Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022

Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D

CENTRE FOR FOUNDATION, LANGUAGE AND GENERAL STUDIES

(FOUNDATION IN SCIENCES 2021/2022)

REPRODUCTION
AND EMBRYOLOGY

Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar

Matric No.: FIS 2110-4098
Class Group: 16D
Venue: UoC Laboratory
Course Code: FB1031
Course Name: Biology Lab 2
Date of Experiment: 9/5/2022
Instructor: Mdm Syaizara Arham Binti Yahya Ariff

Group members:
1.Nur Dini Batrisyia binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar
(FIS 2110-4098)
2. Najah Hanin Binti Azimi
(FIS 2110-4111)
3. Nur Nurin Nadhirah Binti Azmi
(FIS 2110-4102)
4. Sarah Kaiyishah Binti Muhd Adzmir
(FIS 2110-4089)
5. Siti Nur Syakira Binti Zulkifli
(FIS 2110-4110)
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this experiment, you should be able to
1. Identify the reproductive system of animals and human by using prepared slides.
2. Identify, determine and describe stages of frog`s embryo development by using
prepared slides
3. Identify the various stages of frog embryo development such as morula, blastula,
gastrula and neurula.

INTRODUCTION
Human reproductive system, organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live
offspring. Provided all organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning properly,
the essential features of human reproduction are liberation of an ovum or egg, at a specific
time in the reproductive cycle, internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa or sperm
cells, transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus or womb, implantation of the blastocyst,
the early embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in the wall of the uterus, formation of a
placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire period of gestation, birth of
the child and expulsion of the placenta, and suckling and care of the child, with an eventual
return of the maternal organs to virtually their original state.

The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure survival of the species. Other
system in the body, such as the endocrine and urinary systems, work continuously to maintain
homeostasis for survival of the individual. Both male and female reproductive systems have
organs called gonads(testes in males, ovaries in females) that produce gametes (sperm or
ovum). A gamete is a haploid cell that combines with another haploid gamete during
fertilization, forming a single diploid cell called a zygote. Besides producing gametes, the
gonads also produce sex hormones (testosterone in males, estrogen in females) that control
the development of sex organs before birth, sexual maturation at puberty, and reproduction
once sexual maturation has occurred. Other reproductive system organs have various
functions, such as maturing gametes, delivering gametes to the site of fertilization, and
providing an environment for the development and growth of an offspring.

The main structures of the male reproductive system are external to the body. The two testes
hang between the thighs in a sac of skin called the scrotum. The testes produce both sperms
and testosterone. Resting atop each testis is a coiled structure called the epididymis (plural,
epididymes). The function of the epididymes is to mature and store sperm. The penis is a
tubular organ that contains the urethra and has the ability to stiffen during sexual arousal.
Sperm passes out of the body through the urethra during a sexual climax (orgasm). This
release of sperm is called ejaculation. In addition to these organs, the male reproductive
system consists of several ducts and glands that are internal to the body. The ducts, which
include the vas deferens (also called the ductus deferens), transport sperm from
the epididymis to the urethra. The glands, which include the prostate gland and seminal
vesicles, produce fluids that become part of semen. Semen is the fluid that carries sperm
through the urethra and out of the body. It contains substances that control pH and provide
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
sperm with nutrients for energy.

Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm cell development. Rounded immature sperm cells
undergo successive mitotic and meiotic divisions (spermatocytogenesis) and a metamorphic
change (spermiogenesis) to produce spermatozoa. There are three steps in spermatogenesis:
1) meiosis, during which the number of chromosomes in the cell is reduced to half or 23
chromosomes each;
2) meiosis II, during which each haploid cell forms spermatids; and
3) spermiogenesis, during which each spermatid develops into a sperm cell with a head and
tail.

The main structures of the female reproductive system are internal to the body and shown in
the following figure. They include the paired ovaries, which are small, ovoid structures that
produce ova and secrete estrogen. The two oviducts (sometimes called Fallopian tubes or
uterine tubes) start near the ovaries and end at the uterus. Their function is to transport ova
from the ovaries to the uterus. If an egg is fertilized, it usually occurs while it is traveling
through an oviduct. The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ that functions to carry a fetus
until birth. It can expand greatly to accommodate a growing fetus, and its muscular walls can
contract forcefully during labour to push the baby out of the uterus and into the vagina.
The vagina is a tubular tract connecting the uterus to the outside of the body. The vagina is
where sperm are usually deposited during sexual intercourse and ejaculation. The vagina is
also called the birth canal because a baby travels through the vagina to leave the body during
birth. The external structures of the female reproductive system are referred to collectively as
the vulva. They include the clitoris, which is homologous to the male penis. They also
include two pairs of labia (singular, labium), which surround and protect the openings of the
urethra and vagina.

Oogenesis, in the human female reproductive system, growth process in which the primary
egg cell (or ovum) becomes a mature ovum. In any human generation, the egg’s development
starts before the female that carries it is even born; 8 to 20 weeks after the fetus has started to
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
grow, cells that are become more mature ova have been multiplying, and by the time that the
female is born, all of the egg cells that the ovaries will release during the active reproductive
years of the female are already present in the ovaries. These cells, known as the primary ova,
number around 400,000. The primary ova remains dominant until prior to ovulation, when
the egg is released from the ovary. The egg cell remains a primary ovum until the time for its
release from the ovary arrives. The egg then undergoes a cell division. The nucleus splits so
that half of its chromosomes go to one cell and half to another. One of these two new cells is
usually larger than the other and is known as the secondary ovum; the smaller cell is known
as a polar body. The secondary ovum grows in the ovary until it reaches maturation Once in
the fallopian tubes, the secondary egg cell is suitable for fertilization by the male sperm cells.
Ovulation is the release of an egg from one of a woman's ovaries. After the egg is released, it
travels down the fallopian tube, where fertilization by a sperm cell may occur. Ovulation
typically lasts one day and occurs in the middle of a woman's menstrual cycle, about two
weeks before she expects to get her period.

Embryology is a branch of science that is related to the formation, growth, and development
of embryo. It deals with the prenatal stage of development beginning from formation of
gametes, fertilization, formation of zygote, development of embryo and fetus to the birth of a
new individual. Two basic processes involved are growth and differentiation. These lead to
formation of various tissues and organs in body specialized to perform specific functions.
Neuroembryology is related to the development of central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord) and peripheral nervous system (spinal, cranial, and autonomic nerves) in the body.
These tissues develop from neural tube and neural crest cells. In this chapter we have
described the origin and various stages of development of a multicellular, highly complex,
and specialized nervous system from a single-celled zygote.

HYPOTHESIS
The determination of the sexual reproductive system in humans and animals using the
examination of a prepared section of mammalian testis and ovary under the microscope.
When the seminiferous tubule was examined under high power (x40 objective), the tails of
the spermatozoa orientated towards the lumen of the seminiferous tubule while their heads
towards the Sertoli cells can be seen and observed. Besides, when the ovary section is put
under high power, the development stages of the Graafian follicle can be observed. The
development stage of a frog’s embryo can be determined by using the slides of a recently
fertilized egg, early cleavage stage, blastula stage, gastrula stage, neurula stage, and tadpole.
The examination will show the quantity, the location of yolk, the presence of shell, and other
membranes that influence the developmental growth from the stage of fertilization until it
became a tadpole.
MATERIALS

1. Slide of Human Testis section

2. Slide of Human Ovary (LS)
3. Microscope
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D

METHODS
Method activity 1: Human spermatogenesis
1. A prepared section of mammalian testis was examined under low power. The
seminiferous tubules were observed.
2. The seminiferous tubule was examined under high power (x40 objective). The cells
listed below were identified:
Spermatogonia
Spermatocytes
Spermatids
Spermatozoa
The tails of the spermatozoa orientated towards the lumen of the seminiferous tubule while
their heads towards the Sertoli cells were observed.
3. the tissues between the seminiferous tubules were examined under high power.
Leydig cells and capillaries were seen embedded in connecting tissues. Figures 1a, 1b
and 1c and explanation provided by the instructor were referred.

Method
activity 2:
Human
oogenesis
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
1. The section of human ovary was observed under low power. The power was turned
over to high power and the stages in the development of Graafian follicle were
observed.
2. The cells listed below were identified: -
Primary follicle
Graafian follicle
Corpus luteum
Labeled diagrams showing the various stages of oogenesis were referred.
Figures 2(a-d) and the explanation provided by the instructor were referred.
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D

Method activity 3: Frog Embryology

1. All the slides provided were examined carefully.
2. Each of the following slides were drawn and labeled:
a. Fertilized egg
b. First cleavage
i. A fertilized egg divides into two cells and then split into four cells. Each cell
is called a blastomer. During a four-cell stage, blastomer exists in two
different sizes, macromer (large) and micromer (small).

c. Second cleavage
i. There are more than 4 cells and a blastocoelom/blastocoel starts to form.
d. Morula
i. A solid mass of cell
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
e. Blastula
i. Embryo forms a cavity, a blastocoelom.
f. Gastrula
i. A small curve like a crescent is formed. The curve eventually develops into
a big cavity called the blastopore. The yolk plug becomes obvious and at
this stage, three layers are formed: mesoderm, ectoderm, and endoderm.
Blastocoelom becomes smaller and gastrocoelom
(gastrocoel/archenteron) becomes larger. Eventually, the blastocoel is
replaced by the archenteron.

g. Neurula
i. Observe the neural groove and neural folds that exist in the dorsal region.
h. Tadpole
Draw and labeled diagrams showing the various stages of the embryo
development.
3. Figures 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d and 3e and explanation provided by the instructor were referred
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
RESULTS

Leydig cell

Spermatogonia

Sperm

Spermatids

Spermatocytes
Seminiferous tubule
Magnification: 400X

Cross-sectional of seminiferous tubule of C. titthaecheilus with HE.... | Download Scientific Diagram

(researchgate.net)

Primary follicle
Magnification: 200X
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/469218854899474487/

Zona pellucida

Antrum
Oocytes

Graafian follicle
Magnification: 40X

LM of Graafian Follicle - Stock Image - C012/1231 - Science Photo Library

Corpus luteum
Magnification: 40X
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D

Fertilized egg

Frog Uncleaved Egg, rep. sag. sec. 10 µm, H&E Microscope Slide | Carolina.com

Morula

Magnification: 100X

Frog embryo (morula). Optical microscope X100, Stock Photo, Picture And Rights Managed Image.
Pic. VD7-2973124 | agefotostock
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D

First Cleavage

Magnification: 40X

Second Cleavage

Magnification: 40X
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D

Blastula

Magnification: 40X

Gastrula

Magnification: 40X
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D

Neurula

Magnification: 40X

Reproductive – NPHistology (wordpress.com)

Tadpole after 12 weeks

Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D

Tadpole after 17 weeks

DISCUSSIONS
1. What are the functions of the Sertoli and Leydic cells?
- Sertoli cells provide nourishment to male germ cells, while Leydig cells produce
testosterone.

2. Why meiosis does occur in the gonads and not in the somatic cells?
- It is because, in the germ cells, only half the amount of genetic material is needed. The
genetic material between the parents will exchange to produce a new daughter cell.

3. Compare the process of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
All stages are completed in testes The major part only occurs inside the ovary,
and the last few stages occur in the oviduct.
It is a continuous process. It is a discontinuous process. The early
stages take place in the fetus and the rest in
later stages of life.
Produces motile gametes. Produces non-motile gametes.
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
4. What is the function of the corpus luteum?
- Corpus luteum produces the hormone progesterone that makes the uterus a healthy
environment for a developing fetus. A new corpus luteum forms each time a female ovulate
and breaks down once she no longer needs it to make progesterone.

5. Name the hormones that are secreted by the ovary.

- Estrogen
- Progesterone

6. Name two female and male hormones and list out their main functions.
Female hormones Male hormones
Estrogen , helps stimulate the growth of the Testosterone , to produce sperm.
egg follicle, maintains the thickness of the
endometrium wall.
Progesterone, prepares the endometrium Luteinizing hormone, stimulates the
wall for the potential of pregnancy after production of testosterone.
ovulation.

7. What is meant by the term animal pole and the vegetal pole?
Animal pole is a region with cells that have less amount of yolk. The division process occurs
rapidly. Vegetal pole is a region with cells that have lots amount of yolk. The cells divide
much slower.

8. Differentiate between deuterostomes and protostomes.

Protostomes Deuterostomes
Has spiral cleavage Has radial cleavage
Includes more phyla and species Include less phyla and species
Blastopore develops into mouth Blastopore develops into anus
Cell development is determinate. Cell development is indeterminate

9. State the differences between the blastula and the morula.

Blastula Morula
Hollow sphere of cells surrounding the A solid ball of cells resulting from division
blastoceole produced during the of a fertilized
development of an embryo
Develops into the gastrula in a process Develops into the blastula in a process
called gastrulation called blastulation
Forms 5-10 days after fertilization Forms 4-5 days after fertilization
Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D

PRECAUTIONARY STEPS
a) Make sure the experiment has been done in room temperature, as temperature will affect
the frog’s egg cells.
REFERENCES

Difference between Animal pole and Vegetal pole. (January 2014). Retrieved from
Difference between Animal pole and Vegetal pole class 11 biology CBSE (vedantu.com)

Lakna, (June 15, 2017). Difference Between Morula and Blastula. Retrieved from Difference
Between Morula and Blastula | Definition, Structure, Formation, Comparison (pediaa.com)

Difference Between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis (April 24, 2020). Retrieved from
Difference Between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis - An Overview (byjus.com)

Difference Between Protostomes and Deuterostomes. (December 16, 2020). Retrieved from
Difference Between Protostomes and Deuterostomes - BYJU'S (byjus.com)

Naveen, (July 26, 2012). Difference Between Protostomes and Deuterostomes. Retrieved
from Difference Between Protostomes and Deuterostomes | Compare the Difference Between
Similar Terms

Sylvia S. Mader, Michael Windelspecht. (2019). Biology 14th Edition. New York, NY 10121:
McGraw Hill LLC

Anisatuzzahro Anisatuzzahro, Muhammad Jafar Luthfi. (April 2017). Anatomical Study of

Male Reproductive Organs of the Indonesian Short-Nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus
titthaecheilus Temminck, 1825. Retrieved from Cross-sectional of seminiferous tubule of C.
titthaecheilus with HE.... | Download Scientific Diagram (researchgate.net)

Patrick J. Lynch. (December 31, 2012). Ovary-Follicles-200x. retrieved from LM of Graafian

Follicle - Stock Image - C012/1231 - Science Photo Library

J.M Barres, (October 26, 2017). Frog Embryo (morula). Retrieved from Frog embryo
(morula). Optical microscope X100, Stock Photo, Picture And Rights Managed Image. Pic.
VD7-2973124 | agefotostock

Reproductive Female & Male, (September 12, 2014). Retrieved from Reproductive –
NPHistology (wordpress.com)

Mike Morgan, UK. (August 2012), Sections Showing the Development of the Tadpole.
Retrieved from Mic-UK: Sections Showing the Development of the Tadpole (microscopy-
uk.org.uk)

Christine Miller, (2016). Introduction to the Reproductive System. Retrieved from

Name: Nur Dini Batrisyia Binti Ahmad Shahrul Azhar Date: 9 MEI 2022
Matric number: FIS 2110-4098 Class: 16D
18.2 Introduction to the Reproductive System – Human Biology (tru.ca)

Richard J. Harrison, (February 4, 2020). Human Reproductive System. Retrieved from

human reproductive system - The ovaries | Britannica

CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, we managed to fulfil the aim of this experiment. Firstly, we identified the
reproductive system of animals and human where reproductive system in males and females
are different. The human reproductive system is an example of sexual reproduction involving
reproductive organs of male and female humans. The occurrence of fertilisation which is the
process of fusion between male and female gamete determines whether it will proceed to
pregnancy or menstrual cycle in female human body. As we examine and observed the
seminiferous tubules which is one of the organ for male human reproductive system, we can
see that they are lined by a complex stratified epithelium containing two distinct populations
of cells, spermatogenic cells, that develop into spermatozoa, and Sertoli cells which have a
supportive and nutrient function. A spermatogonium (plural: spermatogonia) is an
undifferentiated male germ cell. Spermatogonia undergo spermatogenesis to form mature
spermatozoa in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. Spermatocyte is a male gametocyte
from which a spermatozoon develops and a spermatid is a haploid cell produced by meiosis
of a spermatocyte that develops into a spermatozoon. Leydig cells are interstitial cells located
adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testes. The best-established function of Leydig
cells is to produce the androgen, testosterone, under the pulsatile control of pituitary
luteinizing hormone (LH).
Secondly, we observed female human reproductive system which involved an observation of
human ovary and the stages in the development of a Graafian follicle. The first meiotic
division is completed when the primary follicle has matured into a secondary follicle. The
second division then started and a Graafian follicle is formed and they contains secondary
oocyte. Then ovulation happened, where your ovaries release an egg. The corpus luteum is a
glandular body that forms from the remnants of the graafian follicle after ovulation. It is the
source of the hormones progesterone and estrogens during the second half of the ovulatory
cycle. Finally, we are able to describe the stages of frog’s embryo development where it starts
When sperm fertilize the egg, streaming movements are set up in the egg and these results in
distribution of materials. Then, the zygote begins to divide and repeated in the successive
fashion and this stage is called cleavage. After that, ball of cells is formed known as morula
stage and as the morula turned into a fluid filled cavity known as blastocoel, this stage is
called blastula. While the gastrula stage is where two layered embryo formed by migration
and rearrangement of cells of blastula.