LECTURE 1: FLUID MECHANICS - For water at standard temperature, the

density is 1000 kg/m3 = 1.939 slugs/ft3 = 1

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS g/cm3.
Fluid Mechanics – branch of science that deals with
the forces exerted by or upon fluids that are either at 2. Viscosity, μ – the property of a fluid that
rest or in motion. determines its resistance to a shear stress,
now matter how small that shear stress may
Branches of Fluid Mechanics be.
1. Fluid Statics – considers forces exerted by
Consider a movable plate and a fixed surface
fluids that are at rest or in motion with constant
as shown below. A force F is applied on the
velocity.
plate to drag and move it at a velocity of U
2. Fluid Dynamics – considers forces exerted by
m/s.
fluids that are in motion with constant or
varying acceleration.
a. Fluid Kinematics – deals with the
motion and path of fluids without
regard to the forces and energy that
caused the motion of fluids. It is also
called the geometry of motion of The findings of scientists and engineers for
fluids. Newtonian fluids revealed that F ∝ AdU/dY.
b. Fluid Kinetics – deals with the
relationship between the forces and
energy of flowing fluids to the
corresponding quantities of motion.

Fluid – a substance that deforms continuously under

the action of a shear stress, no matter how small that
shear stress may be.

Base Units in Fluid Mechanics

The popular unit of viscosity being poise.

1 poise = 1 dyne.s/cm2 = 0.1 Pa.s

For water at normal temperature, the viscosity

is 1 cP (1 centipoise) = 0.01 poise = 0.001
Pa.s

Kinematic Viscosity – the ration of

the viscosity of a fluid to its density.
Properties of Fluids

1. Density, ρ – the mass per unit volume of a

fluid. The popular unit if kinematic viscosity is the
stokes.
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 1x10-4 m2/s.

Viscosity is also termed as: 1.

Dynamic viscosity; 2. Absolute
- The property density may also be termed viscosity; 3. Coefficient of viscosity.
mass density.
3. Unit weight, γ – the weight of a unit volume of
a fluid.
 The unit weight of water at normal temperature This property of a fluid is popularly involved in
is 9.81 kN/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3. the study of gases.

Unit weight is also termed as: 1, Popular units of specific volume are m 3/kg and
Weight density; 2. Specific Weight ft3/slug.
7. Surface Tension, σ – intermolecular cohesive
4. Specific gravity, s (or Gs or sp.gr.) – the ratio forces that bring enough molecules to form a
of the density of a fluid to the density of water membrane, or a unit area of that surface is due
at normal temperature. to surface tension.

It is a quantity without a unit that helps us Capillarity (capillary action) is the term for the
compare densities (and in ordinary cases behavior of a liquid in a very thin tube.
specific weights) of a fluid against water.
The rise and fall of a fluid in a thin tube is
Worthy to familiarize with are the specific caused by surface tension and depends on the
gravities of: relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the
a. Reinforced Concrete: s=2.40 liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the
b. Seawater: 1.025 – 1.030 (use s=1.030) walls of the containing vessel.
c. Steel: 7.80 – 7.86 (use s=7.86)
d. Mercury: 13.55 – 13.60 (use s=13.60)

Oftentimes, the specific gravity may also be

obtained as the ratio between the specific
weight of fluid to the specific weight of water.

Density ratios are strictly used to define

specific gravity without doubt because the
mass of any substance is absolute and 8. Vapor Pressure – the phenomenon where
therefore does not change with location. liquids project their molecules into the space
above their surfaces.
Specific gravity is also called relative
density.
If the space is confirmed, the partial pressure
exerted by the molecules increases until
equilibrium is attained.

5. Bulk modulus of elasticity, EB – the ratio of At equilibrium, the rate at which molecules
the applied pressure to the corresponding reenter the liquid is equal to the rate at which
relative volumetric deformation (expansion or they leave. The pressure at equilibrium is
contraction). known as saturation pressure.

Note that for liquids, viscosity decreases with

increasing temperature and for gases, it’s the
opposite.

A phenomenon called cavitation is very

Compressibility or coefficient of damaging to machines and therefore this
compressibility β is the reciprocal of the bulk should be avoided. It happens when rapid
modulus of elasticity of the fluid. vaporization and recondensation of liquid
occurs in a region of low absolute pressure.

For water at 20° C, the saturation vapor

6. Specific volume, Vs – is the volume occupied
pressure is 2.34 kPaa and for mercury at the
by a unit mass of a fluid and is therefore the
same temperature, it is 0.17 Paa.
reciprocal of density.
This is the main reason why mercury liquid is
used as the liquid in a simple barometer
because of its negligible vapor pressure.
PROPERTIES OF GASES Another important equation of state of gases:

The perfect gas law is described by the formula:

The perfect gas can also be written as:

A frictionless adiabatic process is called isentropic

process.

Boyle’s Law

p1 V 1=p 2 V 2
For diatomic gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, and
hydrogen gases.
p1 = initial absolute pressure of air
= usually 101.3 kPaa k = 1.4

V1 = initial volume of air p1V 1 p2V 2

=
= usually empty volume of container T1 T2

p2 = final absolute pressure of air

= p1 + yh
T2
T1
= ( )( )
p2
p1
V2
V1

( )
V2 = final volume of air n
p2 V 1
=
p1 V 2

T2
T1
= ( )( )
p2
p1
V2
V1

( )
n−1
T2 V 1
=
T1 V 2
Avogadro’s law states that:

“Equal volumes of gases at the same absolute Also,

pressure and temperature have the same number

( )
1/ n
of moles.” V 2 p1
=
V 1 p2

( )( )
1 −1
T2 p2 p2 n
=
T1 p1 p1

( )
n−1
T2 p2 n
=
T1 p1
 3. Within Cylindrical Jet

For adiabatic process:

( ) ( )
n−1 n−1
T2 V 1 p2 n
= =
T1 V 2 p1

For isentropic process:

( ) ( )
k−1 k−1
T2 V 1 p
= = 2 k
T1 V 2 p1

SURFACE TENSION

Excess Pressure (Gauge Pressure)

1. Within a Spherical Droplet

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

2. Within a Soap Bubble

 Derivation of Capillary Rise or Depression and
Excess Pressure Within a Soap Bubble
True Static Height

σ =¿surface tension in N/m

Ty = σ [ πD ] cosθ

Ty = W

σ [ πD ] cosθ= y
[ π 2
4
D h
]
4 σcosθ
h=
yD
Surface Tension (True Static Height)

Problem 5:

Mercury stands in a very clean glass tube 2 mm in

diameter at a height of 18 mm. If the wetting angle is
140° , what is the true static height? σ Hg = 0.514 N/m.

Ans: 23.90 mm
LESSON 2: PRINCIPLES OF FLUID 2. At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure
PRESSURE is the same in all directions.

Pascal’s Law

“At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same

in all directions”.

Pressure is the result when a force is distributed

over an area.

1. The intensity of pressure is normal to the

plane of contact when the fluid is at rest.

Thus, pressure or the intensity of pressure is

uniform only when considering a very small area.

Variation of Pressure with Depth

There can be no static friction in fluid mechanics.

This means that the pressure at a deeper point is EXAMPLE 1:
greater than that at the upper point. Thus, pressure
Water stands in an open tank that is 2.7m high at a
increases with depth.
depth of 2.4m. Determine the pressure at a depth of
When point 1 and point 2 lie on the same horizontal 1.8m and express this pressure in (1.1) kPa; (1.2)
plane, h=0. kg/m2; (1.3) psi; (1.4) bars. (1.5) Also determine the
maximum absolute pressure in kPa.
As a result,

“At all points on a horizontal plane in a homogenous

fluid at rest, the pressure is the same”.

When point 1 is on the liquid surface, p1 = 0, therefor

the pressure at any point below is p=yh

p= yh pressure at any point below a liquid surface

p
h= pressure head, which is the depth of liquid
y
producing a pressure p at the end of this
depth

Since friction cannot develop when the fluid is at rest,

the pressure is always acting normal to the surface it
contacts.
Gage Pressure and Absolute Pressure
LESSON 3: FLUID PRESSURE ON PLACE Conditions for cg and cp to coincide:
AND CURVED SURFACES
1. When the plane surface is horizontal (θ=0).
Fluid Pressure on Plane Surfaces 2. When the plane surface is brought to a very
deep point (h → ∞) .
3. When the surface is exposed to gas or air
pressure.

Moment of Inertia of Common Plane Figures

Rectangle

Triangle

Circle

By Varignon’s Theorem:

Semi-circle

By transfer formula for moment of Inertia: Quarter Circle

Half Parabola

SITUATION 2: Two different liquids and a gas

Ellipse

Quarter Ellipse

Transfer Formula

Suggested Strategic Attack for the following Cases - The total force is solved by adding the
forces F1 to Fn.
SITUATION 1: There is only one liquid, and the - The line of action of the total force is
surface is exposed to the atmosphere. located by the Varignon’s theorem.

Location of the Center of Pressure, c,p. when the

plate is not symmetrical with respect to the vertical
axis of plate

F=γhA
 F H =γ h A

- When the area is not symmetric with

respect to the vertical axis through its
centroid, compute ev first then compute the
horizontal line through c.p. say L.
-

PROBLEM 1:

The center of pressure is the midpoint of

this line L.

- When the area is symmetric with respect

to the vertical axis through its centroid,
-

Principles on Fluid Pressure on Curved Surfaces

CASE 1: Liquid is ABOVE the curve

F H =γ h A

CASE 2: Liquid is BELOW the curve

PROBLEM 2: PROBLEM 3:
PROBLEM 4: PROBLEM 5:
PROBLEM 6: PROBLEM 7:
PROBLEM 8: PROBLEM 9:
PROBLEM 10: PROBLEM 11:
PROBLEM 12: PROBLEM 13:
PROBLEM 14:
PROBLEM 15: PROBLEM 16:
PROBLEM 17: PROBLEM 18:

(17.1) (17.2)

(17.3)
PROBLEM 19: PROBLEM 20:
PROBLEM 21:
PROBLEM 22: PROBLEM 23:
PROBLEM 24: PROBLEM 25:
PROBLEM 26: PROBLEM 27:
PROBLEM 28:
PROBLEM 29:
PROBLEM 30: PROBLEM 31:
PROBLEM 32:
PROBLEM 33: PROBLEM 34:
PROBLEM 35:
PROBLEM 36: PROBLEM 37:
PROBLEM 38: PROBLEM 39:
PROBLEM 40: PROBLEM 41:
PROBLEM 42: PROBLEM 43:
PROBLEM 44: PROBLEM 45:
PROBLEM 46: PROBLEM 1: Fluid Pressure on Plane and Curved
Surfaces

(a)

(b and c)
(d)
PROBLEM 2: Fluid Pressure on Plane and Curved PROBLEM 3: Fluid Pressure on Vertical and
Surfaces Inclined Surfaces
PROBLEM 4: Fluid Pressure on Vertical and PROBLEM 5: Fluid Pressure on Vertical and
Inclined Surfaces Inclined Surfaces
PROBLEM 6: Fluid Pressure on Vertical and PROBLEM 7: Fluid Pressure on Vertical and
Inclined Surfaces Inclined Surfaces
PROBLEM 8: Fluid Pressure on Vertical and Problem 1: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces
Inclined Surfaces
Problem 2: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces Problem 3: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces
Problem 4: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces Problem 5: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces
Problem 6: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces Problem 7: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces
Problem 8: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces Problem 9: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces
Problem 10: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces Problem 11: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces
Problem 12: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces Problem 13: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces
Problem 14: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces Problem 15: Fluid Pressure on CURVED Surfaces