

Assembly
Rotor shaft Visually inspect the rotor shaft for corrosion and wear.
Shrink disk Visually inspect the shrink disk for corrosion, wear, and
physical damage.
Retighten the gearbox shrink disk connection, and grease it
in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Retighten a sample of 10% of the shrink disk bolts. If any
one bolt can be turned more than 20º, retighten all of the
bolts on the flange.
Rotor lock of Visually inspect the rotor lock for corrosion, wear, and
low-speed shaft physical damage.
Check the bolted connection of the rotor lock device.
Perform a functional test of the rotor locking device.
Rotor lock of Visually inspect the rotor lock for corrosion, wear, and
high-speed shaft physical damage.
Check the bolted connection of the rotor lock device.
Perform a functional test of the rotor locking device.
Coupling Check the bolted connections of the coupling flange.
Generator Replace the incremental encoder every 10 years.
 4-43 
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4.10 Hub
Table 4-14 provides an overview of typical PM activities that should be

considered for the hub components that are typically performed on a six-month
basis.
Table 4-14
Semiannual preventive maintenance activities for the hub
Key Technical Point
Initial lubing of the blades,
Assembly
yaw bearing, and pitch
bearing should be done Nose cone Visually inspect the nose cone for cracks and corrosion at
immediately after the connection and along the railing.
construction. Visually inspect the steps, sealing, and hinges for cracks,
corrosion, and loose or missing bolted connections.
Pitch system Visually inspect the pitch bearing for integrity of the seals
and for leakage of grease at the blade and lubrication lines.
Lubricate the pitch bearing in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendation.
Visually inspect the pitch drive for signs of corrosion,
leakage, oil level, contact pattern of the gear tooth system,
and lubricating grease on the gear ring.
Check the torque of the bolted connections associated with
the pitch drive.
Visually inspect the pitch motor to ensure proper wear of the
carbon brushes and cleanliness. Replace the carbon brushes
if the brush spring is below the specified minimum distance
away from the brush holder.
Perform a functional test of the pitch motor auxiliary fan.
Visually inspect the gear ring and driving pinion for
corrosion, gear teeth contact pattern, and cleanliness.
Visually inspect the 0º and 90º switching cam, limit switch,
and bracket for cleanliness and proper attachment.
Perform a functional test of the switching signal, manual stop
at 85º, and emergency stop at 89º.
Visually inspect the central and axis cabinets for cleanliness
and proper attachment.
Retighten the bolted connections of the cabinets as needed.
Visually inspect the tightness and proper attachment of
components, terminal grease, bolts of the battery contacts,
and cable clamping.
Perform a functional test to ensure that the doors close
securely.
Visually inspect the condition of the battery cabinet for loose
or missing parts, spark marks, or physical damage.
 4-44 
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Semiannual preventive maintenance activities for the hub

Assembly
Rotor blades Visually inspect the outside of the rotor blades for evidence
of lightning strikes, cracks, coating damage, corrosion, and
cleanliness.
Perform a functional test to detect any noise or vibration.
Visually inspect the inside of the rotor blades for cracks,
secure bolted connections, moisture, corrosion, and
cleanliness.
hub components typically performed only on an annual basis.
Table 4-15
Annual preventive maintenance activities for the hub
Key Technical Point Component/ PM Activities Performed Annually
Pitch bearing lubrication Assembly
should typically be
performed every six Pitch system Retighten a sample of 10% of the bolts between the pitch
months. Initially, however, bearing and the hub. If any one bolt can be turned more
many are not lubricated than 20º, retighten all of the bolts on the flange.
properly, and after six to
eight months of use, some
damage may occur. The 4.11 Typical Preventive Maintenance Template
initial procedure for
greasing these bearings The PM template in Table 4-16 summarizes the program of tasks and task
should be detailed to intervals for the equipment type. Each plant should base its program on the
include the appropriate manufacturers’ recommendations and its own history of equipment performance.
amount of grease and the The PM template can serve as a beginning for development of a PM program for
type of grease. the equipment, and changes can be made as a result of feedback received during
implementation of the program.
4.11.1 PM Template Information and Definitions
The PM template contains the following information:

 Conditions. Columns 1 through 8 list the eight sets of conditions for the
system components. Each column corresponds to the combined choices of
critical or non-critical equipment, high or low duty cycle, and severe or mild
service conditions. Time intervals for the performance of each task are
entered at the intersections of the task rows and columns 1 through 8.
 4-45 
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The definitions of template application conditions are the following:
- Critical
Yes. Functionally important; that is, risk significant, required for power
production, safety-related, or other regulatory requirement.
No. Functionally not important, but economically important for any of

the following reasons: high frequency of resulting corrective
maintenance, more expensive to replace or repair than to do preventive
maintenance, or high potential to cause the failure of other critical or
economically important equipment.
- Duty Cycle
High. Frequently cycled or partially loaded during the greater part of its
operational time.
Low. Fully loaded during the greater part of its operation time.
- Service Condition
Severe. High or excessive humidity, excessively high or low

temperatures, excessive temperature variations, excessive environmental
conditions (such as salt, corrosive, spray, steam, or low-quality suction
air), or high vibration.
Mild. Clean area (not necessarily air conditioned), temperatures within

the OEM’s specifications, and normal environmental conditions.
 PM Tasks. The PM tasks provide a cost-effective way to intercept the causes
and mechanisms that lead to degradation and failure. The PM tasks can be
used to develop a complete PM program or to improve an existing program.
These tasks are intended to complement and not to replace the PM
recommendations given by the manufacturer. A brief description of the PM
tasks follows the PM template.
 4-46 
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Table 4-16
Example PM template for wind turbine system components
Conditions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Critical: Yes X X X X
No X X X X
Duty Cycle: High X X X X
Low X X X X
Service Condition: Severe X X X X
Mild X X X X
PM Tasks: Frequency Interval
Calibration D W W W M M M M
Cleaning D W W W M M M M
Lubrication M Q Q Q S S S S
Oil analysis M M M M Q Q Q Q
Operator checks D W W W M M M M
Vibration analysis M M M M Q Q Q Q
Visual inspection D W W W M M M M
D = Daily, W = Weekly, M = Monthly, Q = Quarterly, S = Semiannually, A = Annually
 4-47 
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4.11.2 Description of Preventive Maintenance Tasks
The following is a brief description of PM tasks often included in the PM

template.
 Calibration – Calibration of the wind turbine equipment includes the setting
and verification of instruments and components. Instruments include
thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), pitot tubes, and
pressure gauges. Some examples of calibration are for the scales, the zero load
reference should be checked every other day, and the calibration should be
checked every week for several months after installation. Simulated load tests,
or material tests, and zero load tests should be conducted at periodic intervals
between official tests in order to provide reasonable assurance that the device
is performing correctly.
 Cleaning – The cleaning of equipment and components is very important.
The appearance of black dust on all equipment limits the operations and
maintenance personnel from seeing the movement, position, or location of
many components. The accumulation of dust or grime can clog filters, jam
rollers, interfere with limit switch operation, etc.
 Lubrication – The addition and changing of lubrication is a very critical
function for the wind turbine system components. Airborne dust and dirt can
contaminate lubrication and destroy bearings. The frequency of lubrication
and changing lubrication varies with the equipment.
 Oil analysis – Oil analysis is valuable predictive maintenance technology for
detecting problems in equipment before failure occurs. For the wind turbine
equipment, oil samples should be taken and analyzed for the gearboxes and
any other rotating equipment. Samples should be analyzed for contamination
and oil properties. The results of the oil analysis can alert personnel that
bearings are failing, and plans can be made to monitor the operation of the
equipment, take more frequent samples, or shut the equipment down.
 Operator checks – Operator checks (that is, operator rounds) include an
external visual inspection of the wind turbine equipment. This includes
listening for noises, smelling for smoke, checking temperatures, checking
pressures, looking for leaks, checking oil levels, and so on. Section 4.11.3 of
this report provides a summary of typical operator rounds performed by one
owner/operator of a large wind farm.
 Vibration analysis – Monitoring of the wind turbine drive train with
vibration sensors and performing vibration data analysis prevents component
forced outages. When abnormal vibration is detected, then further
investigation is warranted. Detection of failing bearings can allow the
component to be repaired before it fails.
 Visual inspection – The single most important PM task is visual inspection.
The operations or maintenance personnel should be looking for any
abnormal activity, missing bolts, failed welds, excessive corrosion, physical
deformation, etc.
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4.11.3 Example of Operator Rounds at a Wind Turbine
Facility
Provided below is an example of the scope of activities that one wind farm
owner/operator included as part of their operator rounds. The list of activities is
provided for illustrative purposes only and should be considered as a benchmark
from which to develop site-specific procedures.
4.11.3.1 Operator Rounds for Transformer Stations
The following activities should be considered for inclusion in operator rounds:

 Check the counter on the transformer load tap changer.
 Rotate the supply of transformer cooler groups.
 Check the operation of the transformer fan.
 Inspect or test the emergency generator.
 Check the condition of the sumps.
 Check the bushings and insulators for contaminants.
 Ensure that the oil spill instruction/inspection sheet is current.
 Check the disconnect, magnetic, and ground poles.
 Inspect the operability of the fire extinguishers.
 Inspect the operability of the eye-wash stations.
 Inspect the general appearance of the station exterior and grounds.
 Verify the operability of the station lighting.
 Check the supply of the following items:
- Emergency operations kits
- Indicating lamps
- Light bulbs
- Equipment tags
- Fuses (potential transformer, station service, low-voltage, etc.)
- Spill kits
- Portable grounds
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4.11.3.2 Operator Rounds for Towers
The following activities should be considered for inclusion in operator rounds:

 Verify the operability of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) light
control system.
 Inspect the lower tower interior.
 Visually inspect the exterior of the nacelle.
 Verify the performance and documentation of the scheduled PM activities.
 Inspect the operability of the fire extinguishers.
 Review the completeness and accuracy of the log books.
 Visually inspect the lower tower exterior for general appearance and
cleanliness.
 Check the supply of the following items:
- Indicating lamps
- Light bulbs
- Tower lighting
- Ladders
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Section 5: Repair and Replacement Guidance
5.1 General Guidance
Figure 5-1 illustrates a generic process for determining whether to repair or

replace a system component that is no longer performing in accordance with
design requirements.
Figure 5-1
Generic repair vs. replace evaluation (Based on EPRI 1009670)
 5-1 
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The question of whether to repair, replace, or defer maintenance on a system
component is often a complicated one to answer. The issue is further complicated
by whether the analysis is performed for an entire system or simply a particular
component of an existing wind turbine system. In most cases, a thorough
economic cost study is the only effective way to obtain a quantified answer.
This rule of thumb is generally effective if the system can be put out of service
during replacement construction. Of course, one option is to do nothing or defer
the maintenance.
Key O&M Cost Point Figure 5-2 illustrates a number of factors that should be considered when
As a general rule of performing a comprehensive analysis. Some of the factors are easier to quantify
thumb, if the repair costs than other factors, and in some cases, actual costs can be estimated. To quantify
are 50% or less of the the results of the analysis, some factors may be weighted as to their relative
replacement cost, then importance in the calculation.
repair should be
considered. If the Because of the complexity of the analysis and the varying relevancy of each factor,
percentage is greater, then this report does not attempt to provide a mathematical equation for performing
replacement is generally such a calculation. The reader should also note that some of the factors are more
the best option. qualitative in nature, and they tend to be more difficult to quantify in those cases
where an economic cost study is desired.
Figure 5-2
Factors considered during the decision-making process (Based on EPRI 1009670)
Each of the factors illustrated in Figure 5-2 is discussed in more detail below.
The reader should recognize that this list of factors is not all-inclusive and is
provided for illustrative purposes only.
 5-2 
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5.1.1 Quantifiable Factors for Economic Cost Study
As noted in the previous information, some factors are easier to quantify than
others, and in some cases, costs can be estimated for each course of action. A
brief discussion of the quantifiable factors and costs is provided below:
 Cost of the repair – One of primary factors that should be considered is the
cost of the repair. This cost is typically composed of the costs for materials,
equipment, labor, and preparation needed to perform the repair. For the
purposes of this report, this cost would not include follow-on maintenance
costs associated with maintaining the repaired components over the life of
the operating system.
 Cost of replacement – Another primary factor that should be considered is
the cost of replacement. This may apply to either the entire system or a
particular component under evaluation. Similar to estimating the cost of a
repair, replacement costs should include the costs for materials, equipment,
labor, and preparation needed to replace the existing component(s).
Likewise, for the purposes of this report, this cost would not include follow-
on maintenance costs associated with maintaining the replaced components
over the life of the operating system.
 Anticipated maintenance costs – When making the decision to replace or
repair a particular component, the manager should consider the anticipated
maintenance costs associated with either action. Whether an item is replaced
or repaired, there will be costs associated with maintaining it for some period
of time. An estimation of projected maintenance costs should include the
following components:
- Maintenance equipment costs – Special equipment and/or tools are often
required to perform a repair or to replace a given item. The costs of using
these items should be factored into the decision as to whether replace it
or repair it.
- Labor costs – The labor costs associated with projected or anticipated
maintenance are important to consider because they may constitute a
significant component if the life expectancy of the operating system or
component is high. Labor costs can be affected by the availability of
maintenance personnel, whether special or unique skills are required,
and/or whether the maintenance personnel are in-house or contracted.
 Demolition costs – In many cases, there are significant demolition costs
associated with a replacement that are not necessarily as important when
performing a repair. Demolition costs should include costs associated with
preparing the system or structure for the replacement, removal of the
components that have been replaced, and disposal of the waste.
 Hazardous materials handling costs – In some cases, there are costs
associated with handling certain hazardous materials, such as asbestos, lead
paint, and hazardous chemicals, that should be factored into the overall cost
of performing maintenance and/or repairs on existing operating systems and
their components. These costs may be so significant that the most
economical option is to defer the maintenance or repair until the end of the
service life of the component.
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5.1.2 Key Qualitative Factors in the Decision-Making Process
Several key qualitative factors that should be considered in the analysis are
discussed in more detail below:
 Rate of deterioration – The rate of deterioration is another factor that
should be considered when evaluating the cost benefits of either repairing or
replacing a system component. The rate of deterioration primarily impacts
the urgency with which the item needs to be addressed. For an item failing at
a slow rate, the system owner is afforded additional time to decide what
course of action to take. In some cases, the rate of deterioration may be so
slow that the best course of action is to defer any action until the
component’s condition becomes more severe. Items failing at a faster rate
require that more prompt action be taken.
 Age of the system/component – The age of the operating system and its
components should be factored into the evaluation for a number of reasons.
First, the older the system is, the less likely it is that repairs will be feasible.
Conversely, the newer the system, the less likely it is that it would be
beneficial to replace the entire system and the more likely it would be to
perform repairs of needed components. Secondly, older systems may have a
number of maintenance issues that need to be considered simultaneously.
The repair costs of these multiple issues should be considered together and
not separately.
 Risk to process outage/stoppage – The risks associated with inadvertently
interrupting the process(es) should be considered from two perspectives—
short term and long term. In the short-term perspective, the system owner
should consider which action, repair, or replacement would present the least
risk to interrupting the processes. In some cases, a repair can be performed
without any disruption to the processes; whereas a replacement may require
the process equipment to be shut down until the replacement is complete.
When this is the case, the system owner may also consider the cost of lost
production necessitated by the replacement.
 Expected life of the replacement or repair – Other factors that should be
considered are the expected life of the replaced or repaired component.
Regardless of what action is taken, the restored condition will not last
forever. In time, the item will either have to be initially repaired, repeatedly
repaired, or replaced again. The length of time until one of these follow-on
activities is needed will vary, depending on the maintenance decisions taken
now.
 Regulatory issues – Regulatory issues that may have arisen or new
regulations that may have been enacted since the original construction of the
system should also be considered when deciding on the optimum
maintenance action to take.
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5.2 Repair and Replacement of Wind Turbine Components
Repair and replacement of wind turbine components, such as blades, or

components that make up the nacelle, tower, or hub should be coordinated
closely with the original wind turbine manufacturer.
Because of the complexity of many of the system components that are integral to
a wind turbine system, most are repaired until they have reached the end of their
service life. Depending on the extent of the repair and the skill of the craft within
the maintenance organization, assistance from an authorized service
representative recommended by the original equipment manufacturer may be
warranted. Care should be taken if a third-party organization will be performing
the repair or replacement.
5.3 Repair and Replacement of Gearboxes
The maintenance activities recommended in this section are generic in nature

and may not be applicable, in whole or in part, to all gearboxes installed in power
generating facilities. Each user of this report should apply the guidance in this
report in conjunction with the equipment-specific guidance provided by each
particular gearbox manufacturer when performing gearbox maintenance.
5.3.1 Typical Procedure for Gearbox Disassembly
5.3.1.1 General Guidance
The following disassembly sequence is provided in this report for information

purposes only and should not be used without reference to the manufacturer’s
instructions that are specific to the actual gearbox being maintained. Note that
any work done on equipment during the manufacturer’s warranty period without
the written approval of an authorized manufacturer’s representative could void
the warranty.
Lock out/tag out procedure – These steps should be followed to complete the
lock out/tag out:
1. Identify the energy sources used and all control devices.
2. Notify all affected personnel.
3. Turn OFF all operating controls.
4. Lock out or tag out all switches and energy controls in the OFF or SAFE
positions.
5. Test all operating controls to ensure that no power is getting to the equipment.
6. Perform the required maintenance.
Visual inspection – Visual inspection of the gearing through the inspection

cover may provide the information necessary to determine the cause of a problem
without complete disassembly.
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5.3.1.2 Tools Required
For disassembly and reassembly, several commonly available tools may be

required. No special tools or fixtures are required for the housing and gears, and
often no tools for assembly/disassembly are provided by the manufacturer.
Following is a list of some tools that may be useful:
 Crane or hoist, along with soft slings or chains.
 Eyebolts
 Dial indicator
 Pry bar
 Crocus cloth or fine steel wool
 Wrenches, screwdrivers, torque-wrench
 Prussian blue or similar dye for tooth contact check
 LocTite No. 49-31 Plastic Gasket or an equivalent plastic gasket material
5.3.1.3 Spare Parts
Parts such as gaskets should be replaced when a disassembly is performed. The

manufacturer should be contacted to obtain a list of recommended spare parts
because they vary from one manufacturer to another and from one mode to
another.
5.3.1.4 Removal of Gear Cover
Inspections typically performed prior to gear cover removal include the following:
 As-found alignment conditions
 Various end-play checks and verifications
Throughout the disassembly sequence, observe carefully what may have occurred
inside the unit, and record the position and condition of any failed parts. Note
any parts, bolts, nuts, or holes that are numbered or match marked; they must be
reassembled as matched for correct assembly.
1. Remove any deflectors, baffles, or coupling guards.
2. Disconnect the high-speed and low-speed couplings.
3. Disconnect any piping, conduit, or wiring that joins the housing sections.
4. Remove any bearing temperature sensor service heads, probes, or other
auxiliary instruments that could be damaged by removal of the cover.
5. Remove the cap screws in the upper half of the seals, end caps, and thrust
bearing housing; if lock wiring is supplied, cut it where necessary.
6. Remove the end caps, seals, and gaskets.
 5-6 
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7. Carefully loosen the thrust bearing housing. (Use the jacking screw holes to
loosen it from the gear housing.)
8. Remove all cap screws and nuts on the parting line. Leave the studs in place
to serve as guides for the cover removal.
9. Break the parting line seal by using jacking screws in the jacking screw holes
located on each end of the gear unit. Giving some sharp raps with a rawhide
hammer at the corner positions and prying with a large screwdriver may be
needed to loosen the parting line joint.
10. Attach a crane or hoist to the lifting provisions in the cover, and carefully lift
the cover by lifting both ends equally about 1/4 inch (6 mm). Check that the
bearings remain seated and that no conduit or wiring that crosses the parting
line is still connected.
11. Check the upper low-speed bearing halves to see if they are stuck in the
cover. If they are, carefully pry them out, or push them out with a rod
inserted through the bearing thermometer holes.
12. Carefully lift the cover straight up until it clears the gearing. The cover will
need enough clearance above the gear and studs for the cover to be removed.
CAUTION: Do not bump the gear assembly with the raised cover.
13. Place the cover on wood blocks so that the machined split line will not be
damaged. Care should be taken to ensure that internal lubrication lines are
not damaged.
5.3.1.5 Removal of Pinion, Gear, and Bearings
Removal of gearing from housing is not required if only the rotating element
inspection is needed. Radial bearings can be removed and replaced by rolling the
shells out of the housing, one bearing at a time (replace the bearing after
inspecting it and prior to inspecting other bearings). The thrust bearing is
typically more difficult to remove and reinstall than the radial bearings, and
detailed guidance is provided below.
1. Mark the location of each bearing in the housing so that it can be
reassembled correctly.
Key Technical Point
It is advisable to pour a 2. Remove the pinion with the bearings in place, using a soft sling on each side
small amount of oil on of the mesh. Place the shaft on a soft material, such as wood or rubber or a
each bearing or journal padded V-rack, taking care not to damage the gear teeth.
surface to ensure that an 3. Remove the upper half of the low-speed bearings.
oil film is present
whenever manually rolling 4. Remove the low-speed gear and shaft assembly with a chain inserted through
the gear elements because a lifting hole or eyebolts inserted into the gear. Take care to protect the teeth
the lubrication system is by placing wood blocks between the chain and the sides of the gear.
inoperable. 5. Place the gear on a soft surface, such as wood, taking care not to damage the
teeth. Block each side to prevent the gear from rolling.
6. Gears may be inspected at this time in accordance with the guidance
provided in this report.
 5-7 
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5.3.1.6 Thrust Bearing Removal
The thrust bearing might contain temperature sensors, and the lead wires exit the
bearing housing through the oil fitting. Following is a sequence for removal of
the thrust bearing:
1. Remove the temperature sensors from the thrust bearing shoes with a small
hooked probe to pull out the star washer through the access cover that is
adjacent to the sensor connection heads.
2. Remove the thrust-bearing end-cap bolts.
3. Remove the end cap and shims from the thrust-bearing housing.
4. Use wide-jaw pliers to pull the outer backing ring a short distance out of the
thrust-bearing housing.
5. Remove the outer backing ring and thrust pads. Mark the position of pads
containing embedded temperature sensors so that they can be returned to
their original location.
6. Remove the axial-probe target plate.
7. Loosen the set screws or locking tabs in the thrust-collar lock nut. Note that
some thrust collars are integral to the shaft.
8. Remove the lock nut by turning it counterclockwise. Use a spanner wrench
or a small punch inserted into the spanner holes to loosen the nut.
9. Insert cap screws into the threaded puller holes in the thrust collar.
10. Carefully remove the thrust collar. Do not allow the collar to drop down and
damage the lock nut threads as it is being removed.
11. Mark the position of the inner thrust pads containing embedded temperature
sensors so that they can be returned to their original position. Remove the
shoes and inner backing ring.
Oil sample collection – If needed, an oil sample (typically, a full quart or liter)
can be collected at this time for later analysis.
5.3.2 Inspection and Maintenance of Gears
5.3.2.1 Introduction
The purpose of this section is to describe why gear tooth contact should be
checked regularly, how the actual check is made, and how to interpret the tooth
contact check on power transmission gearing with involute double-helical teeth
and parallel input and output shafts.
 5-8 
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5.3.2.2 Purpose of Checking Tooth Contact
Gear teeth must have an even load across the entire face width to minimize stress
on the teeth. The contact between gear teeth is line contact; therefore, the
alignment between the rotating elements (pinion and gear) is critical. Tooth
alignment is controlled by the accuracy of the rotating elements, the housing, and
the bearings assembly.
5.3.2.3 When to Check Tooth Contact

Tooth contact should be checked on all new installations, after any disassembly
of the gear unit, and after any major housing-to-foundation change. It can also
be checked as part of routine annual maintenance or when a problem related to
alignment is suspected. Contact should be checked on the foundation being
replaced to ensure that the unit will operate properly.
5.3.2.4 How to Check Tooth Contact

The contact can be checked two ways:
 Soft blue – Apply soft machinist’s bluing or transfer bluing to the teeth of
one gear and roll that gear by hand through meshing with its mating gear.
(The terms “blue” or “bluing” are used for convenience; the dye is available in
other colors. A soft blue check is usually run across a second element that is
coated with another color, such as soft yellow. This contrast results in a more
distinct, representative contact pattern.) The transfer of the blue from one
gear to the other gear is read as the contact.
 Hard blue – Paint the gear teeth with hard or layout blue, run the gear unit,
and observe the pattern of “wear off” of the bluing.
Contact checking may usually be accomplished through the inspection cover

port. Occasionally, soft blue checking is done with the housing cover removed,
such as during the reassembly process.
5.3.2.5 Interpretation of Tooth Contact

The following is information to be used only for guidance in deciding if tooth
contact is adequate. In most cases, the gearbox manufacturer should be consulted
on how to correct poor contact. Assuming properly manufactured parts, minor
corrections can be made to the tooth contact by shimming the gear housing.
Exactly what contact should be acceptable should be based on the manufacturer’s
recommendations and experience.
Maintenance personnel should remember that tip or root relief modifications are
designed to improve load distribution when a unit is operating under load, but
they can make the contact appear quite bad under no load, as in a soft blue check.
Generally, with a soft blue check, one is looking for some blue to transfer, usually
in a line that covers at least 80% of the face width, a centralized 60% coverage, or
acceptable contact patterns consistent with those illustrated in Figure 5-3. Do
not be alarmed by a lack of blue covering the flank of the tooth; flank contact
should normally not extend entirely to the tip of the tooth.
 5-9 
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Figure 5-3 illustrates various examples of tooth contact patterns. Keep in mind
that a soft blue contact will not produce such dark impression— look for the
same pattern in a “sketchy” impression.
Figure 5-3
Tooth contact patterns
The hard blue operational/running tooth contact check can be done from no load
to full load, and the results will vary with the load condition. If the unit is run at no
load, the test will usually appear similar to a soft blue check. More blue will wear
off the pinion than the gear due to the higher number of cycles the pinion sees. As
the load increases, blue will wear off more of the tooth flank. Look for evidence of
even load across as much of the gear tooth, both flank and face with, as possible.
5.3.3 Maintenance of Bearings
5.3.3.1 Bearing Clearance
Measurement of bearing clearances can be done while the gear is stopped by

lifting the shaft and measuring the distance traveled with a dial indicator or by
using feeler gauges, carefully sliding a feeler gauge between the top of the bearing
bore and the shaft.
 5-10 
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Some wear should be expected, especially on a gear that is stopped and started
frequently. The bearing may be considered operational as long as the measured
clearance does not exceed the design clearance by more than 0.004 inches (101.6
microns). Note that if shaft vibration is excessive, this clearance increase may not
be acceptable, especially on large or small bearings. For instance, a small 3–inch-
(10.16-cm-) diameter high-speed bearing, with a design clearance of 0.003–
0.005 inches (76.2–127 microns), could not withstand a clearance increase of
0.004 inches (101.6 microns). The clearance on the tilt pad bearings is difficult to
check accurately and can normally be classified as acceptable if they show no
signs of distress, damage, or excessive wear.
5.3.3.2 Bearing Contact Correction
After bearing contact is satisfactory, it may be possible to improve gear tooth

contact by adjusting the shims under the unit. Do not attempt to modify the
bearing contact of the tilt pad journal bearing in any way except by removing any
localized nicks or dings (high spots).
Sometimes gear tooth contact can be corrected by scraping and polishing one of
the bearings loaded in the bottom section to spread the contact along the face
width. If this is necessary, the manufacturer should be contacted.
After correcting bearing and tooth contact and before putting the cover on the
gearbox unit, the bearings should be liberally lubricated with clean oil to provide
for initial startup lubrication.
5.3.3.3 Correcting Bearing High Spots
Bearing high (bright) spots should be lightly scraped and polished with fine steel
wool or crocus cloth until they blend in with the rest of the bearing.
5.3.3.4 Flaking of Babbitt
If flaking is caught in the early stages, the bearing may be repaired by scraping
and polishing. The cause of vibration or hammering should be corrected before
the gearbox unit is put back in service. In the advanced stages of flaking, the load
carrying area of the bearing is typically destroyed, and the bearing must be
replaced.
5.3.3.5 Correcting Bearing Scoring
A little scoring is not serious, and the bearing can be polished with fine steel
wool to remove any rough edges caused by scoring. Any foreign particles
embedded in the babbitt that could score the journal should be carefully picked
out, and that area should then be polished smooth. Scoring becomes serious
when it significantly reduces the bearing area. In this case, the bearing should be
replaced, and the gearbox unit drained and flushed out with a solvent.
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5.3.3.6 Correcting Bearing Wiping
If wiping is localized in a small spot, the bearing can be repaired by scraping and
polishing the spot until it blends in with the remainder of the bearing.
Otherwise, the bearing must be replaced. Bearing scraping requires experience
Key Technical Point and expertise, however, as well as sound judgment when deciding whether to
Before replacing a wiped dress or replace the item.
bearing, determine and
correct the cause of the 5.3.3.7 Replacement Bearings
wipe.
The manufacturer’s parts list should be referenced if it is determined that
bearings need to be replaced. If new bearings are used, the following precautions
should be taken:
 Remove all nicks and burrs from the housing and bearing shell.
 Ensure that journals are free of nicks and high spots. These can be removed
using a fine hone and polishing with crocus cloth.
 Obtain the proper bearing contact as described in the manufacturer’s
technical literature.
 After bearings are fitted and lower halves are installed in the housing, check
the radial clearance using a feeler gauge or plastic gauge material. Check the
end-play by barring the shaft axially.
5.3.4 Typical Procedure for Gearbox Reassembly
5.3.4.1 Preparation
The following reassembly sequence is provided for information purposes only and
should not be used without reference to the manufacturer’s instructions that are
specific to the actual gearbox installed at the site. Note that any work done on
equipment during the manufacturer’s warranty period without the written
approval of an authorized manufacturer’s representative could void the warranty.
This procedure assumes that the gear housing is not removed from its
foundation/support and that the original shaft alignment was correct. Additional
information regarding shaft alignment techniques is provided in EPRI report
Shaft Alignment Guide (TR-112449).
The reassembly sequence for the gearbox is as follows:

1. Clean all interior surfaces of the housing, the housing cover, and all
components that will be reused. Parting line surfaces must be clean and
smooth; use a spray-on paint and gasket remover fluid, and/or carefully
scrape the surfaces if necessary. Corroded spots can be cleaned by using a fine
emery cloth, rubbing shafts in a rotary or circumferential direction. Do not
rub shafts in a lengthwise direction as it may cause seal leaks.
2. Check the bearing shells, the parting line, and the housing bores for any
burrs or nicks; remove with a fine file.
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3. Put a coat of light oil on all parts to help assembly and to prevent rust during
reassembly. Use fresh oil from the gearbox supply for this. Do not use special
oils, such as STP, because their separate additives may cause operational
problems.
The guidance in the following sections is assumes that the entire unit must be
reassembled. NOTE: Tighten connectors uniformly. When tightening bolts,
studs, or screws on an assembled portion with three or more holes, always
partially tighten the connectors equally in a “cross” pattern to avoid torquing,
binding, or warping the section.
5.3.4.2 Typical Reassembly Sequence
Although instructions include using sealer between housing sections, this should
actually be done on the final assembly, only after checking tooth contact and
ascertaining that the unit is aligned properly. Following is the procedure for
reassembling the bearing, gear, and pinion assembly.
1. Install the journal bearings – Before installing the journal bearings, note that
the pressure dam bearings are match marked and are not interchangeable.
A. Install the lower half of the low-speed journal bearings (the half with the
slot for the roll pin if there is one) in the housing in the position for
which they were marked at disassembly, keeping the parting lines on the
bearing and housing even.
B. Check with a 0.0015-inch (38.1-micron) feeler gauge to see that the

lower halves are seated. Consideration may be given to measuring the
bearing clearance by direct measurement of the ID and the shaft journal
OD. Another alternative is to use a commercially available plastic gage,
(for example, a Perfect Circle Plastigage).
C. Ensure that the pressure dam is seated in the correct location.
D. Check the bearing contact as described in the instructions specific to the

size, type, and model bearing in use. Do not attempt to install shafts with
the lower halves of the thrust bearing in the housing, or babbitt-faced
thrust faces may be damaged.
E. Rethread any temperature sensor wires from the bearing through the
housing.
2. Install gear – Lift the low speed gear, and carefully place the assembly in its
correct location in the gear housing and bearings. Use care to avoid bumping
the housing or the edges of bearings.
3. Set the top of the gear bearings in place, and secure it (use bolts or bearing
straps if they are supplied). Turn the bearings in the bore if necessary.
4. Install pinion – Install the pinion bearings on the pinion, ensuring that the
pinion is level, and line it up in mesh with the gear.
 5-13 
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5. Carefully set the pinion and its bearings in mesh with the gear, and roll along
the gear until the bearings are seated in the housing.
6. Line up the pins in the housing grooves, and rotate the bearings until seated.
Following is a typical procedure for assembling the gear cover:

1. Lower the cover over the studs carefully to prevent damage to gearing. Leave
it suspended high enough to reach the RTD holes.
2. Thread the temperature sensor wires from the bearings as necessary to retain
the leads extending into the housing.
3. Coat the split line with a small bead of sealer, such as LocTite No. 49-31
Plastic Gasket, or an equivalent plastic gasket material. Circle all the studs to
ensure sealing of the oil, but avoid the feeder groove areas.
4. Seat the cover onto the bottom section, and install the cylindrical dowel pins.
CAUTION: Do not assume that the doweling is accurate. Straight dowels
have clearance, which over time may have come out of tolerance.
Consideration may be given to using tapered dowels if dowel clearances
prevent the proper seating and positioning of the gearbox cover.
5. Tighten all cap screws and studs in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommended instructions. Typical torque values for Grade 5 bolts and studs
are provided in Table 5-1.
6. Perform a soft blue gear tooth contact check in accordance with the guidance
contained in this report.
Table 5-1
Recommended tightening torques
Nominal Size Tightening Torque Tightening Torque

for Bolts for Studs
Inches mm Ft. Lbs. N-m Ft. Lbs. N-m
1/2 12.7 75 102 87 117
5/8 15.9 150 203 173 234
3/4 19.0 266 360 307 416
1 25.4 644 873 742 1006
1-1/4 28.8 1120 1519 1484 2012
1-1/2 38.1 1949 2643 2582 3501
1-3/4 44.5 2286 3100 4073 5522
 5-14 
12615299
7. If the contact is not acceptable, check for improperly meshed gears, burrs on
shafts or housing bores, or twisted housing. If no satisfactory explanation can
be found, contact the manufacturer.
8. Install the thrust bearing:
A. Replace the inner backing ring. It must be firmly seated against the wall
of the housing.
B. Thoroughly clean each thrust bearing shoe.
C. Apply a liberal quantity of thick grease to the back side of each thrust
shoe. The grease will serve as a temporary adhesive to keep the shoes
positioned in the backing ring as they are installed.
D. Install the inner thrust shoes, taking care to place each shoe that has an
embedded temperature sensor in its original position.
E. Install and tighten the thrust-collar lock nut, and tighten the two thrust-
collar set screws.
F. Install the axial-probe target plate.
G. Place the outer backing ring on a flat surface. Apply a liberal quantity of
grease to the back side of each outer thrust pad, and position the thrust
shoes on the backing ring. Ensure that the shoes with embedded
temperature sensors are located in their original position.
H. Lift the outer backing ring assembly, and install it into the thrust bearing
housing.
I. Install the adjusting shims and thrust-bearing end cap, and tighten
securely. Be very careful while handling and installing the shims, since
torn or crimped shims can cause incorrect adjustments.
J. Install temperature sensors in their shoes through the access covers.

9. Measure to ensure that the low-speed shaft has the specified axial movement.
(Use a pry bar to move the gear from side to side if necessary.) Also check
that the high-speed pinion can float axially.
10. Mount the shaft seals, end plates, and other auxiliary equipment that may
have been disconnected during disassembly.
11. Reconnect any junction box plate and wiring as necessary.
12. Reconnect any instrumentation and lubrication lines as necessary.
13. Couple the unit to the driver and driven machines.
14. Install the inspection covers with gaskets and sealers.
15. Align the unit.
 5-15 
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16. Spin the unit slowly with no load, if possible, to verify correct reassembly.
Ensure that the unit rotates freely and quietly.
17. Confirm proper shaft alignment and tooth contact.
18. Follow the manufacturer’s startup procedures.
5.4 Repair and Replacement of the Generator
Repair and replacement of the generator should be coordinated with the original
supplier of the wind turbine (if still under warranty) or with the original
generator manufacturer. Detailed guidance specific to each particular make and
model of wind turbine generator is outside the scope of this report.
 5-16 
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Section 6: Troubleshooting Guidance
6.1 System Troubleshooting
Figure 6-1 illustrates the generic process for performing preliminary

troubleshooting of a given power generation system, such as a wind turbine. The
figure emphasizes the need to define the problem, determine and validate system
operating conditions, and subsequently determine whether the symptoms
adversely affect system or component performance or reliability.
Figure 6-1
Generic process for system troubleshooting (preliminary evaluation)
(From EPRI 1003093)
 6-1 
12615299
Figure 6-2 illustrates the detailed system troubleshooting process that can be
undertaken to investigate the symptoms and performance problems being
experienced. The figure emphasizes the need to identify failure modes, develop a
troubleshooting plan (especially if the system is evaluated while online), identify
the cause(s) of the problem, and restore system performance. Additional
guidance regarding system and component troubleshooting is provided in EPRI
report System and Equipment Troubleshooting Guideline (1003093).
Figure 6-2
Generic process for system troubleshooting (detailed system troubleshooting)
(From EPRI 1003093)
 6-2 
12615299
6.2 Troubleshooting of Wind Turbine Components
Troubleshooting of wind turbine components such as blades or components

making up the nacelle, tower, or hub should be conducted in close cooperation
with the original wind turbine manufacturer. Some of the most common failure
mechanisms for failures of these components are discussed in Section 2 of this
report.
Because of the complexity of many of the system components integral to a wind

turbine system, troubleshooting should be performed in accordance with each
equipment manufacturer’s equipment-specific recommendations, which are
typically provided in the manufacturer’s technical manual. Detailed
troubleshooting guidance for any of these subcomponents (for example,
computers, switches, couplings, etc.) is outside the scope of this report.
Guidance regarding the performance of root cause analysis that may be necessary
after experiencing a failure of wind turbine components is also outside the scope
of this report.
6.3 Troubleshooting of Gearboxes
Table 6-1 provides summary troubleshooting guidance for gearboxes. The table
identifies a number of problems associated with degraded or abnormal gearbox
operation, as well as presenting probable causes and suggesting appropriate
corrective actions. More detailed guidance is provided in the sections
immediately following the table.
Table 6-1
Troubleshooting matrix for gearboxes
Problem/ Possible Cause Corrective Action

Symptom
Oil level too high Check the sight gauge
operation.
Ensure proper drainage.
Housing coated with foreign Clean the outside of the
Abnormally
material, preventing heat housing.
high
dissipation
temperature
High ambient temperature Provide adequate ventilation.
Lack of oil to bearings and/or Check the lubrication system.
mesh (indicated by low oil
pressure)
 6-3 
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Troubleshooting matrix for gearboxes
Problem/ Possible Cause Corrective Action

Symptom
Use of lubricant with a lower Use the correct viscosity
viscosity than required lubricant.
Low lubricant viscosity from high Take the corrective actions noted
lubricant temperature for the abnormally high
temperature problem/symptom.
Clogged oil filter Replace the filter element.
Low oil
Clogged air filter Clean or replace the filter
pressure
element.
Pump cavitation Maintain the proper oil level in
the reservoir.
Air leak in the suction line Check and tighten all pipe
fittings.
Incorrect relief valve setting Set the relief valve correctly.
Worn parts Pinpoint the noise with a
Unusual mechanic’s stethoscope. Replace
noise the part.
Coupling misalignment Realign the coupling.
Worn gearing Replace the worn parts.
Excessive
noise Transmission from other Add a sound blanket or
equipment enclosure.
Insufficient foundation rigidity or Reinforce or repair the
grout voids foundation.
Dynamic instability (critical Design to attenuate critical
Excessive speed) speeds in the operating range.
vibrations Unbalanced parts Determine which parts require
balancing and which have been
balanced.
Loose foundation bolting Tighten the bolting.
Excessive Air in the oil Add an anti-foaming agent.
foaming
No power Check the power supply, and
repair or restore.
Faulty gauge or recording Test the gauge or recording
No sensor
device equipment.
readings
Failed sensor Replace the sensor.
Lead wire braid rubbed through Replace the lead wire.
(wire contacting metal)
 6-4 
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6.3.1 Abnormally High Temperature
 Oil level too high – If the oil level in a gear box is so high that the gear runs
in the oil, the resulting churning action will heat the oil. Check the sight
gauge while the unit is running. A full gauge may indicate inadequate
drainage.
 Coated housing – If the gear housing should get coated with a foreign
material that will not permit natural heat removal by convection, high
temperature may result. To prevent this, the unit should be cleaned
periodically.
 Hot weather – Obviously, a high ambient temperature will cause abnormally
high oil temperature. To prevent this, provide adequate ventilation around
the gear.
 Low oil pressure – If the oil flow to the bearing and gear mesh is below
normal (indicated by below normal oil pressure), the heat created by friction
at the mesh and bearings will cause abnormally high temperatures. To correct
this situation, check the lubrication system for proper operation.
6.3.2 Low Oil Pressure

 Use of a lubricant with inadequate viscosity –Several orifices in the
lubrication system are sized for lubricants with a particular viscosity. A
lubricant with less than this normal viscosity will pass through the orifices
without building up pressure. This situation can be prevented by using the
lubricant viscosity grade that is designated on the name plate of the gear unit.
Abnormally low viscosity may also result from high lubricant temperatures.
 Clogged oil filter – Replacing the filter will allow more oil to flow through
it, thus bringing the oil pressure back to normal.
 Clogged air filter – Cleaning or replacing the filter will allow more air to
flow through it, allowing the gearbox to equalize to atmospheric pressure.
 Pump cavitation –If the oil level in the reservoir is so low that the pump
suction line sucks both air and oil, the oil pressure will drop. This situation
may be remedied by maintaining proper oil level in the reservoir.
 Air leak in the suction line to the pump – This situation is similar to
pump cavitation in that air gets in the oil and results in low oil pressure. To
remedy this problem, check and tighten all pipe fittings in the suction line.
 Incorrect relief valve setting – Adjusting the relief valve setting properly
will avoid venting the pump discharge line back to the sump.
 6-5 
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6.3.3 Unusual or Excessive Noise
 Worn parts – One common cause of unusual noise is worn parts. If a part
wears enough to cause slack in the system, the slack may be heard as a rattle
or noise of some sort. A mechanic’s stethoscope can be used to pinpoint the
worn part that should be replaced.
 Misalignment – A coupling that is out of alignment may also cause noisy
operation. The misaligned coupling causes misalignment in the gear train,
which then produces noise or vibration. The coupling should be immediately
realigned before damaging wear occurs.
 Transmitted sound – Occasionally, other machinery or equipment may be
transmitting excessive noise. Enclose one or the other, or use a sound
blanket.
6.3.4 Excessive Vibration

 Soft foundation or grout voids – A foundation that is not sufficiently rigid
may cause vibration problems. To correct this, reinforce the foundation.
 Critical speeds – At certain speeds, a rotating shaft will become dynamically
unstable, and the resulting vibrations and deflections that occur may cause
damage to the gear unit. The speeds at which the shaft becomes unstable are
called critical speeds. They are a function of the shaft geometry and the type
and spacing of the supporting bearings. If such dynamic instability is
suspected, the manufacturer should be contacted. .
6.3.5 Foaming
 Excessive foaming – Some foam in a gear unit is generally acceptable and
inevitable. If the foam exceeds 2 or 3 inches (5.05 or 7.52 cm) in the sump,
most manufacturers recommend adding an anti-foaming agent (such as Dow
Corning 200 Fluid, or the equivalent) at approximately 0.075 ml per gallon
(3.78 liters) of oil. If excessive foaming persists, the manufacturer should be
contacted. Care should be taken to measure the anti-foaming agent carefully.
Too much anti-foaming agent will stabilize the foam, destroy the load
capacity of the oil, and require a complete oil change.
6.3.6 No Sensor Readings
Various sensing devices for temperature and vibration are typically installed to
provide warnings that can prevent catastrophic failure. If no readings are being
received, check for the following before disassembling the unit:
 No power – Check that the power supply to the devices is on.
 Failed equipment – Check that the monitoring or recording equipment is
functioning.
 Worn wires – If the sensor has failed, partial disassembly may be performed
to replace the sensor. Visual inspection of lead wire over-braids are necessary
to ensure that moving parts are not rubbing through the lead wires and
causing shorting out. Replace any worn wires.
 6-6 
12615299
6.4 Generator Troubleshooting
The purpose of this section is to discuss the nature of numerous types of failures
associated with generators and the causes of those failures, which may be useful
when troubleshooting the equipment.
6.4.1 Cell Slot Liners
Since copper has a greater thermal co-efficient of expansion than steel and since
ohmic heating occurs in the copper, the conductors of the field winding expand
more than the steel of the rotor forging. This expansion of the copper can exert a
force on the slot material in the direction of the expansion. The slot liner in some
rotors can be dragged in the direction of expansion force. Cyclic operation of the
generator will produce this thermal-expansion-caused dragging effect in each
heatup of the field winding. Thus, the slot liners may be moved significantly over
numerous cycles.
The movement, migration, or displacement of the slot liners can obstruct field-
cooling passages, resulting in the possibility of significant blockage in the worst
cases. Obstruction of the cooling passages leads to more heating of the
conductors which, in turn, can worsen the movement of the slot liners.
Additionally, other problems due to overheating, such as insulation degradation
and copper distortion, can possibly occur.
Obviously, most generators do not experience slot migration as a problem. Well-

designed machines provide for the thermal expansion of the conductors and
secure the conductors effectively without creating shear stresses, which will move
the slot liners. However, even in a well-designed machine, other problems may
initiate liner movement. These other problems can include significant
overheating of the field from excessive field current and a rotor rewind that was
not up to specification.
The thermal expansion of copper can also cause fretting of the liner material. The
movement of the winding against the liner (and the liner against the rotor steel if
the liner moves) can abrade the liner material. Eventually, the liner may fail from
the abrasion, leading to field grounds.
6.4.2 Winding Copper
Distortion of the rotor copper conductors, including foreshortening, elongation,

and spreading, typically takes a significant period of time to develop. This
distortion can lead to conductor and/or insulation failure. The copper conductors
expand more than the rotor steel when heated during operation. If the conductor is
unable to expand linearly, the copper will experience an axial compression.
Blocking, friction, and pinch points from radial thermal expansion may all
contribute to the constriction-free linear movement, causing the copper to be under
compression. If compressive forces are above the yield point of the copper,
deformation will occur. After this deformation or distortion occurs, foreshortening
results as the conductor cools during shutdown or reduces loading.
 6-7 
12615299
The top conductors in the rotor slots are pressed by centrifugal force against the
wedges and packing and can be more restricted from linear expansion than other
conductors. This restriction can cause more distortion in the top conductors and
produce more spreading of the conductors.
This spreading can be more significant at the ends of the rotor, where the top
conductors are pressed against the retaining ring insulation. The winding end
straps or turns may also be pressed by centrifugal force against the retaining ring
insulation. As the retaining ring is expanded by centrifugal force, friction forces
will pull on the top end straps. Over a number of operational cycles, the top end
straps can undergo elongation and possible weakening.
Fretting damage to the insulation liner of the retaining ring can occur if the top
end winding is pressed by centrifugal force against the retaining ring.
Evidentially, fretting wear will perforate the insulation, creating a field ground.
Possible arcing and resistive heating from a ground can damage both the end
winding and the retaining ring.
Contributing to copper distortion is rotor overheating, which can cause softening

of the rotor’s copper. Copper distortion rarely, if at all, occurs in a relative short
period of time, but rather develops slowly over years of operation.
Certain field winding designs incorporate two-part conductors. These two-part

conductors are copper bars with C-shaped or E-shaped cross-sectional areas that,
when installed face to face, form one or two cooling passages through them. One
other two-part conductor design is composed of two flat pieces of copper that do
not form cooling passages. Regardless of the shape of the two parts making up a
conductor, relative movement between the copper parts can cause them to rub
and abrade each other. This abrasion wears off some of the copper, forming
copper dust. Relative movement of the copper conductor parts may be due to
thermal expansion and slight rotor flexing experienced during startup, operation,
and cooldown of the generator. Being on turning gear for a period of time may
cause significant copper dusting.
While on turning gear, the windings can be freer to move than when in
operation: not having centrifugal force or thermal expansion to hold the
conductors tightly in position. With each rotation while on turning gear, the
individual conductor parts complete a cycle of relative movement, with possible
wear against each other.
Many generator rotors with two-part conductors do not necessarily have

problems with copper dusting. In these machines, the conductors are sufficiently
braced to prevent relative movement or at least make any movement
insignificant. With some designs, the conductor parts are brazed together in
spots along their length to more effectively hold them in their relative position.
 6-8 
12615299
6.4.3 Links and Connections
The links and connectors for the rotor field winding, including the main field
leads, are subjected to same centrifugal and thermal stresses as the winding
copper. Pole-to-pole links and other connections at the rotor ends may be
pressed against the retaining ring by centrifugal forces and elongated. Typically,
distortion of the links and connections occurs first and will aggravate the
condition causing the distortion, leading to cracking of the copper. Furthermore,
the distorted copper may cause degradation of the retaining ring insulation and a
possible electrical ground.
As leads and connectors are securely terminated at both of their ends, cyclic
expansion and forces on these conductors can create high stress at or near the
terminations. On rotors having problems with leads and connectors, often the
problem has occurred near a termination.
Loosening of terminations and connections can lead to localized heating and

flexing, which, in turn, create high-stress points. Loosening occurs over time
from cyclic forces, vibration, and thermal expansion/contraction. Additionally,
the ties and packing used to secure a connector can loosen over time. This
loosening can also lead to increased flexure and fatiguing of the connector.
Bore copper provides a path for field current from the collector or brushless
exciter to the windings. The bore copper is not subjected to significant
centrifugal forces, as with the conductors at the circumference of the rotor.
However, thermal cycling and cyclic rotation can lead to problems with the bore
copper. Over time, though not always, the cyclic stress and flexing of the bore
copper can lead to degradation of not only the copper, but also of its insulation,
creating a field ground.
Hydrogen-cooled generators have seals on the radial studs at either one or both
ends of the bore copper. The radial studs connect the field winding leads to the
bore copper at one end and the collector to the bore copper at the other end.
Generators with brushless exciters may have radial studs at the field end, using
butterfly connectors at the shaft’s end for connection to the brushless exciter.
The hydrogen seals, as the name implies, prevent hydrogen leakage through the
shaft. Cyclic stresses and flexing of the bore copper can also put strain on the
radial studs and the hydrogen seals, potentially initiating seal failure and
hydrogen leakage.
6.4.4 Retaining Rings
As previously mentioned for links and connections, the conductors at the rotor
ends may be pressed against the retaining ring by centrifugal forces. Fretting wear
of the retaining ring insulation can lead to conductor grounding and arcing
damage to the retaining ring.
 6-9 
12615299
The retaining ring is the most stressed component of the rotor. Significant
damage from arcing or other means can eventually cause mechanical failure of the
ring, creating the risk of catastrophic destruction of the entire generator. The
extreme hoop stress on the ring during operation tends to pull the ring apart,
thus any significant damage or defect can weaken the ring to the point where it
cannot resist the hoop stress. Cyclic operation of the generator, such as two-
shifting, can cause more fatigue of the ring metal at the point of damage or
defect, making that damage or defect more significant. Eventually, the ring
weakens enough to come apart, with the high centrifugal forces sending pieces of
the ring into, and possibly through, other parts of the generator.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of the retaining ring has received significant
attention from the power industry in recent years. Retaining rings typically of
18Mn5Cr or similar composition are susceptible to SCC when subjected to
moisture. The shrink fitting of the rings on the rotor causes an ever-present stress
on the rings; this stress with the presence of moisture leads to SCC. During
generator operation, centrifugal force reduces some of the stresses. Thus,
frequent startup and shutdown of the generator produces much cyclic stresses on
the rings. The presence of moisture in contact with the ring and cyclic stresses on
the ring from starting up and stopping the generator promote the propagation of
cracking.
The stress component of this problem cannot be eliminated; therefore, the

industry has to focus on the corrosion component of this problem. Monitoring of
the cooling medium dryness and periodic inspection of the ring provide some
assurance of the soundness of the ring material. The rings need to be properly
protected from moisture, even during outages when the rings could be exposed to
the atmosphere. Inspection for SCC can be difficult or even incomplete without
removing the ring from the rotor.
Cracking can often occur on the underside of the rings where dye penetrant and
other visible inspections cannot be readily performed while the rings are mounted
on the rotor. Ultrasound testing can reveal possible defects on the underside of
the rings, but it can miss others due to the configuration and composition of the
ring. Extensive work is needed to remove the rings for a complete and thorough
inspection. Ring material may need to be removed to eliminate some corrosion
and defects, but only a limited amount of material can be removed without
weakening the ring. Care has to be exercised when planning and performing ring
material removal in order to not create new stress risers.
Replacement of the retaining rings with ones made of 18Mn18Cr stainless steel
or similar material not susceptible to stress corrosion cracking is the best way to
eliminate the risk of stress corrosion failure of the rings. Ring replacement is the
recommendation of generator OEMs. However, until replacement rings can be
procured and an outage planned to replace the rings, assuring dryness of the ring
environment and periodic inspection during preceding outages is necessary.
 6-10 
12615299
The rotor forging area under retaining rings is subjected to high cyclic stress.
Due to a compressive fit, the rings press down on the rotor teeth both at
standstill and while on turning gear. At operational speed, centrifugal force
relieves a significant portion of the compressive stress on the teeth from the rings.
However, centrifugal forces press the field winding upward against the dovetails,
creating a tensional stress on the teeth. The varying cyclic stresses on the teeth
under the retaining rings, from generator startup and shutdown, can lead to
fatigue cracking or top tooth cracking. Specialized machining of the teeth in the
retaining ring seat area can be performed to minimize stress risers in this area and
reduce the risk of cracking.
6.4.5 Collectors and Brushes
Carbon dust can build up in the collector area due to rapid brush wear, poor
ventilation, or infrequent cleaning. Frequent inspection of the collector area,
including the brush rigging, helps identify dust buildup and avert potential
grounding and shorting of the field circuit. Inspection of ventilation filters helps
ensure adequate airflow across the collectors to remove carbon dust, in addition
to providing cooling of the brushes.
Carbon dust buildup can create a ground of the field circuit and at worst, if not
removed, can cause a flashover on the brush rigging from one polarity to the
other. Significant heat from the flashover arc can melt and damage the rigging,
the brush holders, and the collector rings. Flashovers can also occur during in-
service brush replacement from dropped brushes and loose pigtails. Brush holders
specifically designed for in-service brush replacement minimize the flashover risk.
Another collector problem is footprinting on the rings. Footprinting is also

referred to as ghosting and photographing. Footprinting occurs from a brush
periodically losing or lessening its contact with the ring. The footprint is the
result of the brush making better contact at that point on the ring. With the
better contact, more current flows from the brush to that point on the ring,
creating a footprint of the brush.
The ring surface may become hardened at the footprint, leading to a high spot on
the ring. As the ring surface wears, the harder footprint area wears less, becoming
relatively higher than the rest of the ring. Root causes for footprinting can
include vibration, weak brush spring, loose brush, and a brush restricted from
moving in its holder. Consequences from footprinting include increased brush
wear and brush chipping.
Other collector problems are excessive ring wear, excessive brush wear, grooving,
and brush arcing. Excessive wear of the brushes and rings can be due to a number
of causes that include:
 Improper brushes
 Contaminates
 Insufficient moisture in the air
 6-11 
12615299
 Poor brush contact with ring
 Excessive brush pressure on ring
Contaminants and insufficient moisture can cause the surface film on the rings to
deplete, thus increasing the friction between the rings and brushes.
6.4.6 Winding Insulation
The generator field winding insulation is subject to a variety of stresses from

mechanical, thermal, and electrical actions. Fretting wear can occur from relative
movement of the conductor against another object such as the slot wall or
another conductor. High voltages and harmonic content can overstress the
insulation and lead to its eventual failure. Overheating of the field, which may be
due to high current, poor cooling, or other factors, causes accelerated aging of the
insulation. Obviously, insulation failure causes field grounds and possibly shorts
in the winding.
Shorted turns are not always readily apparent, up to 5% of the field turns may be
shorted before the problem becomes noticeable through vibration or increased
field current. However, while not necessarily apparent, a short turn can cause
localized heating at the short as well as causing damage to components adjacent
to the short. The installation of flux probes is often the best way to identify
shorted turns. However, flux probe installation does require removal of the rotor
during an outage.
Shorted field winding turns, if significant, can be indicated by operational

characteristics, such as vibration and field current requirements. The
characteristics depend upon the design of the machine as well as the extent of the
winding shorts. There are some differences between two-pole and four-pole
generators with regard to their reactions from running with shorted turns, as
shown in Table 6-2.
Table 6-2
Characteristics of two-pole and four-pole generator field shorts
Two-Pole Machines Four-Pole Machines
Vibration induced by differential heating Less reaction to the differential heating

of rotor forging caused by turns being shorted
No magnetic imbalance, except with Vibration induced by magnetic
significant shorted turns imbalance on the rotor
Increased field current required to Increased field current required to
maintain generator output maintain generator output
More tolerance to shorted field winding Less tolerance to shorted field winding
turns turns
 6-12 
12615299
While Table 6-2 can aid in indicating the presence of field winding shorts,
detailed vibration analysis and offline electrical testing might be needed to
confirm the presence of shorted turns without the aid of an air gap flux monitor.
An air flux monitoring system can be quite useful in determining the presence of
shorted turns.
The problems resulting from copper distortion can lead to insulation degradation
and failure. In addition to fretting, crushing of the insulation can occur in areas
where distorted copper presses against the insulation. Additionally, insulation
may degrade with age, although machines several decades old continue to provide
reliable service with the original field insulation. Periodic insulation testing of the
field winding will help to ensure reliable service for an operating cycle until the
next scheduled outage.
6.4.7 Contamination
Contamination and debris can create insulation abrasion, wear, punctures, and
eventual failure. Additionally, conductive contamination leads to field grounds
and shorts. Chemical contaminants may attack the insulation, softening or
degrading it so that even normal operational stresses fail the insulation.
Debris from installation, manufacture, and generator maintenance can be left in

the generator if adequate measures are not taken to ensure cleanliness. In
addition to the insulation damage described in the previous paragraph, tools and
other relatively large objects can cause extensive damage to both the rotor and the
stator. One instance involved a small file left in the air gap of a gas turbine
generator. The rotor damage was repairable, but was so excessive that a long
outage extension would be required for repair. A spare rotor had to be procured
from another plant to allow the generator to be returned to service sooner.
6.4.8 End Winding Blocking
End winding blocking serves to maintain the conductors in the proper position,
to provide support, and to prevent undue conductor movement. Age and
vibration tend to cause loosening of the blocking, thus allowing undesired
movement of the conductors. Elongation and other distortions of the conductors
also contribute to loosening of the blocking.
Moved or missing blocking allows undesired movement of the end winding

conductors, which in turn leads to further elongation, distortion, and possible
conductor cracking. Conductor movement may also lead to fretting and
insulation failure with possible damage to the conductors and retaining ring.
Additionally, shifted and missing blocking can result in unequal transfer of
conductor thermal expansion forces to the rotor forging, thereby possibly causing
a slight bow and vibration to the rotor.
 6-13 
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6.4.9 Rotor Cooling
Rotor cooling problems originate from both rotor design and rotor dynamics.
Design-related problems include cooling path length, incomplete conductor
cooling, restricted cooling paths, and unsecured slot components. Some rotor
designs have long cooling paths through the slots, resulting in insufficient cooling
near the exit points of these paths. The cooling gas (for example, hydrogen) heats
up as it travels axially, cooling the conductors; at the end of its cooling path, the
heated gas has diminished capacity to cool the conductors.
Air-cooled generators rely on the rotor to move air through cooling passages.
Directly air-cooled generators draw air through filters to remove dust and debris.
Clogged filters restrict air flow and reduce cooling capability, which can be
especially troublesome during times of heavy load and high ambient temperature.
Sufficiently clogged filters can collapse and dump dust and debris into the
machine where cooling passages can become clogged. Indirectly cooled
generators rely on a heat exchanger to cool the air. One generator design uses a
sealed chamber beneath the generator, into which heated air is exhausted and
then drawn through a heater exchanger to be cooled before returning into the
generator. Debris left in air chambers and air pathways, after an outage, for
instance, can clog the heat exchanger, restricting air flow and decreasing cooling
capacity.
Slot cooling paths not designed for smooth aerodynamic flow restrict the flow of
cooling gas, not allowing for optimal cooling. While a less-than-optimal flow
does not necessarily cause inadequate cooling if other parameters, such as flow
path length and high cooling gas temperature, are not adversely affecting the
cooling. However, if these other parameters are deficient in conjunction with
restricted flow, the cooling capability will be insufficient to prevent rotor
overheating.
When conductors are incompletely cooled, portions of the conductors receive

adequate cooling, while other portions do not. Incomplete cooling can be due to
excessive flow path length, as described above. Also, incomplete cooling can
occur where the design of the flow path omits points on the field conductors so
that these points receive inadequate cooling. The insulation at these points
suffers more from thermal degradation and may be damaged from increased
expansion of the copper conductors.
Designs that do not adequately secure rotor slot components for the intended life
of the generator may allow blockage of some cooling paths. The rotor, whether in
operation or on turning gear, is constantly flexing a minute amount. The force of
gravity bends the middle of the rotor downward, almost indiscernibly. This
downward bending while the rotor is turning, even at speed, causes constant
flexing of the rotor. The rotor slots are alternating under compression and
tension, causing axial expansion and contraction of the slots. Slot liners, packing,
and other components can be shifted by the alternating expansion and
contraction, possibly causing them to interfere with cooling passages.
 6-14 
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Additionally, thermal expansion and contraction from cyclic generator operation
can contribute to the shifting of slot liners and other components.
Even with well-designed and manufactured rotors, some shifting of components

should not be totally unexpected. After decades of operation, through wear and
aging, components can become loose. With loosening, shifting of components
becomes possible, to the extent that some blockage of cooling passages can occur.
The resulting inadequate cooling, as mentioned before, can lead to conductor and
insulation distortion and degradation in the affected areas.
Other issues that can adversely affect cooling include over excitation, shorted
field turns, decreased hydrogen pressure, and decreased cooling water capacity.
All these issues cause general overheating of the field, while shorted turns will
also create localized hot spots. Typically, a short will not be a solid connection
and will produce resistive heating. Additionally, shorts decrease the ampere-turns
of the field, necessitating an increased field current to maintain the generator’s
excitation, and subsequently cause more resistive heating of the entire winding.
Maintaining the proper pressure ensures sufficient density of the hydrogen or

other cooling gas to adequately cool the windings. A faulty hydrogen seal may
necessitate running with decreased hydrogen pressure to minimize hydrogen
leakage. Excitation may need to be decreased to prevent overheating with the
reduced gas density and the subsequent reduction in cooling capacity.
The cooling gas is typically cooled by a gas-to-water heat exchanger. If the heat
exchanger water flow is restricted or decreased, heat will not be as effectively
removed as it should be from the cooling gas. Consequently, the temperature of
the cooling gas will be too high to effectively cool the windings. Additionally,
fouling of the water tubes in the heat exchanger or high water temperature will
also diminish the heat transfer capability. Proper heat exchanger maintenance
and attention to the chemistry of the cooling water help prevent fouling of the
heat exchanger tubes. Load reductions may be necessary during periods of high
water temperature to prevent rotor overheating. Water coolers or other
modifications may be required to ensure sufficiently low cooling water
temperatures for all periods of operation.
Overheating of the rotor and winding can occur from negative sequence currents
from grid disturbances or motoring of the generator. While the situations are
often transient in nature and usually rather brief in duration, sufficient
overheating of the field winding and rotor iron may occur to distort conductor
copper and damage winding insulation. Situations can occur in which low levels
of negative sequence current may exist for long durations of time without being
detected. These situations often result from unbalanced loading of the generator,
resulting from untransposed transmission lines or a high amount of single-phase
loading. The low level of negative sequence current might not be detected
because many plants still rely on older electro-mechanical relays that may not be
sufficiently sensitive. The negative sequence current induces current flow on the
surface of the rotor, heating areas of the rotor, as well as possible arcing.
 6-15 
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Regardless of whether overheating is transient or continuous and whether it is
localized or general, damage to the field can occur. This damage may not be
evident until long after the overheating event is over. Copper thermal expansion
may have loosened components, leading to increased fretting wear and blocking
of cooling. Damaged insulation may eventually fail, causing a ground or a short.
Many winding shorts go undetected if they are minor and few in number.
Moreover, these shorts can be worsened by localized resistive heating of the
shorts, causing conductor damage, other shorts, and/or a field ground.
6.4.10 Forging Symmetry Issues
Shorted turns in the field winding likely will not be evenly distributed between
the poles. As discussed previously, shorted turns produce general winding heating
by causing a larger field current to compensate for the decreased ampere-turns.
But also, because the shorts remove turns from the pole in which they occur,
there will be uneven heating of the rotor.
The rotor forging, because of the uneven heating, will tend to expand more on
the side that has the greater heating, causing a slight bowing of the rotor.
Furthermore, the copper conductors expand more than the steel of the rotor
forging and may exert additional forces acting to bow the rotor. These forces will
be greater in the areas with more heating, thus contributing further asymmetry to
the rotor.
Forging asymmetry manifests itself as vibration. Two-pole machines are much

more susceptible to asymmetry from uneven rotor heating (thermal sensitivity)
than rotors with four or more poles. The greater rotational speeds of the two-
pole machine and the lower degree of initial symmetry make the two-pole rotors
much more susceptible.
In addition to shorted turns, uneven heating may be due to blocked cooling

passages. With cooling restricted in one or more passages, less heat is removed in
the affected areas of the rotor, and uneven expansion will occur. Wedge tightness
and end-winding blocking can affect a rotor’s thermal sensitivity by changing the
force transmitted from the conductors to the rotor forging. Varying tightness of
wedges and uneven end-winding blocking can cause an asymmetrical variation of
axial forces from the field conductors to the rotor forging. Additionally,
variations in winding insulation thickness can restrict different conductors’ axial
movement, thereby also causing variations in the axial conductor forces acting on
the forging, again impacting the rotor’s thermal sensitivity. Variations in winding
insulation may be due to design or manufacture, but more likely can occur from
wear, crushing, overheating, or other damage to the insulation.
Repair of a short or ground may result in unequal insulation thickness, as well as

a rotor rewind that did not ensure uniform insulation.
 6-16 
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The asymmetry will seem to be an imbalance in the rotor, and, in fact, it is.
However, unlike a typical imbalance, the thermal sensitivity asymmetry occurs
only when field current heats the rotor. This asymmetry dissipates after the
generator is taken offline and the rotor cools. During startup of the generator, the
imbalance from thermal sensitivity asymmetry will also not be present until the
field current again heats the rotor. Balance weights may correct this thermal
unbalance during operation; however, the rotor will then be truly unbalanced at
startup. Additionally, if the characteristics of the uneven heating change, such as
from a field current change or changes of restrictions in the cooling passages, the
thermal unbalance will return to some degree.
6.4.11 Rotor Shaft
Rotor shaft cracking can have catastrophic results on generators. Cracking starts
small, almost unnoticeable, and then grows without any indication of trouble.
Once the crack reaches a critical size, it can grow rapidly until it eventually results
in shaft failure. Fortunately, until reaching that critical size, crack growth can be
slow enough for detection by dye penetrant and other nondestructive testing
techniques during scheduled outages.
Keyways, seating surfaces, and other machined areas on the rotor’s shaft may be
stress risers that, when subjected to strain from rotor flexing and vibration,
initiate shaft cracking. Additionally, heat-shrunk components such as fans and
couplings exert extreme pressure on the shaft and especially on nearby stress
risers, adding to the strain and the possibility of crack initiation.
Crack initiation is dependent on the presence and configuration of the stress

risers. Obviously, most generators do not suffer from potentially catastrophic
crack initiation. Similar make and model generators will have similar
susceptibility to cracking. However, different vibration characteristics and stresses
on the rotor shafts can result in some differences in susceptibility, even for similar
machines. Also, torsional vibration and operational events such as negative
sequence currents can create forces that contribute to crack initiation and growth.
Typically, generator makes and models that do not have an industry history of
shaft cracks will likely not develop the problem. Makes and models that do have
a history of shaft cracking or those generators that have been subjected to
abnormal forces such as from a system fault should be inspected for crack
initiation. Susceptible machines will need periodic inspections until a
modification is performed, if possible, to remove or minimize the stresses risers.
After a shaft modification, inspections may be less frequent or possibly
eliminated; however, at least one inspection should be performed after a post-
modification operation to verify the effectiveness of the modification.
Vibration issues can be caused by adding a stub shaft to the rotor. A stub shaft is
typically installed to support the collector rings due to modifications on the
excitation system. These modifications include replacing a directly coupled
rotating exciter with a static exciter; replacing a brushless exciter with a brushed
exciter, or replacing a mercury bath collector with a brushed collector.
 6-17 
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Usually, OEMs and other experienced service providers can supply and install a
troublefree stub shaft. Great care must be taken in the design, manufacture, and
installation of a stub shaft. A thorough vibration analysis of the generator rotor
has to be performed to ensure that critical frequencies and other important rotor
parameters are not adversely altered by the modification. The stub shaft will alter
the rotor’s axial, radial, and torsional vibration characteristics. Power system
stabilizer responses might have to be adjusted to account for the changed
torsional vibration characteristics. An inadequately designed and manufactured
stub shaft can be very difficult to align and can create generator vibration
problems.
6.4.12 Rotor Slot Teeth
Dovetail cracking has become a significant issue with owners and operators of
large generators because these generators, in particular, tend to be more
susceptible to this type of cracking. The middle of the rotors, being unsupported
and undergoing more flexing than the ends, is more likely to have dovetail
cracking. Most of the cracks can be detected when still small and can be readily
repaired if inspections are performed. Causes of dovetail crack initiation and
propagation are believed to include fretting on the teeth by the slot wedges,
negative sequence current, and cyclic generator operation. Some recent analysis
and studies indicate that fretting is not a major issue with regard to crack
initiation, but rather damage from negative sequence current may be more
responsible.
Fretting wear on the rotor teeth at the dovetails’ load face has been thought to be
a leading cause of dovetail cracking. The slot wedges press tightly against the
teeth’s dovetails and more so at speed due to centrifugal force. A rotor that is
supported at its ends is bowed downward slightly due to gravity, with the most
deflection at the rotor’s middle. Although this bowing or deflection of the rotor
is indiscernible to the unaided eye, it is sufficient to cause an increase in the
length of the bottom of the rotor. As the rotor turns, points on the circumference
undergo lengthening as they pass beneath the rotor’s centerline and then
contracting as they pass above the centerline. Thus, the length of the rotor slots
and teeth will alternately lengthen and shorten as the rotor turns.
As the teeth lengthen and shorten with the turning of the rotor, the slot wedges
held against the teeth’s dovetail by the slot contents and by centrifugal force rub
against the dovetail surfaces. This rubbing not only causes fretting, but also
causes alternating stress on the dovetail surfaces. The fretting and alternating
stress can eventually lead to crack initiation. Often the resulting cracks initiate at
stress risers such as cooling cross-slots. Once initiated, cracks often grow slowly
until a critical size is reached, and then the crack can grow rapidly through the
rotor tooth.
 6-18 
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Crack growth continues by the actions of rotor flexure as the rotor rotates.
Additionally, forces from thermal expansion and contraction in both the
conductors and the forging act in the development and spread of the cracking.
Previous stresses from negative sequence current and generator motoring also
contribute to the initiation and progression of the cracking. The propagation and
the critical crack size are unique to each machine. The design of the rotor, the
operational parameters, and the history of the machine impact crack growth.
Cyclic operation of the generator such as two-shifting, that is, starting up the
generator for part of the day to handle high grid loads and then shutting down
for the rest of the day, can hasten crack development. Being on turning gear,
speeding up when starting, and spinning down when stopping can produce more
fretting by the wedges. At the lower speeds, the wedges are not pressed by
centrifugal force as tightly against the dovetails as when at speed. The wedges,
therefore, are freer to move against the dovetails at lower speeds.
Another factor in dovetail crack development is believed to be wedges made of

steel. Part of the recommended solution to limit dovetail fretting is the
replacement of steel wedges with ones made of aluminum. Aluminum wedges,
softer than those of steel, do not impart as much fretting stress on the dovetails.
So far, units using aluminum wedges have experienced significantly less dovetail
fretting. Of course, since aluminum is non-magnetic, a detailed analysis of the
field’s electromagnetic characteristics and the impact of the aluminum wedges
will need to be performed, as well as a mechanical analysis. Not all wedges will
typically need to be replaced with aluminum wedges; typically, the middle two-
thirds of the rotor will benefit the most from wedge replacement.
In addition to fretting damage during operation, slot dovetails can be and have
been damaged from installation of the slot wedges. Care must be exercised with
installing the wedges as with other components of the rotor. Whether the wedges
are oversized, are jammed from slot packing, or are just a victim of poor
craftsmanship, the damage is the same. The corners of the steel wedges can gall
the surfaces of the dovetails. Damage to the dovetails, if not immediately
repaired, will be a stress riser, which may initiate dovetail cracking.
6.4.13 Rotor Baffle Assembly
The rotor baffle assemblies are located at the ends of the forging and are designed
to direct cooling hydrogen to the appropriate areas. Not all rotors use baffles. On
the rotors that use baffles, the baffles can be subjected to vibrations that can cause
fatigue of the assembly components and damage from loose rotor components and
debris. Although not many instances of damage have been found in comparison to
the number of units in service, cracks and other damage have been discovered
during inspections. Typically, inspection and nondestructive testing of the baffle is
recommended during generator outage disassembly. Usually, baffle assembly
inspection requires retaining ring removal for full access to the assembly.
 6-19 
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6.4.14 Slot Liners
As previously discussed, the slot liners are subjected to forces from rotor flexure
and the thermal expansion and contraction of the conductors. These forces can
be, in some instances, sufficient to move the slot liner axially. Liner movement or
migration leaves the liner in the wrong position, which may block cooling
passages and may expose parts of the slot wall to the field conductors.
The ends of the slot liners are subjected to more damage due to their being at the
rotor ends, which typically have conductor movement and vibration.
Additionally, the ends of the slot liners can be stressed from liner movement and
from being pressed against other components and become damaged.
Fretting damage to the slot liners can occur from rotor flexure and conductor
movement, even if there is no liner movement. Relative movement of the rotor
and conductor wear on the slot liner and produce fretting damage that may lead
to liner cracking. Poor practices during rewinds and during slot wedge
installation may damage the liner. Cracked liners can be more susceptible to
migration, and because the liner is ground insulation, cracking may lead to field
grounds.
6.4.15 Rotor Fan
The generator cooling rotor fan is typically robust and not usually susceptible to
damage. Not all rotors use fans, relying on the rotor cross-slots to move the
cooling gas. Damage can occur to the fan during rotor removal and installation
and during rotor maintenance. Rotor vibration can lead to fatiguing the fan’s
metal if excessive. A damaged fan can lead to increased vibration, and if the fan’s
damage is sufficient, the fan may throw pieces that will likely severely damage the
generator.
6.4.16 Slot Wedges
The slot wedges hold the field conductors in the slots against centrifugal force
and may also be designed to direct cooling gas into the slots. Due to centrifugal
force, a slot wedge must handle significant stress. The wedge areas adjacent to
the dovetails are the most stressed and often are where cracks initiate. In these
areas, each side of the wedge stress risers may exist where the wedge is machined
to fit in the dovetail. Rotor flexure and conductor movement can contribute to
crack initiation and propagation.
A failed wedge can cause severe damage to both the stator and rotor and even
cause catastrophic generator damage. Fortunately, wedge cracking is rather
uncommon, and actual wedge failure is rare, especially when wedges are
periodically inspected.
 6-20 
12615299
Centrifugal force will hold the wedges tightly in the slot dovetail doing
operation. However, at low speeds during startup, during shutdown, and while
on turning gear, the slot packing has to hold the wedges in position. Excessive
packing clearance can leave the slot wedges relatively loose and possibly lead to
fretting against the dovetail surfaces. Excessive packing clearance can also lead to
movement of the conductors and other slot contents, causing fretting wear and
distortion of the conductors. Movement of the wedges can restrict cooling
because cooling passages in the wedges may no longer line up with the passages
in the slots and in the rotor forging.
 6-21 
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12615299
Section 7: Personnel Safety Issues
7.1 Personnel Safety Issues
Safety is a basic factor that must be considered at all times during the installation,
operation, and maintenance of mechanical equipment. Through the use of proper
tools, clothing, and procedures, serious injury and property damage can be
prevented. Any accident, regardless of the situation, is generally the result of
someone’s carelessness or neglect. No amount of training or instruction can
replace common sense, sound judgment, and acceptable work practices. A few
general safety precautions are listed below for each major type of equipment
described in this report.
7.2 Source Documents
The following documents provide detailed guidance regarding the safety of personnel
performing maintenance, repair, and operations activities on a wind turbine:
 Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, National Fire Protection
Association, Quincy, MA: 2012. NFPA 70E.
 Wind Turbine Safety Rules (WTSR), RenewableUK (formerly known as
BWEA), London, UK: 2011.
7.3 Recommended Practices
7.3.1 Using Approved Written Procedures
When work or testing is to be carried out on or adjacent to the wind turbine, that
work or testing should be carried out under an approved written procedure.
Before work or testing is to be implemented in accordance with the written
procedures, the following should take place:
 The wind turbines on which the work or testing is to take place should be
clearly defined.
 Except where the means of achieving safety from the system is by limiting the
work (or testing) or the work area, the wind turbine should be isolated. When
isolating devices are used, they should, where practicable, be immobilized and
locked. Caution notices should be affixed at all points of isolation. Isolations
that need to be removed in order for further work or testing to take place,
including those necessary to make available essential testing supplies, can be
removed or restored during the course of work or testing.
 7-1 
12615299
 The contents of the wind turbine should be adjusted to a level that avoids
danger, and where drains could give rise to danger, they should be locked in
the appropriate position.
 Where danger could arise from pressurization, the wind turbine should be
vented, and where vents could give rise to danger, they should be locked in
the appropriate position.
 Where internal access is required, the wind turbine should be purged if the
residue of its contents could cause danger to personnel.
 Where danger could arise from the release of stored energy, appropriate
actions should be taken to contain or dissipate this energy safely.
When work or testing is to be carried out on a wind turbine it may, in certain

circumstances, be essential to restore motive power supplies. All such work or
testing should be carried out in an approved manner under an approved written
procedure, which should specify the circumstances and the method of dealing
with hazards arising during periods of restoration of motive power. When motive
power is to be restored, the requirements, specified in the approved written
procedure, should ensure that safety is maintained prior to and after removing the
isolation that allows this restoration to take place. Those actions should include
the requirement to notify all personnel in the vicinity prior to restoring motive
power supplies.
Only the work scope or testing specified in the approved written procedure
should be carried out.
7.3.2 Safety Precautions When Working on Low-Voltage

Equipment
The main dangers to personnel working on or testing low-voltage equipment are

electric shock or burns arising from the following:
 The possibility of personnel mistaking the part of low-voltage equipment on
which it is unsafe to work or test without special precautions for that which is
isolated and on which it is safe to work or test
 The possibility of the low-voltage equipment being worked on accidentally or
inadvertently being made live
 Inadequate precautions being taken under live conditions
 The uncontrolled release of stored energy in the low-voltage equipment
Where practicable, the low-voltage equipment should be isolated. When

isolating devices are used, they should, where reasonably practicable, be
immobilized and locked. When work or testing is to be carried out on low-
voltage equipment, caution notices should be affixed at all points of isolation.
When work or testing is to be carried out on or adjacent to low-voltage
equipment, that work or testing should be carried out under an approved written
procedure.
 7-2 
12615299
The low-voltage equipment on which the work or testing is to take place should
be clearly defined, and only the work or testing specified in the approved written
procedure should be carried out. The preferred method is to always work or test
on or near low-voltage equipment that has been isolated. This will not always be
practicable, but no person should be engaged in any work or testing on or so near
any exposed live low-voltage equipment that danger may arise unless all of the
following criteria are met:
 It is unreasonable in all circumstances for it to be dead.
 It is reasonable in all circumstances to be at work on or near it while it is live.
 Suitable precautions (including, where necessary, the provision of suitable
protective equipment) are taken to prevent injury.
Even though live testing may be justifiable, it does not follow that there will
necessarily be justification for subsequent repair work to be carried out live. Any
subsequent repair work should be carried out with the low-voltage equipment
isolated unless all the criteria listed above for live work are met.
When work or testing is to be carried out and it is not practicable to isolate the
low-voltage equipment to remove hazards that could give rise to danger or if,
during the course of work or testing, it will be necessary to remove such
isolations, the work or testing should be done under an approved written
procedure that should specify the method of dealing with those hazards. This
should include the conditions under which the work or testing is to take place
and the safety precautions necessary to prevent injury, including the
circumstances and precautions for any live work or testing.
Where work or testing is to be carried out on low-voltage equipment that is part

of high-voltage equipment or on low-voltage equipment that is in proximity to
exposed high-voltage equipment that may be live or become live, high-voltage
safety rules or their approved equivalent should be used.
When work or testing on low-voltage equipment requires portable instruments to

be used for voltage or resistance measurements on circuits not otherwise
adequately fused, the instruments or leads should be provided with fused
protection or other suitable built-in protective devices to safeguard persons from
danger.
When work or testing is to be carried out on isolated low-voltage equipment, the

following should be done:
 Low-voltage isolation should be by the withdrawal of fuse links or other
isolating devices. Time switches, float switches, thermostats, sequence
switching devices, or similar automatic switching devices are not isolating
devices and should not be used.
 When isolating devices are used, they should, where reasonably practicable,
be immobilized and locked. If this is not reasonably practicable, the fuse links
or other isolating devices should be removed.
 7-3 
12615299
 Where work or testing is to be done on portable or hand-held low-voltage
equipment, isolation can be achieved by the removal of the plug from the
socket outlet, provided that the plug remains in sight of the person doing the
work or testing or the plug has a lockable device applied to it that prevents it
from being inserted into a socket outlet.
 Safety keys should be placed in a suitably labeled envelope and, along with
any removable isolating devices, should (except in circumstances when the
low-voltage equipment is permitted to be made live) be retained in safe
custody by the authorized technician holding the approved written
procedure, preferably by retaining them in his personal possession.
 For ongoing work or testing, beyond one working day, secure retention of
items taken into safe custody by the authorized technician should be in
accordance with management instructions.
 In order to facilitate the handing over of isolating devices and safety keys,
they must be readily identifiable with the approved written procedure and
with the low-voltage equipment with which they are associated.
 Where work or testing is to be continued by another authorized technician,
the transfer process should be implemented in accordance with the
requirements of site wind turbine safety rules.
 Where adjacent exposed live low-voltage equipment is present that gives rise
to danger, work or testing must be done only by an authorized technician
who has completed an appropriate course of training as defined in
management instructions and is appointed for work or testing adjacent to
exposed live low-voltage equipment. The danger associated with any adjacent
exposed live low-voltage equipment should be highlighted in the approved
written procedure. The authorized technician should:
- Where practicable, screen off any adjacent exposed or unprotected low-
voltage equipment that may be considered to be live.
- Where necessary to prevent injury, use approved insulated tools, stands,
mats, insulating gloves, or other personal protective equipment as
appropriate, and remove metallic objects from the hands and wrists. In
addition, consideration should be given to the authorized technician
being accompanied by another authorized technician if their presence
could contribute significantly to ensuring that injury is prevented. Any
accompanying authorized technician should be trained to recognize
danger and, if necessary, to render assistance in the event of an
emergency.
 Before work or testing begins, the authorized technician should check, by
means of an approved voltage-testing device, that the low-voltage equipment
on which work or testing is to be done is not live. The instrument used
should be tested immediately before and after use.
 7-4 
12615299
When work or testing is to be carried out on live low-voltage equipment, work or
testing may be done with the low-voltage equipment live only under the
following conditions:
 The fact that the work or testing is to be carried out on live low-voltage
equipment should be highlighted in the approved written procedure that
should specify to the authorized technician how the requirements under this
safety rule are to be met.
 The work or testing should only be done by an authorized technician who
has completed an appropriate course of training as defined in management
instructions and is authorized for work or testing on live low-voltage
equipment.
 The authorized technician who is to do the work or testing should first
remove any metallic objects such as wristwatch, rings, wristlets, cufflinks,
earrings, pendants, and other items of personal jewelry.
 All adjacent metal that is electrically bonded to earth or conductors that are
at a different potential from that on which work or testing is to be carried out
must be screened with insulating material to avoid danger. The material used
for screening must be of sufficient strength to withstand an accidental blow
from a tool without tearing or otherwise ceasing to be effective.
 Where necessary to prevent injury, approved insulated tools, insulating stands
or mats, insulating gloves, eye protection, face-shields, and protective
coveralls, as appropriate, must be used. When considering the extent of
personal protective equipment to be used, due account should be taken of the
fault level of the circuit concerned and the potential danger from arcing.
 Only suitable test instruments and test probes should be used.
 Consideration should be given to the authorized technician being
accompanied by another authorized technician(s) if their presence could
contribute significantly to ensuring that injury is prevented. Any
accompanying authorized technician should be trained to recognize danger
and, if necessary, to render assistance in the event of an emergency.
 Before beginning work or testing in ducting, trenches, or underground
distribution boxes where there is a foreseeable possibility of the presence of
gas that might be inadvertently ignited by electric sparks, a special work
permit should be obtained. Prior to beginning work or testing, any additional
precautions specified by the special work permit that are necessary to remove
or prevent danger should be implemented in accordance with management
instructions.
7.3.3 Demarcation of Work Areas
The work area should be defined clearly and, where necessary, protected
physically to prevent danger to persons in the work area from system hazards
adjacent to the work area.
 7-5 
12615299
7.3.4 Identification of the Wind Turbine and Low-Voltage
Equipment
Work or testing should be permitted to start only on the wind turbine and/or low-
voltage equipment that is readily identifiable or has fixed to it a means of
identification that will remain effective throughout the course of the work or testing.
7.3.5 Automatically or Remotely Controlled Wind Turbines

and Low-Voltage Equipment
All wind turbine and low-voltage equipment associated with any wind turbine
should be considered as automatically or remotely controlled. Control over the
operation of the wind turbine and low-voltage equipment can either be by local
(on-site) or remote (off-site) means. The means of control over “local” on-site
operation may be physically remote from the wind turbine and low-voltage
equipment that is being worked on.
When personnel are working on or testing wind turbine and/or low-voltage

equipment that has automatic or remote control features, the main danger that
could arise is from the operation of the wind turbine and/or low-voltage
equipment if these control features have not been isolated. Where danger could
arise to personnel at work on or testing such wind turbines and low-voltage
equipment, all such automatic or local/remote operation should be prevented
while the work or testing is taking place.
Where work or testing is to be carried out on automatically or remotely

controlled wind turbine or low-voltage equipment, the precautions taken to
achieve safety from the system should cause all automatic or remote control
features to be isolated. This requirement should also include any local control
features. Where practicable, all such isolations should be locked and remain so
for the duration of the work or testing. Caution notices should be affixed at all
points of isolation.
The requirements for achieving safety from the system from all control features
should be specified in an approved written procedure.
If it is essential to restore motive power supplies in order to complete the work or

testing on the wind turbine and/or low-voltage equipment so that any automatic,
remote, or local control features would become operable, then the approved
written procedure should specify the means of maintaining safety while those
control features are operable.
Work on, testing, or making of adjustments to the controlling features of a wind

turbine or low-voltage equipment while it is in operating mode should be done only
by an authorized technician who has completed an appropriate course of training as
defined in management instructions and is appointed for that purpose. Before such
work or testing begins, consultation should take place between the authorized
technician and the operational controller. No other work or testing should be
permitted on that wind turbine or low-voltage equipment at the same time.
 7-6 
12615299
When it is necessary to work on, test, or make adjustments to the controlling
features with those features operational, but with the controlled wind turbine or
low-voltage equipment not in operating mode, no other work or testing should
be permitted on that wind turbine or low-voltage equipment at the same time.
7.4 Excavation
When work or testing at or around the wind turbine involves excavation, it

should always be undertaken by following the requirements of the site’s high-
voltage safety guidelines.
7.5 Confined Spaces
When work or testing on or around wind turbines requires access to a confined

space in which, by virtue of its enclosed nature, a reasonably foreseeable specified
risk arises, guidance on the precautions to be taken should be defined in
Key Human Performance authorized site procedures.
Point
In deciding whether there is a reasonably foreseeable specified risk, the nature of
Permits should be required to
the work or testing itself should be considered.
control the number of people
entering confined spaces.
The detail of the precautions that are required, associated with that work or
Typically, due to high CO
testing, should be specified in an approved written procedure.
content (if batteries have
failed), the number of
7.6 Occupational Safety Requirements for Work on Wind
personnel entering a confined
space should be limited to
Turbines
four.
7.6.1 General Guidance
The following general guidance for occupational safety should be integral to site
procedures in order to ensure that appropriate safety measures are consistently
implemented:
 Everyone who requires personal safety equipment to prevent them from
falling must be informed of this requirement. In addition, they must also
receive instructions about proper conduct on and within wind turbines and
about rescue procedures and equipment. These instructions must typically be
documented.
 Furthermore, everyone who performs work on wind turbines must be
properly instructed about all of the dangers and risks that can occur when
their work is being performed or as a result of their work, such as the risks
involved in working with electricity, working with special tools (such as
hydraulic screwdrivers, special measurement equipment, etc.), work with
certain materials (such as toxic materials, particles, etc.), or any special
activities that are not part of a standard procedure or that have to be
repeated. The worker or contractor assigned the work must perform a risk
analysis to determine the dangers and risks and implement the protective
measures required.
 7-7 
12615299
 An adequate number of people who can administer first aid must be on hand
when work is being performed. Maintenance work generally requires two
technicians, and both of them must be trained in first aid. At construction
sites, at least two people must have such training.
 Proper communication must be provided in all activities that require it.
 All of the equipment needed to perform tasks—such as personal safety
equipment, noise protection, protective gloves, protective glasses, rescue
equipment, breathing masks, etc.—must be provided before work has begun.
The contractor must perform risk analyses to determine which equipment is
required for which activities for all of the tasks to be performed and
implement the protective safety measures required.
 Everyone who performs tasks on or within a wind turbine should be trained
and instructed on the tasks to avoid, for example, mechanics from working
on switching equipment or electrical systems.
 . An expert must check the rescue equipment and personal safety equipment
once a year to verify that the equipment is in good condition in order to
prevent falling.
 All of the security aspects of a wind turbine—such as ladders, protection
systems, elevators, electric hoists, pulleys, cranes, any rescue equipment for
the wind turbine, personal falling protection equipment, etc.—must be
inspected by a technical expert at least once a year.
 An expert must inspect all of the electrical tools used at least once a year or at
more frequent intervals at construction sites.
 If work is done on the hub, the rotor blades, the area of the tower near the
rotor blades, etc., the rotor must be kept still mechanically; it is not sufficient
to simply use the mechanical brake when work is being done.
 The lighting on the inside and outside of the wind turbines must be
appropriate for the tasks.
 The clothing worn must be appropriate for the weather conditions in order
to protect the wearer from rain, cold, wind, etc.
 Operating instructions must be created for all dangerous materials, tools, etc.
and complied with whenever work is being performed.
 Emergency procedures must be specified, for example, to rescue personnel,
put out fires, etc.
 7-8 
12615299
7.6.2 Safety Issues During the Assembly of Wind Turbines
The following occupational safety guidance should be integral to site procedures

to ensure that appropriate safety measures are consistently implemented during
the construction of wind turbines:
 The owner of the construction site must appoint a safety coordinator before
construction begins because this work is dangerous. This person will
coordinate all activities, such as access roads, cabling, assembly, etc.; create a
safety and health plan; and inspect the construction site regularly in order to
prevent accidents from happening when various tasks are being performed
simultaneously.
 When wind turbines are being set up and work is being done with cranes, the
general requirements on construction sites are to wear helmets and protective
shoes of class S3 (protective flap and impenetrable sole). These procedures
are mandatory for everyone on the site, including those not directly involved
in construction (the owner of the farm, local authorities, suppliers, visitors,
etc.).
 In general, all of the parties directly involved in the installation of wind
turbines (crane company, suppliers, mechanics, etc.) must take part in
security training before work begins. The training sessions must cover all
aspects related to security at construction sites and be documented.
 All of the legal requirements must be fulfilled for facilities at the construction
site, such as relaxation areas, toilets, showers, certified ladders, fire
extinguishers, first aid kits, appropriate signs, etc.
 All of the fastening materials and lifting equipment used, such as ropes, belts,
special lifting equipment for the tower, machine cases, rotor blades, etc.,
must be inspected regularly by experts and certified as appropriate for use
before being put into operation. The fastening materials and lifting
equipment must be appropriate.
 Lighting must also be sufficient outside and inside the wind turbine.
7.6.3 Safety Issues During Maintenance of Wind Turbines
The following occupational safety guidance should be integral to site procedures

to ensure that appropriate safety measures are consistently implemented during
maintenance and servicing of wind turbines:
 Access roads and paths that lead to wind turbines must be kept navigable;
that is, they should be smooth to prevent people from stumbling, kept free of
plants, be sufficiently wide, have railings if there are more than five steps,
sloping access ramps should not be too steep, etc.
 The fastening materials and lifting equipment must be appropriate for the task.
 All of the fastening materials and lifting equipment used, such as ropes, belts,
etc., must be inspected regularly by experts and certified as appropriate for
use before being put into operation. The fastening materials and lifting
equipment must be appropriate.
 7-9 
12615299
7.7 Safety in Wind Energy When Using Cranes
The following guidance is recommended by the American Wind Energy
Association (AWEA) and should be considered when using cranes on or around
wind turbines.
7.7.1 General
Wind turbine construction requires some of the largest equipment in use today.
Lifting components in excess of 81.7 metric tons to heights exceeding 300 feet
(91.4 m) requires strict attention to safety. Every project in the wind industry is
unique and will have project-specific needs, challenges, and safety requirements.
Crane safety should be addressed when assessing the project needs and
requirements. The information here is intended to provide general guidelines to
help assist in safe project planning, which leads to safe project construction.
7.7.2 Hazard Analysis

Every wind project requires a hazard analysis of the work being performed. This
analysis should include the crane operator’s input, and all hazards should be
identified prior to crane operation.
7.7.3 Assembly/Disassembly
Due to their size, cranes must be disassembled for shipping and reassembled once
they arrive at the project. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) requires fall protection for heights at 6 feet (1.8 m) or above. A
combination of personal fall arrest systems (PFAS), platforms, and or worker lifts
are typically necessary to complete this work.
7.7.4 Inspection
A key component to crane safety is frequent crane inspections. OSHA requires
that a competent person be designated to inspect the crane and associated
equipment prior to each use as well as thorough, documented annual inspections.
Cranes should also be shut down and re-inspected after any incident or
occurrence that could affect the integrity of the crane.
7.7.5 Wind/Weather Considerations

Wind and weather wreaks havoc with construction schedules; nevertheless,
Mother Nature and the laws of physics rule when it comes to crane operations.
Never exceed the crane or component manufacturer’s charts or recommendations
pertaining to wind. Wind speeds should always be determined via a boom tip
anemometer. It is essential to have a plan in place for lightning safety. The
following are examples of equipment and components that should be checked to
ensure that they are in good condition and/or operable prior to initiating work:
 All wire rope
 Rigging
 Belts, pumps
 7-10 
12615299
 Hoses
 Drive systems
 Brakes
 Clutches
 Computer
 Anemometer boom
 Anti-two-block device
7.7.6 Communication
Communication while performing work in the wind industry is essential. A

single signal person might not be adequate for performing lifts. Workers should
employ a system wherein qualified, designated people are assigned the
responsibilities that are required to safely and properly signal the components
into place. The system should specify what methods and tools will be used (that
is, hand signals, radios, etc.) to perform this task.
7.7.7 Operator Training and Certification
Today’s modern cranes are highly engineered, technically advanced machines

that require thoroughly trained and competent operators to ensure safe use. It is
imperative that operators are trained and tested on the specific type of crane used.
Operator certification through an accredited crane/derrick operator testing
organization is suggested. Specific state legislation requires the use of a certified
crane operator (CCO) licensed crane operator. Check with your state regulations
to determine if there are specific crane operator training requirements.
7.7.8 Ground Pressures and Travel Paths
Many crane incidents are due to inadequate bearing surfaces. Whether you are
hoisting a load or simply walking the crane, bearing pressures and ground surface
capabilities should be determined for each activity. During all major component
lifts, crane mats should be placed on top of the crane pad.
7.7.9 Crane Travel Limits
All cranes should have a published chart indicating the travel guidelines for
“walking” or “traveling” the crane. Considerations for the maximum percent
grade, side slope, and boom position should be accounted for when planning the
roadways and especially when traveling the crane. In addition, all overhead and
underground obstacles should be discussed and marked for safe crane travel.
 7-11 
12615299
7.7.10 Control of the Lift Area
Once you are ready to make a lift, a safe zone for all non-essential personnel
should be established. Essential personnel operations should be planned and
supervised so that no one is working under the boom or lifted component.
7.7.11 Lift Plans
Lift plans should be provided for each major component lift to the crane operator
prior to performing the work. The operator should keep the lift plans on hand to
ensure that each lift falls within the plans made. Lift plans should have basic
information such as crane configuration, component weights, rigging
requirements and weights, crane capacities, crane pad requirements, and so forth.
The more information that can be provided to the operator, the safer the work
site will be.
 7-12 
12615299
Section 8: References
8.1 In-Text References
1. Program on Technology Innovation: Materials Degradation in Wind Turbines.

EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1013662.
2. Condition Monitoring of Wind Turbines: Technology Overview, Seeded-Fault

Testing, and Cost-Benefit Analysis. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1010419.
3. Main Generator Rotor Maintenance: Lessons Learned. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2006. 1013458.
4. Wind Turbine Productivity Improvement Guidelines: Development Status and

Plan. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1001298.
5. Preventive Maintenance for Wind Turbine Generators. ABB Group,

Helsinki, Finland: 2007. ABB SM017 Rev A.
6. Gearbox Maintenance Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1009831.
8.2 Bibliography
Appearance of Gear Teeth - Terminology of Wear and Failure. ANSI/AGMA

Standard 1010-E95 (R2000), 2000.
ASTM A418/A418M-05, Standard Test Method for Ultrasonic Examination of

Turbine and Generator Steel Rotor Forgings.
ASTM A531/A531M-91, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of

Turbine-Generator Steel Retaining Rings.
Care and Maintenance of Bearings. New Technology Network, NTN

Corporation.
Design and Selection of Components for Enclosed Gear Drives. ANSI/AGMA

Standard 6001-D97 (R2003), 2003.
Electric Motor Predictive and Preventive Maintenance Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1992. NP-7502.
 8-1 
12615299
Electric Motor Tiered Maintenance Program. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002.
1003095.
Electrical Insulation for Rotating Machines. G. Stone, E. Boulter, I. Culbert,

H. Dhirani, ISBN 0 471 44506 1, IEEE Press.
EPRI Power Wind Turbine Electrical Reference Series, Volume 1, Electrical

Generators. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1988. EL-5036-V1.
EPRI Power Wind Turbine Electrical Reference Series, Volume 16, Handbook to
Assess the Insulation Condition of Large Rotating Machines. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1989. EL-5036-V16.
Flexible Shaft Couplings Maintenance Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003.
1007910.
Gear Nomenclature, Definitions of Terms with Symbols. ANSI/AGMA

Standard 1012-F90. 1990.
Generator Bushing Installation and Maintenance. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2008.
1016787.
Generator Core Overheating Risk Assessment: Core Model Studies. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2004. 1009855.
Guide for Electric Motor Stator Winding Insulation Design, Testing and VPI Resin
Treatment. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1009700.
Guide for Increasing the Capacity of Induction Motors. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004.
1009699.
Guide for Rotating Machine Stator Winding Hipot Testing. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA;
2008. 1014908.
Guide for the Performance of On-Site and Vendor Shop Inspections of Electric Motors.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2008. 1016680.
Guidelines for Detecting and Removing Flow Restrictions of Water-Cooled Stator

Windings. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1004704.
IEEE 334-2006, IEEE Standard for Qualifying Continuous Duty Class 1E

Motors for Nuclear Power Generating Stations. IEEE, Piscataway, NJ: 2006.
IEEE 492-1999, Guide for Operation and Maintenance of Hydro-Generators.

IEEE, Piscataway, NJ: 1999.
IEEE 649-2006, Qualifying Class 1E Motor Control Centers for Nuclear Power
Generating Stations. IEEE, Piscataway, NJ: 2006.
 8-2 
12615299
IEEE Std. 115-2009, IEEE Guide for Test Procedures for Synchronous
Machines. IEEE, Piscataway, NJ: 2009.
IEEE Std. 43-2000, Recommended Practice for Testing Insulation Resistance of

Rotating Machinery. IEEE, Piscataway, NJ: 2000.
Main Generator End-of-Life and Planning Considerations. EPRI, Palo Alto CA:
2007. 1014783.
Main Generator Excitation System Upgrade/Retrofit. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005.
1011675.
Main Generator Rotor Maintenance. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1013458.
Model Repair and Reconditioning Specification for DC Motors. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2004. 1009676.
Motor Repair vs. Motor Replacement. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1011894.
Negative Sequence Effects on Generator Rotors. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2007.
1014910.
NEMA CB 1, Brushes for Electrical Machines.
Optimized Maintenance of Generator Rotor. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1004951.
Partial Discharge Testing of Rotating Machine Stator Windings. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2001. 1001266.
Prevention of Flow Restrictions in Generator Stator Water Cooling Circuits. EPRI,

Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1006684.
Primer on Maintaining the Integrity of Water-Cooled Generator Stator Windings.

EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1995. TR-105504.
Shaft Alignment Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA. 1999. TR-112449.
Shipping and Storage of Electric Motors. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1009698.
Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, National Fire Protection

Association, Quincy, MA: 2012. NFPA 70E.
System and Equipment Troubleshooting Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2001.
1003093.
Technology for Shaft Crack Detection in Rotating Equipment in NPP Using Torsional
Vibration. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1011917.
Test Report on Testing of Form-Wound Medium Voltage (<7kV) Motor Insulating

Systems. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2001. 1001036.
 8-3 
12615299
Testing of Stator Windings for Thermal Aging: Final Report. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2003. 1009252.
Tools To Optimize Maintenance of Generator-Excitation System, Voltage Regulator

and Field Ground Protection. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1004556.
Tools to Optimize Maintenance of Generator-Excitation System, Voltage Regulator,

and Field Ground Protection. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1004556.
Wind Energy Guide. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land

Management (BLM), Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS), Washington, DC: 2011.
Wind Turbine Development: Location of Wind Manufacturing. U.S.

Department of Energy, Renewable Energy Policy Project, Washington, DC:
2004.
Wind Turbine Productivity Improvement and Procurement Guidelines. EPRI, Palo

Alto, CA: 2002. 1004647.
Wind Turbine Safety Rules (WTSR), RenewableUK (formerly known as

BWEA), London, UK: 2011.
Wind Turbine Verification Project Experience: 1999: U.S. Department of Energy -

EPRI Wind Turbine Verification Program. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA 2000. 1000961
 8-4 
12615299
Appendix A: Listing of Key Points
A.1 Key O&M Cost Points
Key O&M Cost Point

Emphasizes information that will result in overall reduced costs and/or an
increase in revenue through additional or restored energy production.
Section Page
Key Point
Number Number
When purchasing a fleet of wind turbines, it is not
uncommon that a given subcomponent (for
example, pitch drive, gear drive, bearings,
generator bearings, etc.) will be furnished by
1.6.3 1-9 different manufacturers. Consequently, it is possible
that no two wind turbines will be identical. This can
directly affect the scope and frequency of
maintenance activities (for example, different
gearboxes may use different types of grease).
When purchasing a fleet of wind turbines that do
not all have the same exact subcomponents, it is
1.6.3 1-9 beneficial to request a subcomponent list (bill of
material) for each wind turbine in order to optimize
Turnover of wind turbines after commissioning
should be staggered so that the entire fleet is not
turned over at the same time. Individual wind
turbine commissioning turnover causes the owner
1.6.3 1-10 to do 30-day maintenance activities all at once in
order to remain in warranty, which puts
unnecessary scheduling and staffing demands on
the owner when scheduling/optimizing planned
 A-1 
12615299
Section Page
Key Point
Number Number
Care should be taken when procuring maintenance
kits from the original wind turbine manufacture
1.6.3 1-11
because not everything typically included in a kit
will be needed (for example, brake pads).
As a general rule of thumb, if the repair costs are
50% or less of the replacement cost, then repair
5.1 5-2
should be considered. If the percentage is greater,
then replacement is generally the best option.
A.2 Key Technical Points
Key Technical Point

Brake adjustment is a critical activity that should be integral to and performed
during commissioning.
Section Page
Key Point
Number Number
Off-site power is needed in order to start
generation of electricity. A wind turbine cannot
1.6.2 1-8
start generating electricity as soon as the wind
starts blowing.
Extreme care should be taken when de-energizing
1.6.2 1-8 a wind turbine because computer hard drive
failures may occur.
Brake adjustment is a critical activity that should be
1.6.3 1-10
integral to and performed during commissioning.
Specialty tools used for greasing and torquing
typically have long lead times for delivery. This
should be considered during initial procurement
1.6.3 1-11
and maintenance planning and might need to be
factored in to the site’s tool calibration and
rotational use program.
Portable electric generators might be needed when
1.6.3 1-11 there is a loss of on-site power to perform regularly
scheduled maintenance activities.
 A-2 
12615299
Section Page Key Point
Number Number
EPRI worked with the DOE and several EPRI
member to help establish methods of tracking wind
turbine performance:
1. Fort Davis; in Fort Davis, Texas, owned by
American Electric Power (AEP)
2. Springview; Keya Paha County, Nebraska,
owned by Nebraska Public Power District
(NPPD)
3.3 3-11
3. Searsburg; Searsburg, Vermont, owned by
Green Mountain Power (GMP)
4. Glenmore; Glenmore, Wisconsin, owned by
Wisconsin Public Service (WPS)
5. Algona; Algona Municipal Utilities in Algona,
Iowa
6. Kotzebue; Kotzebue, Alaska, owned by
Kotzebue Electric Association, Inc.
Predictive maintenance tasks are performed based
on equipment condition. Predictive maintenance
relies on technologies to determine the current
4.1.1.1 4-2
condition of the equipment so that only the
required maintenance is performed before
equipment failure.
Periodic maintenance consists of “time-based”
preventive maintenance actions taken to maintain a
4.1.1.2 4-2
piece of equipment within design operating
conditions and to extend its life.
Corrective maintenance tasks are generated as a
result of equipment failure. Corrective tasks are
generated when equipment is purposely operated
to failure and also when equipment failure is not
wanted or planned. It is the most basic form of
4.1.2 4-2
maintenance and also the most expensive. Most
plants are moving away from corrective
maintenance but there will always be a portion of
maintenance that is performed as a result of
equipment failure.
Typically, after the initial warranty period is over,
sound wave attenuation testing (vibration
4.3.1 4-5 monitoring) and borescopic inspections should be
considered to detect abnormal or accelerated wear
of gearbox components.
 A-3 
12615299
Section Page Key Point
Number Number
The most important facet of a preventive
maintenance program for a gearbox is the regular
4.3.2.1 4-10
inspecting, analyzing, and changing of the
lubricant.
Gearbox oil should typically be sampled every six
months. Filters should be changed every year.
4.3.2.1 4-10 Gearbox oil should be changed every two years,
but some wind turbine manufacturers recommend
changing the oil on a three-year cycle.
Trending contaminant concentrations is important
because it provides an indication of significant
increases over time. In some cases, an increase of
4.3.2.1 4-12
only 10 ppm of iron is significant because iron
contamination indicates contamination from gear
wear particles.
Generator brushes should typically be replaced
4.4.2.1 4-18
every three years.
Initial maintenance of the wind turbine should
4.7 4-37
include retorquing the bolts.
Initial lubing of the blades, yaw bearing, and pitch
4.10 4-44 bearing should be done immediately after
construction.
Pitch bearing lubrication should typically be
performed every six months. Initially, however,
many are not lubricated properly, and after six to
4.10 4-45 eight months of use, some damage may occur. The
initial procedure for greasing these bearings
should be detailed to include the appropriate
amount of grease and the type of grease.
It is advisable to pour a small amount of oil on
each bearing or journal surface to ensure that an
5.3.1.5 5-7
oil film is present whenever manually rolling the
gear because the lubrication system is inoperable.
Before replacing a wiped bearing, determine and
5.3.3.6 5-12
correct the cause of the wipe.
 A-4 
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A.3 Key Human Performance Points
Key Human Performance Point

Denotes information that requires personnel action or consideration in order to
prevent personal injury, prevent equipment damage, and/or improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of the task.
Referenced Page
Key Point
Section Number
Owners of wind turbine facilities should estimate
1.6.2 1-8 having approximately one full-time technician for
every seven to eight wind turbines in their fleet.
Permits should be required to control the number
of people entering confined spaces. Typically,
7.5 7-7 due to high CO content (if batteries have failed),
the number of personnel entering a confined
space should be limited to four.
A.4 Key Supervisory Observation Points
Key Supervisory Observation Point

Identifies tasks or series of tasks that can or should be observed by
maintenance first line supervisors to improve the performance of the
maintenance staff and improve the reliability of the component.
Referenced Page
Key Point
Section Number
During the commissioning of a fleet of wind
turbines, care should be taken to ensure that the
commission teams are performing activities
1.6.3 1-10 consistently and accurately and that quality
control personnel are providing oversight in the
towers as the teams are performing
commissioning activities.
 A-5 
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Wind Turbine Maintenance Guide

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Wind Turbine Maintenance Guide

2012 TECHNICAL REPORT

EPRI Project Manager

3420 Hillview Avenue

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF

THE FOLLOWING ORGANIZATION, UNDER CONTRACT TO EPRI, PREPARED THIS REPORT:

Sequoia Consulting Group, Inc.

Sequoia Consulting Group, Inc.

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

EPRI would like to acknowledge the members of the Technical

EPRI would also like to acknowledge the Operations and

This publication is a corporate

Wind Turbine Maintenance Guide.

There is a developing concern among the owners that generation

 Reducing maintenance-related operation and maintenance

 Improving equipment reliability through more detailed

 Preserving equipment knowledge for workers, necessitated by

Applications, Value, and Use

Section 2: System Description ..................................2-1

Section 3: Overview of Wind Turbine Failure

Section 4: Preventive Maintenance Basis..................4-1

Section 5: Repair and Replacement Guidance ..........5-1

Section 7: Personnel Safety Issues ...........................7-1

Appendix A: Listing of Key Points........................A-1

Figure 1-1 Scope and content of this EPRI report .......................1-2

Table 2-1 Description of nacelle components ............................2-3

The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) worked with a collaboration of

1.3 Contents of the Report

This section provides an introduction to the report, and Section 2 provides an

1.4 Definitions of Key Terms and Acronyms

1.4.1 Industry Definitions and Nomenclature

corrective maintenance Maintenance tasks that are generated as a result of

elective maintenance The classification of any work on power block

facilities Structures, systems, and components not associated

monopile A single totally enclosed structure that supports the

periodic maintenance “Time-based” preventive maintenance actions taken

predictive maintenance Maintenance tasks that are performed based on

proactive maintenance Maintenance tasks that determine the root cause of

qualified individual For the purposes of concurrent verification and

work instruction Instructions for performance of the work to be

work order A document used to control work and/or testing

AGMA American Gear Manufacturers Association

AWEA American Wind Energy Association

CCO certified crane operator

CFRP carbon filament-reinforced-plastic

DIN Deutsches Institute für Normung

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute

ET eddy current test (also ECT)

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

GRP glass-reinforced plastic

HAWT horizontal-axis wind turbine

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IGBT insulated gate bipolar transistor

ISO International Standards Organization

LCF low cycle fatigue

MPT magnetic particle test

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NDE nondestructive examination