Introduction to Reproduction

At the end of the lesson, you are able to:

• differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction; and
• describe different modes of sexual and asexual reproduction

Relevant vocabulary
1. Asexual reproduction - Mode of reproduction that does not involve the use of gametes
or sex cells
2. Sexual reproduction - Mode of reproduction that involves the use of gametes or sex
cells
3. Fission - Type of asexual reproduction involving the division of body into two or more
equal parts
4. Fragmentation - Type of asexual reproduction where the body breaks into two or more
parts, with each fragment capable of becoming a complete individual; in animals,
fragmentation is usually followed by regeneration where the missing parts are produced.
For example, a lost arm of the starfish may be regenerated by mitotic cell divisions.
5. Budding - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual arises as an outgrowth
(bud) from its parent, develops organs like those of the parent, and then detaches itself.
6. Sporulation - Type of asexual reproduction where a new individual forms from an
aggregation of cells surrounded by a resistant capsule or spore, which later on
germinates
7. Isogamy - Fusion of similar gametes which are usually motile
8. Heterogamy - Fusion of dissimilar gametes. In oogamy, a large immotile gamete, the egg
is fertilized by a small motile gamete, the sperm.
9. Bisexual reproduction - Type of sexual reproduction involving the union of gametes from
two genetically different parents
10. Hermaphrodite - An individual with both male and female reproductive tissues. In
animals “self fertilization” is not common. In worms, a hermaphrodite needs a male to
donate sperms in order to fertilize the oocytes in its body.
Types of asexual reproduction
I. Fission- Paramecium as example II. Budding- Hydra as example

III. Fragmentation- filamentous alga, IV. Sporulation- fungus, i.e.

i.e. Spirogyra or Oedogonium, Rhizopus, as example
and a detached starfish arm
growing lost parts

Types of union of gametes

I. Isogamy- Chlamydomonas producing gametes or Spirogyra undergoing conjugation
II. Heterogamy- examples: animal sperm and egg
Special terms for sexual reproduction
I. Bisexual reproduction. Examples are in humans, and papaya among others.
II. Hermaphrodites- barnacles; worms

ENRICHMENT

Research on the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction.

Submit your assignment in the comment section.

Compare and Contrast Process in Animal Reproduction and Development

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

• describe human reproductive organ systems;

Relevant Vocabulary
1. Development- involves formation of sex cells, zygote formation, and subsequent stages
in one’s life span. Development is terminated by death.
2. Haploid (n) condition- When a cell has only half the chromosome number or only one
set of chromosomes
3. Diploid (2n) condition- When a cell has the full chromosome number or two sets of
chromosomes
4. Totipotent cell- A cell that is capable of differentiating to become any kind of cells
5. Gametogenesis- Stage of development that yields haploid gametes
6. Fertilization- Stage of development that results in a unicellular diploid zygote
7. Cleavage- Stage of development involving a series of mitotic divisions to produce a
multicellular blastula from a unicellular zygote
8. Gastrulation- Stage of development involving morphogenetic movements of the cells to
produce a gastrula with distinct germ cell layers; in vertebrates, this will result in three
layers: the outermost ectoderm; the inner endoderm, and the middle layer, the
mesoderm
9. Organogenesis- Stage of development where the different germ layers differentiate into
specific organ systems
10. Growth- Stage of development characterized by an increase in size of an individual
11. Monozygotic twins- Also known as identical twins; result from the union of a sperm and
egg to form a single zygote that splits up during the first cleavage stage.
12. Dizygotic twins - Also known as fraternal twins; results from the development of two or
more separate fertilization events where the resulting zygotes develop almost
simultaneously
13. Testis- Where sperms are produced
14. Epididymis- Where sperms are temporarily stored
15. Scrotal sac/scrotum - Supports the testis and epididymis
16. Vas deferens - Where the sperm passes through from the testis before it joins the
urethra
17. Urethra - Connected to the urethra and the urinary bladder; serves as passageway of
both sperm and urine and terminates in the external urinary meatus of the penis
18. Seminal vesicle - Secretes fluid that forms part of the semen; secretion gives the semen
its alkaline characteristic to counteract the acidity of the vaginal tract and therefore
protect the sperm; the fluid also contains sugars like fructose
 19. Prostate gland - Secretes fluid that also provides alkalinity to the semen; it also contains
proteolytic enzymes, citric acid, phosphatases, and lipids
20. Bulbourethral glands- Paired glands that produce clear, viscous secretion known as pre-
ejaculate that helps to lubricate the urethra for sperm to pass through, neutralizing
traces of acidic urine in the urethra, and helps flush out any residual urine or foreign
matter
21. Clitoris- The homologue (equivalent) of the penis in females
22. Vagina- Main entrance to the female reproductive tract; receives the penis during sexual
intercourse
23. Cervix- Where the vagina ends; projection of the uterus into the vagina; leads to the
uterus
24. Uterus- Also known as the womb; where the embryo develops; with thick muscular
walls, blood vessels; and the endometrial lining

25. Endometrial lining/endometrium- Innermost lining of the uterus where the embryo
implants and
develop
26. Fallopian tubes- Also known as oviducts; paired tubes that are connected to the uterus
and
terminate near the ovaries; this is where fertilization takes place
27. Ovaries- Female gonads that release the oocytes during ovulation, which are then
caught by the fimbrae of the fallopian tubes in order for the oocytes to pass on to the
fallopian tubes
28. Morula- A human blastula made up of a solid ball of cells
29. Blastocyst- A human blastula composed of the inner cell mass, which becomes the
embryo, and
 the trophoectoderm, which becomes the placenta
30. Implantation- Process where the blastocyst implants itself in the endometrium; this
signals the start of pregnancy
31. Gestation- Carrying of the embryo inside the female reproductive tract, specifically the
uterus; can last up to 9 months in humans
32. Human embryo- Corresponds to the first two months of gestation
33. Human fetus- Corresponds to the months 3-9 of human gestation
34. Follicular phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the ovary in humans where the follicles
begin to
mature; it is marked by secretions of the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and the
luteinizing
hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary gland and the estrogen by the ovaries; both FSH
and LH
stimulate the maturation of the oocytes while estrogen stimulates uterine lining growth
in
preparation for implantation of the embryo
35. Luteal phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the ovary after the oocytes are released
from the
follicles; the remains of the follicle become the corpus luteum, which then secretes
progesterone, which stimulates the uterus to undergo final maturational changes that
prepare it for gestation to house and nourish an embryo
36. Menstrual phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; also known as the “period”;
corresponds to the early part of the follicular phase of the ovaries (days 1-5) when
endometrium degenerates and sloughs off, producing the menstrual discharge
37. Proliferative phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; corresponds to the latter
part of the follicular phase of the ovaries (days 8-14) when the endometrium heals and
begins to thicken as a consequence of estrogen secretion
 38. Secretory phase- Part of the menstrual cycle of the uterus; corresponds to the luteal
phase of the ovaries; the endometrium undergoes final changes before it receives the
embryo during
implantation
39. Contraception- Process that blocks any one of the following stages of reproduction in
humans: (1) release and transport of gametes; (2) fertilization; (3) implantation; (4)
actual completion of
development of the embryo/fetus
40. Ovulation-suppressing methods- Type of contraception that prevents the oocyte to
mature
 Plants Reproduction and Development

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

• enumerate the different types of reproductive cycles;

• illustrate the life cycles of moss, fern, and flowering plant;
• describe double fertilization in flowering plants; and
• explain processes in plant development
______________________________________________________________________________
____

Relevant Vocabulary

1. Gametophyte - Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is haploid; stage that produces
gametes via mitosis; these gametes fuse to form a zygote that develops into a
sporophyte
2. Sporophyte - Stage of the life cycle of a plant that is diploid; it is the most recognizable
structure in most flowering plants; it produces haploid spores by meiosis in structures
called sporangia
3. Haplontic life cycle - Life cycle where the haploid stage (gametophyte) is multicellular
and the only diploid stage is the fertilized egg cell
4. Haplodiplontic life cycle - Life cycle that includes multicellular diploid (sporophyte) and
haploid (gametophyte) generations
5. Diplontic life cycle - Life cycle where the diploid stage (sporophyte)is multicellular and
the haploid stage (gametophyte) is represented by the single-celled gametes
6. Angiosperms - Also known as flowering plants; group of plants that produce
reproductive structures called flowers in their sporophyte stages
7. Flower - Reproductive structure in flowering plants; made up of four major whorls
8. Sepals - The outermost whorls of a flower; collectively called the calyx
9. Petals - Whorl inner to the sepals; may be brightly colored in some; collectively called
the corolla
10. Stamen - Whorl inner to the petals; the male reproductive structure of the flower; bears
the male sporangia (also known as microsporangia)
11. Anther - Part of the stamen that contains the microsporangia that develops into pollen
grains
12. Filament - Part of the stamen that serves as the stalk of the anther
13. Pistil or carpels - Innermost whorl of the flower; the female reproductive structure of
the flower; bears the female sporangia (also known as the megasporangia)
14. Stigma - Part of the pistil where the pollen grain derived from the microsporangium
attaches during pollination
15. Style - Part of the pistil that serves as the stalk of the stigma; leads to the ovary
16. Ovary - Found at the base of the pistil; contains one or more ovules; eventually becomes
the fruit
17. Ovule - Contains the female sporangia or megasporangia; eventually becomes the seed
18. Complete flower - A flower with sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
19. Incomplete flower - A flower that lacks one or more of the floral whorls
20. Perfect flower - A flower that has both stamens and carpels; a bisexual structure
21. Imperfect flower - A flower that has only either the stamens (staminate flower) or the
carpels (carpellate flower); also known as a unisexual flower

22. Monoecious plant - A plant having perfect flowers or both staminate and carpellate
flowers on the same individual
23. Dioecious plant - A plant having only either the staminate or carpellate flower

24. Pollination - The placement of the pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a carpel
25. Pollen grain - The immature male gametophyte that develops within the anthers of
stamens; derived from the microsporocytes inside the microsporangia of anthers. Inside
the mature pollen grain, there is a tube cell and a generative cell. The tube cell develops
into the pollen tube as it enters the style and eventually enters the micropyle of the
ovule. The generative cell divides into two sperm nuclei and traverses the pollen tube
26. Embryo sac - The female gametophyte found inside the ovule; derived from the
megasporocyte inside the megasporangia; a mature embryo sac contains 8 nuclei.
Eventually, these nuclei become enveloped by membranes to become real cells. These
are the one egg cell; two synergids that flank the egg; two polar cells that are often
fused; and three antipodals opposite the synergids and egg.
27. Micropyle - The opening through the integuments of the ovule that surrounds the
embryo sac; this is where the pollen tube enters in order to reach the embryo sac 1.
 Anther - Part of the stamen that contains the microsporangia that develops into pollen
grains

28. Endosperm - Part of the mature seed that is derived from the fusion of the sperm
nucleus and the two polar nuclei of the embryo sac. This becomes a nutritive tissue with
triploid cells that serves to store food for the developing embryo
29. Zygote - Part of the mature seed that forms as a result of the fusion of the egg and one
of the sperm nuclei
30. Cotyledon - Embryonic leaf that forms inside the seed
31. Monocot - A plant with only one cotyledon inside its seed (monocotyledonous)
32. Dicot - A plant with two cotyledons inside its seed (dicotyledonous)
33. Seed germination - Process that transforms a seed into a seedling
34. Imbibition - The first step in seed germination; absorption of water
35. Radicle - Embryonic root that emerges from the seed
36. Plumule - Embryonic shoot that emerges from the seed and breaks through the soil
surface
37. Epicotyl - Part of the plumule above the cotyledon
38. Hypocotyl - Part of the plumule below the cotyledon

Parts of a Flower
 (Source: anmh.org)

Most flowers have four main parts: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. The stamens are the
male part whereas the carpels are the female part of the flower. Most flowers are
hermaphrodite where they contain both male and female parts. Others may contain one of the
two parts and may be male or female.

 Peduncle: This is the stalk of the flower.

 Receptacle: It is that part of the flower to which the stalk is attached to. It is small and
found at the center of the base of the flower.
 Sepals: These are the small, leaf-like parts growing at the base of the petals. They form
the outermost whorl of the flower. Collectively, sepals are known as the calyx. The main
function of the calyx and its sepals is to protect the flower before it blossoms (in the bud
stage).
 Petals: This layer lies just above the sepal layer. They are often bright in colour as their
main function is to attract pollinators such as insects, butterflies etc to the flower. The
petals are collectively known as the corolla.
 Stamens: These are the male parts of a flower. Many stamens are collectively known as
the androecium. They are structurally divided into two parts:
o Filament: the part that is long and slender and attached the anther to the flower.
 o Anthers: It is the head of the stamen and is responsible for producing the pollen
which is transferred to the pistil or female parts of the same or another flower to
bring about fertilization.

 Pistil: This forms the female parts of a flower. A collection of pistils is called the
gynoecium.

Pistil consists of four parts

(Source: Britannica)

a. Style -is a long slender stalk that holds the stigma. Once the pollen reaches the stigma,
the style starts to become hollow and forms a tube called the pollen tube which takes
the pollen to the ovaries to enable fertilization.
b. Stigma– This is found at the tip of the style. It forms the head of the pistil. The stigma
contains a sticky substance whose job is to catch pollen grains from different pollinators
 or those dispersed through the wind. They are responsible to begin the process of
fertilization.
c. Ovary – They form the base of the pistil. The ovary holds the ovules.
d. Ovules– These are the egg cells of a flower. They are contained in the ovary. In the
event of a favorable pollination where a compatible pollen reaches the stigma and
eventually reaches the ovary to fuse with the ovules, this fertilized product forms the
fruit and the ovules become the seeds of the fruit.

Discussion on the Development in flowering plants

I. Gametophyte - Development through gametogenesis

A. Male gametophyte - The microsporangium in the anther contains numerous
microsporocytes. Each microsporocyte will undergo meiosis to produce four haploid
microspores each microspore develops into a pollen grain (containing two sperm nuclei
and one tube nucleus)
B. Female gametophyte - The megasporangium in the ovule contains megasporocytes.
One megasporocyte will undergo meiosis to produce four haploid megaspores three
megaspores degenerate remaining megaspore divides mitotically three times, an
embryo sac with eight haploid nuclei membranes partition to make the embryo sac
multicellular

II. Pollination
A. Transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma
B. May be animal-aided or wind-aided
III. Double fertilization

Inside a pollen grain there is a tube cell and generative cell, generative cell divides to
produce two sperm cells while the tube cell becomes pollen tube pollen tube elongates
along the style and penetrates the ovule in the ovary via the micropyle (an opening)
pollen tube discharges the sperm cells into the embryo sac inside the ovule one sperm
unites with the egg to form the zygote while the other sperm fuses with the polar nuclei
to become the endosperm, which serves as food of the early embryo

IV. Embryo development (embryogenesis)

Zygote divides mitotically to produce the proembryo and suspensor, which anchors the
proembryo and transfers nutrients from the parent plant to it cotyledons appear on the
proembryo (monocots have only one cotyledon whereas dicots have two) proembryo
elongates into an embryo.

V. Maturation of ovary and ovule

Ovary matures into fruit while the ovule becomes the seed. The seed may become
dormant for some time.

VI. Seed germination

A. Transformation of seed to seedling
B. Seed undergoes imbibition to break dormancy nutrients stored in the endosperm or
cotyledons are digested and transferred to the growing regions of the embryo to primary
meristems (protoderm, ground meristem, procambium) develop to radicle emerges to
plumule breaks through the soil surface
i. Epigeal germination occurs when the cotyledon emerges above ground, thereby
exposing the hypocotyl of the plumule.
 ii. Hypogeal germination occurs when the cotyledon remains below ground, thereby
concealing the hypocotyl.

VII. Seedling growth to mature plant

Primary meristems differentiate to become the different plant tissues
 Reproductive Cycle of Flowering Plants

SOME VARIABLE FEATURES AND STRUCTURES OF FLOWERS

At the end of the lesson, you are able to:

To appreciate flowers and understand their role in reproduction.

1. Color – The color of flowers contrast with their background. Day-blooming flowers are
generally brightly colored but night-blooming ones are usually white, creamy or
yellowish.

2. Odor – The odors of flowers tend to attract certain pollinators. As far is man is
concerned, the odor may be fragrant, pleasant or sweet on one hand or unpleasant on
repulsive on the other hand.
3. Parts Present – Flowers are said to be complete when the four main parts (i.e. sepals,
petals, stamen, and pistil) are present; incomplete when one of these parts is lacking.

4. Sexuality of flowers – Flowers with both stamen and pistil are bisexual, perfect or
hermaphroditic.
Imperfect flowers or unisexual flowers have only either the stamen or the pistil.
An imperfect flower with only the pistil is a pistillate or a female flower. One with the
stamen only is a staminate flower or a male flower.
 As to distribution of Imperfect flowers, plants are called monoecious when both
imperfect flowers are found on the same plant as in corn; dioecious when the imperfect
flowers are borne on separate plants (i.e. male plant and female plant); polygamous,
when perfect and imperfect flowers are found in a single plant. The papaya may
dioecious or polygamous.

5. Nature of flowers – Flowers are regular when the members of each set of organs (the
sepals, petals, stamens and pistils) are of the same size and shape; irregular, when some
members of one or more sets of organs are different in size or shape or both.

6. Fusion of flower parts

The following terms are used:

a. Connation – when like parts are fused or united
b. Adnation – when dissimilar parts, like sepals, and petals are fused

7. Number of flower parts

a. Dicotyledonous – the flowers are in 4’s or 5’s or in multiples of four and five
b. Monocotyledonous – the flowers are in 3’s or in multiple of 3.

8. Symmetry of flowers
a. A radially symmetrical flower – is one that can be divided into two equal halves long
any plane through the central axis like the gumamela flower.
b. A bilaterally symmetrical flower is one that can be divided into two equal parts by a
median vertical cut like the batao flower. Such flower are also called zygomorphic
flowers.

9. Position of the ovary

a. Superior ovary – the sepals and petals are attached below the ovary. A flower with a
superior ovary is said to be hypogynous.
 b. Inferior ovary – The sepals and petals are attached above the ovary. A flower with
inferior ovary is said to be epigynous.

10. Placentation – the places where the ovules are attached in the ovary are known as
placentae. The arrangement of the placentae inside the ovary is called placentation.

Reproductive Cycle of Flowering Plants

In flowering plants, most of the events of the life cycle take place within the stamens and
pistil(s) of the flower. The stamens and the pistils are considered s the essential parts of the
flower because of the roles they play in reproduction.

The following are the main events involved in the reproductive cycle of flowering plants:
1. Development of the Pollen Grains (Male Gametophyte)
The male gametophyte develops and reaches maturity in an immature anther. In
a plant’s male reproductive organs, development of pollen takes place in a structure
known as the microsporangium.
 Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to
give rise to four haploid microspores. Each microspore then undergoes mitosis
giving rise to the generative cell and the tube nucleus. The generative cell, in turn,
undergoes mitosis to give rise to two sperm cells contained in the tube cell. This
two-celled structure (generative cell and tube cell) or the three-celled structure (two
sperms and the tube cell) constitute the so-called male gametophyte. This structure
comprises the pollen grain.

2. Development of the Embryo Sac (Female Gametophyte)

Within a developing ovule is a large diploid cell called the megasporocyte. A tiny
canal called micropyle leads to the megasporocyte. Eventually, the megasporocyte
undergoes meiosis resulting to the formation of four haploid megaspores, three of
which degenerate and only one remains functional. The functional megaspores then
undergoes three successive mitosis resulting to the formation of minute structure
called the female gametophyte or the embryo sac. The embryo sac usually consists
of three naked cells (two synergids and the egg) towards its micropylar side; two
polar nuclei towards its center my fuse to form the diploid fusion nucleus; three
naked cells called antipodals towards the side opposite the micropyle.
3. Pollination
Once the pollen grains and embryo sac are formed, the next event is pollination.

The main agents of pollination as well as the characteristics or adaptations

exhibited by the flowers pollinated by them are as follows:
a. Insects – Insects-pollinated flowers, also called entomophilous flowers, have
one or more of the following adaptations:
1. brightly colored flowers
2. scented flowers
3. large and showy flowers
4. production of nectar
5. production of edible pollen grains
6. silky or spiny pollen grains
 7. stickly stigmas

b. Wind – Wind-pollinated flowers, also called anemophilous flowers, have one

or more of the following adaptations:
1. flowers are produced above the leaves
2. production of huge quantities of pollen grain
3. pollen are small, light or dusty
4. male flower are usually more abundant than female flowers
5. flowers are small or inconspicuous
6. stigmas are usually feathery or expanded, hairy or branched, and sticky.
7. anthers can swing freely with slight breeze

4. Germination of the Pollen Grain

After landing on the receptive stigma, the pollen grain germinates by forming a
pollen tube. The elongating pollen tube penetrates through the tissues of the
stigma and the style, then enters the micropyle of the ovule, until it reaches the
vicinity of the pollinated embryo sac.

5. Fertilization and Seed Endosperm Formation

One sperm unites with the egg cell to form the diploid zygote. The other sperm
unites with the two polar nuclei or the diploid fusion nucleus to form the triploid
primary endosperm cell. These two unions constitute what is often referred to as
the “double fertilization”.
6. Germination and Sporophyte Development
Once the seed has been dispersed in a favorable environment, the embryo
resumes its growth and develops into a mature sporophyte. The resumption of
growth of the embryo is called germination.
 There are two types of germination, namely epigean and hypogean germination.
In epigean germination, the cotyledons re lifted up above the soil level when the
embryo resumes its growth. In hypogean germination, the cotyledons remains
underground.

Nutrient Procurement and Processing

At the end of the lesson, you are be able to:

• define nutrient and cite the nutritional requirements of plants and animals;
• enumerate nutritional adaptation by plants and feeding mechanisms in animals;
• distinguish different kinds of digestive compartments in animals; and
• trace the pathway of food processing in a mammalian/human digestive system.

Lecture on Plant Nutrition

1. Define nutrient and enumerate the two types of organisms based on mode of nutrition.
I. Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an organism.
The two types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to produce their
own food. Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their energy
from other organisms. Examples: animals, fungi

2. Identify the nutritional requirements of plants:

A. water
B. carbon dioxide
 Note that water and carbon dioxide are the raw materials needed for
photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert the energy from sunlight
intochemical energy.
C. essential nutrients or elements – which include macronutrients which are normally
required in amounts above 0.5% of the plant’s dry weight; and micronutrients which are
required in minute or trace amounts;
D. examples of macronutrients: C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
E. examples of micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Co, Mo

3. Distinguish between the routes for the absorption of water and minerals across plant
roots:
A. symplast route – through plasmodesmata
B. apoplast route – along cell walls
*Note that the water and minerals from the soil need to reach the conducting tissues of
plants, specifically the xylem. The two routes mentioned show how this can happen.

4. Cite specialized absorptive structures:

A. root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly increase the
surface area available for absorption.
B. root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants where bacterial cells exist
symbiotically with the plant. The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in turn, the
bacteria are able to utilize some organic compounds provided by the plant.

mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic interaction between a young root and a

fungus. The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing compounds from root cells
while the plant is able to get some scarce minerals that the fungus is better able to
absorb from the soil.

5. Enumerate nutritional adaptation by plants:

 A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbes
B. Symbiosis of plants and fungi
C. Parasitism
D. Predation
Lecture on Animal Nutrition

1. Concept of calories from food.

A Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food. It
specifically refers to the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg
(2.2 lb.) of water by 1oC (1.8oF). The greater the number of Calories in a quantity of food,
the greater energy it contains (Johnson and Raven, 1996).

2. Nutritional requirements of animals:

I. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These are usually
obtained from grains, cereals, breads, fruits, and vegetables. On average, carbohydrates
contain 4 Calories per gram.

II. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses these as building
materials for cell structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles, and bones.
Proteins come from dairy products, poultry, fish, meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates,
proteins also contain 4 Calories per gram.

III. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular structures;
also used to insulate nervous tissue, and also serve as an energy source. Fats also
contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are important for good health. Fats are obtained
from oils, margarine, butter, fried foods, meat, and processed snack foods. They contain a
 higher amount of energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins, about 9 Calories per
gram.

IV. Essential Nutrients – include substances that animals can only get from the foods they eat
because they could not be synthesized inside the body. These include:
A. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes; among the 20
amino acids, eight could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan, threonine,
methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine.

B. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an example is linoleic
acid in humans.

C. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism;

examples include fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3,
B12, C.

D. Trace Elements or Minerals – inorganic nutrients needed by the body in minute

amounts; these form part of enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids; examples
include: iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, selenium.

3. Food uptake in cells via the three types of endocytosis:

l. phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big particles, eg. pseudopod
formation in
Amoeba.
II. pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using small vesicles derived from the
plasma membrane.
III. receptor-mediated endocytosis – this relies on membrane receptor recognition of
specific solutes which are then taken up by the cell via receptor-coated pits.
4. Different types of animals based on feeding mechanisms:

I. substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food source. Examples: earthworms that
feed through the soil where they live in; caterpillars that eat through the leaves where
they live on.

II. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in water and strain small
organisms and food particles present in the medium. Examples: whales and coelenterates

III. fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a living host. Examples: mosquitoes,
leeches,head lice, aphids

IV. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations like jaws, teeth,
tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it to pieces.
Examples: snakes, cats, man

5. Different kinds of digestive compartments in animals:

I. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with lysosomes that contain hydrolytic
enzymes. Example: food vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium

II. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system – composed of a single opening

through which food is taken in and where wastes are disposed of; it is a saclike body
cavity. Examples: in the cnidarian Hydra and in flatworm Planaria

III. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an opening at one end for taking in
food (mouth) and an opening at the other end where unabsorbed waste materials are
 eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and anus, are specialized organs that carry out
transport, processing, and absorption of digested nutrients.

6. The accessory organs for digestion in a complete digestive system:

I. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats
II. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver
III. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major food molecules; secretes buffers
against HCl from the stomach; secretes the hormone insulin for control of glucose
metabolism

Lecture on the Digestive System

1. The main stages of food processing:

 A. Ingestion – the act of eating or feeding; this is coupled with the mechanical breakdown of
food into smaller pieces allowing for a greater surface area for chemical digestion.
B. Digestion – breakdown of food into particles, then into nutrient molecules small enough
to be Chemical digestion by enzymes involves breaking of chemical bonds through the
addition of water, i.e., enzymatic hydrolysis.
C. Absorption – passage of digested nutrients and fluid across the tube wall and into the
body fluids; the cells take up (absorb) small molecules such as amino acids and simple
sugars.
D. Elimination –expulsion of the undigested and unabsorbed materials from the end of the
gut.

2. The organs involved in food processing in the human digestive system:

A. The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus

I. Oral Cavity – it is where food is initially chewed into shreds by the teeth, and mixed with
saliva by the tongue. Saliva is secreted into the mouth by three pairs of salivary glands
located above the upper jaw and below the lower jaw.
II. Pharynx –the region in the back of the throat that serves as the entrance to the
esophagus that connects to the stomach and trachea (windpipe) that serves as airway
to the lungs. To block breathing as food leaves the pharynx, a flap-like valve (the
epiglottis) and the vocal cords close off the trachea.
III. Esophagus – connects the pharynx with the stomach. No digestion takes place within the
esophagus but the contractions within its muscular wall propel the food past a sphincter,
into the stomach. The rhythmic waves of contraction of the smooth muscle wall of the
esophagus are called peristaltic contractions or peristalsis. The esophagus is about 25 cm
(10 in.) long.

B. The Stomach
 I. The stomach is a muscular, stretchable sac located just below the diaphragm. It has three
important functions. First, it mixes and stores ingested food. Second, it secretes gastric
juice that helps dissolve and degrade the food, particularly proteins. Third, it regulates the
passage of food into the small intestine.
II. The gastric juice is a combination of HCl and acid-stable proteases.
III.The churning action of the stomach together with the potent acidity of the gastric juice
convert food into a thick, liquid mixture called chyme.

C. Small Intestine
I. The small intestine is approximately 6 meters long and is composed of three regions: the
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
II. It is where most enzymatic hydrolysis of the macromolecules from food occurs. The
complete digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins occurs in the duodenum, about the
first 25 cm. of the small intestine.
III. The rest of the small intestine is devoted to absorbing water and the products of
digestion into the bloodstream.
IV. Absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the ileum, the surface area of
which is increased by villi and microvilli.

D. The Accessory Digestive Organs

I. Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder

E. The Large Intestine or Colon

I. The large intestine is much shorter than the small intestine, about 1 meter.
II. It concentrates and stores undigested matter by absorbing mineral ions and water. A small
amount of fluid, sodium, and vitamin K are absorbed through its walls.
 III. Unlike the small intestine, it does not coil up and does not have villi and has only one-
thirtieth
of the absorptive surface area of the small intestine.
IV. Many bacteria live and thrive within the large intestine where they help process
undigested material into the final excretory product, feces.

F. The Rectum and Anus

I. The rectum is a short extension of the large intestine and is the final segment of the
digestive tract. It is where the compacted undigested food from the colon are pushed via
peristaltic contractions.
II. The distention of the rectum triggers expulsion of feces.
III. The anus is the terminal opening of the digestive system through which feces are expelled.

3. Summary on the mechanisms of digestion and absorption:

A. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth but could not continue in the stomach due to
the acidic pH that destroys the amylase. It resumes in the small intestine where the resulting
monosaccharides are absorbed.
B. Proteins are digested in the stomach and small intestine. Resulting amino acids are absorbed
in the small intestine where they leave the intestinal cell and enter the blood through a
facilitated diffusion carrier in the plasma membranes on the opposite side.
C. Fat digestion occurs entirely in the small intestine. Although fatty acids and monoglycerides
enter epithelial cells from the intestinal lumen, it is triglycerides that are released on the other
side of the cell and carried by blood capillaries to be transported throughout the body.
D. Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by diffusion or active transport. Fat-soluble
vitamins follow the pathway for fat absorption.

4. How nutrients are delivered into cells:

A. Substances pass through the brush border cells that line the free surface of each villus by
active transport, osmosis, and diffusion across the lipid bilayer of plasma membranes.
B. The nutrients then proceed into the internal environment and pass to the blood which is
collected into the hepatic portal vein leading to the liver.
C. After flowing through the liver, the blood carrying the nutrients passes into the hepatic
vein which carries the blood back to the heart to be distributed to the different body
tissues.

5. Explain the regulation of digestion:

A. The digestive system of animals is regulated in part by other organ systems, especially the
nervous and endocrine systems.
B. The nervous system exerts control on the digestive system in two ways:
I. regulation of muscular and glandular activity by the local nerves in the alimentary canal; and
II. long-distance regulation by the brain.
C. Hormones regulate the rate of digestion.

Regulation of Body Fluids

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

• define some key terms related to osmoregulation;
• enumerate the three types of nitrogenous wastes in animals;
• enumerate and describe excretory systems in invertebrates;
• characterize the mammalian urinary system and the role of nephrons; and
• analyze the role of the kidneys in the body’s acid-base balance.
_______________________________________________________________________

Lecture on Body Fluids

1. Definition of some key terms related to the regulation of body fluids:
Internal environment – the fluid environment that bathes the cells (extracellular fluid)
composed of the interstitial fluid and blood.
Osmolarity – solute concentration expressed in milliosmoles per liter of solution (mOsm/L).
Osmosis – the movement of water from a region of higher osmolarity to a region of lower
osmolarity across a selectively permeable membrane.
Osmoregulation – the regulation of water and ion balance.
Excretion – the elimination of metabolic wastes including nitrogenous wastes produced from
the breakdown of proteins; this process also helps in the regulation of water and ion balance.

2. Describe the two types of animals based on the osmolarity of their body fluids in relation to
the environment:
I. Osmoconformers – allow the osmolarity of their body fluids to match that of the
environment;
A. These include most marine invertebrates with body fluids that are generally
hyperosmotic to their surroundings
B. Because their bodies are isosmotic to seawater, they consume little or no energy in
maintaining water balance

II. Osmoregulators – keep the osmolarity of body fluids different from that of the
environment;
A. These include most marine vertebrates, birds, mammals
B. Either they discharge water in hypotonic environment or they take in water in a
hypertonic environment
3. Three types of nitrogenous wastes excreted by animals:
I. Ammonia – the primary nitrogenous waste for aquatic invertebrates, teleosts, and larval
amphibians
A. It is readily soluble in water but is also highly toxic
B. It can be excreted from the body only in dilute solutions.

II. Urea – produced by mammals, most amphibians, some reptiles, some marine fishes, and
some terrestrial invertebrates
A. It is formed by combining ammonia with bicarbonate ion (HCO3 )̄ and converting the
product into urea
B. Although its formation requires more energy compared to ammonia, it is about
100,000x less toxic than ammonia
C. Its excretion requires only about 10% as much water compared to ammonia.

III. Uric acid – excreted by birds, insects, and terrestrial reptiles

A. It is relatively nontoxic but more energetically expensive to produce than urea
B. It is largely insoluble in water and it is excreted as a semisolid paste or precipitate with
very little water loss

4. Excretory systems in invertebrates:

I. Cell surface or cell membrane – allows passage of wastes in unicellular organisms

II. Contractile vacuole – a specialized cytoplasmic organelle in many freshwater
protists (e.g. Paramecium) that expels excess water out of the cell to prevent lysis
III. Protonephridia or Flame Bulb System – network of tubules that lack internal
openings but have external openings at the body surface called nephridiopores
such as in the flatworm, Dugesia.
A. The smallest branches of the tubule network end with a large cell called a flame
bulb or cell
B. Water and solutes in body fluids enter the flame cell and get filtered
C. Specific molecules and ions are removed by reabsorption while other ions and
nitrogenous wastes are released into the tubule network and excreted via the
nephridiopore.

IV. Metanephridia – the excretory tubule of most annelids and adult mollusks;
A. The tubular network has a funnel-like internal opening called a nephrostome that
collects body fluids
B. As the body fluids move through the network, some molecules and ions are
reabsorbed while other ions and nitrogenous wastes are secreted into the tubule
C. The bladder stores the nitrogenous wastes as urine and later on excreted from
the body surface via the nephridiopore

V. Malpighian Tubules – the excretory tubules of insects and other terrestrial

arthropods attached to their digestive tract (midgut);
A. The tubules have ends that are immersed in the hemolymph (circulatory fluid)
while the distal ends empty into the gut
B. Malpighian tubules do not filter body fluids; instead they employ secretion to
generate the fluid for release from the body
C. In particular, they help actively secrete uric acid and ions like Na+ and K+ into the
tubules, allowing the water to move osmotically from the hemolymph into the
tubule
D. The fluid then passes into the hindgut (intestine and rectum) of the insect as
dilute urine
 E. Reabsorption of ions and water occurs in the hindgut wall, causing the formation
of uric acid crystals that are released with the feces.

5. Mammalian urinary or excretory system:

I. The mammalian urinary system consists of two kidneys, each with a ureter, a tube leading
to a urinary bladder (forstorage), with an open channel called urethra leading to the body
surface.

II. The kidneys serve as specialized organs for osmoregulationand excretion; they are
composedof the following:
A. Renal capsule – the outer coat of connective tissue;
B. Cortex – the zone near the capsule consisting of bloodvessels and nephrons;
C. Medulla – inner zone also consisting of blood vesselsand nephrons;
D. Nephrons – the functional units of the kidney whereurine is formed; and
E. Renal pelvis – central cavity in the kidney where urinecoming from the nephrons is
channeled before going to the ureter.

III. Each kidney contains about 1.3 M nephrons, approximately 80 km long if connected end
to end.

IV. About 1,600 liters of blood pass through the kidneys each day (300x the blood volume);
approximately 180 liters become filtrate but only about 1.5 liters of urine get excreted.

V. More than 99% of the water and almost all sugar, vitamins other organic nutrients are
reabsorbed across the tubule epithelium.
6. Components of nephrons – functional units of kidneys:

I. Nephrons generally have the following components:

A. Bowman’s capsule – an infolded region that encloses a ball of blood capillaries called
glomerulus where initial filtration of the blood plasma occurs.
B. Renal tubules – receive and modify the glomerular filtrate; consist of a proximal
convoluted tubule, followed by a U-shaped loop of Henle, and a distal convoluted tubule.
C. Peritubular capillaries – bring substances to and take substances away from the renal
tubules.
D. Collecting duct – receives the urine from the renal tubule leading to the renal pelvis.

II. Nephrons filter and retain water and solutes, leaving concentrated urine to be collected in
the central renal pelvis.
III. The glomerulus serve as initial site for filtration and the glomerular filtrate produced is
directed into the Bowman’s capsule.
IV. The Bowman’s capsule collects the filtrate and directs it though the continuous renal
tubules: proximal tubule → loop of Henle → distal tubule → collecting duct → renal
pelvis.
V. The peritubular capillaries exit the glomerulus, converge, then branch again around the
nephron tubules where they participate in reclaiming water and essential solutes.
 Figure 1. The organization of the mammalian nephron – the
functional unit of the kidney. (Picture taken from Reece et al., 2011.)

7. Mechanism of urine formation in mammalian nephrons:

I. Urine formation involves three processes:

A. In filtration, blood pressure forces filtrate (water and small solutes) out of the
glomerular capillaries.
i. Blood cells, proteins, and other large solutes cannot pass the capillary wall and they
remain in the blood.
ii. Filtrate is collected by the Bowman’s capsule and funneled into the proximal tubule.
B. During tubular reabsorption, useful materials such as salts, water, glucose, and amino
acids move out from the renal tubules and into adjacent peritubular capillaries.
C. Tubular secretion results in movement of surplus hydrogen and potassium ions, uric acid,
toxins and other drugs from the blood into the renal tubules.
 II. There are several factors influencing filtration:
A. Blood enters the glomerulus under high pressure in order to facilitate filtration;
arterioles present in the glomerulus tend to have wider diameters than most.
B. Glomerular capillaries are highly “leaky” to water and small solutes.
C. The volume of blood flow affects the rate of filtration.

8. Regulation of mammalian kidney function:

I. Receptors in the juxtaglomerular apparatus function in the kidney’s autoregulation system.

A. The receptors trigger constriction or dilation of the afferent arteriole to keep blood flow
and filtration constant during small variations in blood pressure.

II. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) promotes water conservation.

A. It is secreted from the hypothalamus via the pituitary when osmoreceptors detect an
increase in the osmolarity of body fluids.
B. It makes the walls of distal tubules and collecting ducts more permeable to water, and
thus the urine becomes more concentrated.

TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION

At the end of the lesson, you are able to:

• describe the transport of substances in xylem and phloem;

• explain the functions of structures in animal circulation; and
• trace the path of blood in the systemic and the pulmonary circulation

Plant Transport
Recall the functions of xylem and phloem from BIO 1. Plant transport involves: (A) absorption of
water through the roots and (B) up and down movement of substances in phloem.

A. Absorption of water plus macronutrients and micronutrients through the root system is
possible by diffusion. Root hairs increase the surface area for transport. Water molecules pass
through the epidermis, cortex, endodermis and pericycle; then they move upwards by means of
xylem vessels.

B. Phloem cells transport substances such as products of photosynthesis, water and other
compounds up and down the plant body. Phloem tissues are adjacent to companion cells that
give them support and nourishment. There are two major hypotheses on how substances can
move up and down the plant body. These are (i) Ascent of xylem sap and (ii) Pressure flow or
bulk flow.

i. Ascent of xylem sap is explained as a “push” from below by the water molecules
gushing upwards through xylem vessels. It can also be described as “pull” from above by
a combination of transpiration) and cohesion of water molecules through hydrogen
bonds.

ii. Pressure flow or bulk flow maintains that in the plant there is a source cell and a sink
cell. A “source” cell is where photosynthesis occurs and a “sink” cell is where the
nutrients are needed. Leaf cells are definitely source cells. Sucrose and other substances
accumulate in the source and due to high concentration, they flow down (or up) where
they are needed. Sink cells are growing parts of the plants- buds, flowers, fruits, root
tips. In this way, phloem tissues carry materials down and up. Xylem lies adjacent to
phloem tissues and water may easily diffuse from xylem to phloem. Materials are
transported up and down the plant body by a combination of the actions of phloem and
xylem cells.
Animal Circulation

1. Read on the “evolution” of the heart in vertebrates. Fish have one atrium and one ventricle.
Amphibians have two atria and one common ventricle where oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood mix. In mammals and birds there is a complete separation of the four chambers of the
heart by a tissue, called the septum.

2. Trace the path of blood in Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation. Mention the major arteries,
veins and heart chambers where blood flows through. Show the class the major valves between
the heart chambers.
Enrichment

Watch a video on animal circulation. Use the following guide questions:

I. How do animals transport materials inside their bodies?

II. What structures are necessary in animal transport?
III. State the function of the following components of animal transport: heart, blood and blood
vessels.