IMTIHAAN

Day 1 - History BPSC Mains Answer Writing Program

MAURYAN ART
By the fourth century BCE the Mauryas established their power and by the third century BCE, a large part of
India was under Mauryan control. Political stability, socio-economic progress and state liberality during the time of
Mauryans created a suitable environment for giving better shape to human imagination and the development of
various forms of art. The archaeological evidence obtained from various sites is proof of this.
Ashoka emerged as the most powerful king of the Mauryan dynasty who patronised the Buddhist shraman
tradition in the third century BCE. At that time there were many modes of religious practices including the worship of
Yakshas and mother-goddesses. Nevertheless, Buddhism became the most popular.
After the Harappan civilization, monumental stone sculpture and architecture appears only in the Mauryan
period. There were pillars, sculptures, rock-cut architecture, buildings like stupas, viharas and chaityas that served
many purposes. They are exquisite in aesthetic quality and brilliant in their design and execution. They made a
remarkable contribution to art and architecture and introduced stone carving on a wide scale. We get a glimpse of the
patronage of the state and the feelings of the local people in these arts. On this basis, Mauryan architecture can be
divided into two big parts- Court Art and Popular Art.

Mauryan Art

Court Art Popular/Folk Art

(Court initiative) (Individual Initiative)

Township Pillars Stupa Terracotta Beads Pottery Sculpture

Chaitya Caves Coins
figurines
& Palaces
(Royal Buildings)

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BPSC Mains Answer Writing Program Day 1 - History

Court Art: -

 Township & Palaces (Raj Prasad) -

The Mauryan capital at Pataliputra, Chandragupta Maurya’s palace are some of the prominent examples
of Mauryan architecture. The Greek Ambassador Megansthenes mentioned that town was surrounded by
wooden wall where a number of holes were created to let the arrow pass by. A ditch was dug with the size of 60
feet deep and 600 feet wide along with the wall. The town had 64 entrances and 570 towers.

The royal assembly building, situated in Kumhrar, was a hall with numerous pillars in which 84 monolithic
pillars were excavated. The glowing pillars had gold vines and silver bird. Wood was the principal building material
used during the Mauryan Empire. Its roof and floor were made of woods and its size was 140 feet long and 120
feet wide.

Greek historian, Megasthenes, described the palaces of the Mauryan empire as one of the greatest
creations of mankind and Chinese traveler Fa-Hien called Mauryan palaces as god gifted monuments. Roman
traveller, Arian compared the grandeur of the Palace of Chandragupta Maurya with the palaces of Susha and
Ekbatna (world's most famous cities of the that time).

 Pillars
Stone pillars were erected by Ashoka, which have been found in the north Indian
part of the Mauryan Empire with inscriptions engraved on them. There are also some
pillars without inscription. The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures
like the bull, the lion, the elephant, etc. All the capital figures are vigorous and carved
standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses are decorated with stylised lotuses.
Some of the existing pillars with capital figures were found at Vaishali, Lauriya -
Nandangarh and Rampurva in Bihar, Sankisa and Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh. The majestic
free standing Ashokan pillars symbolise the axis of the world (Axis mundi) that
separated heaven and earth. Some of the pillars have inscriptions.

The tradition of constructing pillars is very old and it may be observed that
erection of pillars was prevalent in the Achamenian empire as well. But the Mauryan
pillars are different from the Achamenian pillars. The Mauryan pillars are rockcut pillars thus displaying the
carver’s skills, whereas the Achamenian pillars are constructed in pieces by a mason. Ashokan pillars are quite
similar to each other in form and dimension.

Mauryan pillars mainly comprise of four parts: -

→ Shaft : A long shaft formed the base and was made up of a single piece of stone or monolith.

→ Capital : On top of shaft lay the capital, which was either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped.

→ Abacus : Above the capital, there was a circular or rectangular base known as the abacus.

→ Capital Figure : All the capital figures (usually animals like a bull, lion, elephant, etc.) are vigorous and

carved standing on a square or circular abacus.

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▪ Features -
→ The pillars are usually made of Chunar sandstone.

→ Was made up of a single piece of stone or monolith.

→ Uniformity in all the pillars of Mauryan art.

→ Use of animal to decorate the pillar or to give some moral message.

→ Pillar at that time is highly polished which shows Iranian influence.

→ Different type of abacus used like round, circular etc.

 Motifs associated with pillars: -

The motifs associated with the Ashokan pillars have a rich and varied symbolism which resonances in
many different Indian traditions. Apart from floral designs such as the lotus and honeysuckle the capitals have
other, mostly animal motifs.
➢ Lion: - It appears on the capitals of Vaishali. Lauriya Nandangarh
and one of the Rampurva pillars, quadruple line on the
Sanchi and Sarnath capitals and a bull on one of the
Rampurva pillars. The lion is a solar symbol in many ancient
traditions but in Buddhist tradition, the Buddha is referred
to as Sakya Simha (lion among the sakyas).

➢ Elephant: - An elephant capital was found at Sankissa. It symbolises the

birth of Buddha.

➢ Bull: - A bull on one of the Rampurva pillars has been found. The
bull is a fertility symbol in many ancient cultures and can
also be taken to represent the asterism of Rishabha under
which the Buddha was born.

➢ Spoked wheel: - The Sanchi and Sarnath capital are surmounted by a spoked
wheel Wheels on the capitals are interpreted as the
dharmachakra- the wheel of Dharma, representing the
Buddha's first sermon.
Taken together, all the symbols associated with the Ashokan pillars had a special Buddhist significance, but they
also blended into a wider fabric of cultural meaning.
 Stupas -
Construction of stupas and viharas as part of monastic establishments became part of the Buddhist tradition.
During the early phase of Buddhism, Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus throne,
chakra, etc. Ashoka's reign marked an important stage in the history of Buddhist stupa architecture. The stupas
were constructed to celebrate the life of Gautama Buddha. It was also built to propagate Dhamma. The stupa
consists of a cylindrical drum and a circular anda with a harmika and chhatra on the top which remain consistent
throughout with minor variations and changes in shape and size. In the subsequent century, stupas were
elaborately built with certain additions like the enclosing of the circumambulatory path with railings and
sculptural decoration. There were numerous stupas constructed earlier but expansions or new additions were
made in the second century BCE. The core of the stupa was made of unburnt brick while the outer surface was
made by using burnt bricks, which were then covered with a thick layer of plaster and medhi and the toran were
decorated with wooden sculptures.

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▪ Chhatra : Central pillar supporting a triple umbrella

form.
▪ Vedica : Stupa is enclosed with a wooden / stone
railing called Vedica.
▪ Toranas : They were cermonial gateways placed at
cardial point similar to Aryan village gates.
▪ Anda : Hemispherical mound symbolic of the
mound of dirt used to cover Buddha’s
remains (in many stupas actual relics were
used).
▪ Harmika : square railing on top of the mound.
▪ Medhi : Medhi (predestrian Path) for devotees to
wave in homage to stupa. Medhi was
approached by double staircase sopana.

 Chaitya -
Chaityas were basically prayer halls and most of them were with stupas. Generally, the hall was rectangular and
it had a semi-circular rear end. They had horse-shoe shaped windows. They also had pillars separating the hall
from the two aisles.

 Caves -

The Maurya period saw the beginning of rock cut architecture. The
Barabar and Nagarjuna hills contain several caves that were inhabited
by ascetics in ancient times. Four caves Karna Chaupar, Sudama Cave,
Lamarshi (Lomas Rishi) Cave, Vishwamitra (Vishva Zopri) Caves in
Barabar hills and three Caves in Nagarjuna hill were formed during the
time of Dasharath, grandson of Ashoka, Gopi Cave, Bahayak Cave and
Vedantika Cave. Three caves in Barabar hills have dedicative
inscriptions of Ashoka and three in Nagarjuna hills have inscriptions of
his grandson Dasharatha. The caves are simple in plan with plain but
highly polished interiors. The only sculpture ornamentation is a relief
carving on the doorway of a cave known as Lomas Rishi cave. The
doorway is modeled after the wooden ones. Over the entrance are two
bands of relief carving. The upper one has a lattice work design, the
lower one has a finely carved frieze showing elephants approaching
Stupas. At both ends of the frieze is a makara (a mythical crocodile).
These caves were dedicated by Ashoka and Dasaratha to the Ajivikas.

▪ Features:
→ Interior hall of the cave is rectangular.
→ Highly polished finish of the interior walls
→ Decorative gateways.
→ Entrance is located on the side wall of the hall.

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 Coins -

The coins issued by the Mauryans are mostly silver and

a few copper pieces of metal in various shapes, sizes and
weights and which have one or more symbols punched on
them. The most common symbols are the elephant, the tree in
railing symbol and the mountain. The technique of producing
such coins was generally that the metal was cut first and then
the device was punched. These symbols are said to have either
represented the Royal insignia or the symbol of the local guild
that struck the coin.

Popular/Folk Art
Apart from the court art or royal patronage, beads, sculpture, and pottery took the expressions of art by individual
effort.

 Sculpture

Religious practices had many dimensions and multiple forms of worship

existed. Yaksha worship was very popular before and after the advent of Buddhism
and it was assimilated in Buddhism and Jainism. Large statues of Yakshas and
Yakhinis are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. These
monumental images are mostly in the standing position. One of the distinguishing
elements in all these images is their polished surface. The depiction of faces is in
full round with pronounced cheeks and physiognomic detail. One of the finest
examples is a Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna, which is tall and well-built. It
shows sensitivity towards depicting the human physique. The image has a polished
surface. Mauryan sculpture characterises the usage of rocks as row material. The
concept of religious sculpture was also predominant during the Mauryan Empire.
The torso of the nude male figure found at Lohanipur at Patna. The Yaksha figure
is found from Parkham.

▪ Features -
→ All statues are huge in size.
→ The cut is designed to be very attractive.
→ Fabrics and ornaments on body.
→ They are mostly in the standing position.
→ Their polished surface is distinguished element.
→ Depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced cheeks and physiognomic detail.
→ They show sensitivity towards depicting the human physique.

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BPSC Mains Answer Writing Program Day 1 - History

 Pottery:
 Terracotta figurines:
Popular Terracotta
Use of the potter’s figurines of various
wheel became sizes and types have
universal. The pottery been found from
associated with the different places
related to Maurya
Mauryan period
period, which
consists of many types of wares. But the most highly
probably reflects
developed technique is seen in a special type of pottery the love of art of the
known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP), common people of
which was the hallmark of the preceding and early Maurya period. These
Mauryan periods. The NBP ware is made of finely Terracotta figurines were made by local people, who may
levigated alluvial clay, which when seen in section is not have been experts. The physical depictions of
Terracotta figurines are very different as compared to
usually of a grey and sometimes of a red hue. It has a
other sculptures. Many Terracotta figurines are of
brilliantly burnished dressing of the quality of a glaze
proportionate size and with clear ornamentation
which ranges from a jet black to a deep grey or a indicating that they were technically sounder. Some
metallic steel blue. Occasionally small red-brown appear to be made of mold. These include figures of
patches are apparent on the surface. It can be deities, toys, dice, ornaments and beads. Figures of many
distinguished from other polished or graphite-coated animals have also been found which will probably be
red wares by its peculiar lustre and brilliance. Kosambi children's toys. Among the various Terracotta figurines
found from Kumhrar, Patna, very attractive Terracotta
and Patliputra were the centers of NBPW pottery. This
figurines of a laughfing boy and a girl have also been
ware was used largely for dishes and small bowls. It is
found.
found in abundance in the Ganges valley

 Effects of religion on Mauryan Art -

▪ Glimpses of Vedic religion and Buddhism on pillar inscriptions
▪ The construction of stupas governs the influence of Buddhism.
▪ The events from life of Buddha, the Jataka stories, etc. were depicted on the railings and torans of the stupas.
▪ Construction of Guha Viharas for livelihoods and Buddhists. The influence of Buddhism can be seen here.
▪ A clear glimpse of the influence of Buddhism from Sarnath Pillar
▪ A glimpse of the influence of Jainism from the Jain Digambar statue
Some forms of Mauryan art is secular, while the influence of religion on some seems obvious. The main
reason for the influence of religion in state art may be the royal patronage or protection given to Buddhism by
Emperor Ashoka. At the same time, animals, birds, Jain Digambar, male idols etc. in folk arts are the drivers of the
development of the society and art of the time. Overall, it can be said that religion shows some influence on court
art, but folk art lacks the influence of religion.

 Foreign influence on Mauryan art –

Some art historians have emphasised foreign influence especially Persian (Achaemenian) influence on the court
at of the Maurya Empire:
▪ It has been suggested that Ashoka got the idea of inscribing proclamation on pillars from the Achaemenids.
▪ The word Dipi and Lipi occur in the in inscriptions of Darius as well as Ashoka.
▪ Inscriptions of both kings being in the third person and then move to the first person.
▪ The foreign influence has been identified in the polished surface of the Ashokan pillars and the animal motifs.
The stiff heraldic pose of the lions is seen as further evidence of Western influence.
▪ Maurya columns and Achaemenian pillars, both used polished stones. Both have certain sculpture motifs such
as the lotus.

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However, historians have also drawn attention to the many differences between the Mauryan and the Persian
arts:
▪ The pillars of the Kumhrar hall do not have capitals whereas those at Persepolis have elaborate ones.
▪ The Persian pillars stand on bases either shaped like a bell or a plain rectangular or circular block. On the other
hand, in the Maurya pillars, the inverted lotus appears at the top of the shaft.
▪ The shape and ornamentation of the Maurya Lotus is different from the Persian ones, the bulge typical of the
former being absent in the later.
▪ Most of the Persian pillars have a fluted surface while the Mauryan pillars are smooth.
▪ The Maurya type abacus and independent animals carved in the round Crowing the pillar are absent in the
Persian context.
▪ The Achaemenian shaft are built of separate segments of stone aggregated one above the other which is the
work of mason. The shaft of the Mauryan pillar is monolithic which pertains to the character of the work of a
skilled woodcarver or carpenter.
▪ The Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some larger architectural scheme, composed of much too many
component parts looking complex and complicated. While the Ashokan columns were intended to produce
the effect of an independent freestanding monument with simpler specimen, more harmonious in conception
and execution and gives the feeling of greater stability, dignity and strength.

---- Notes ----

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BPSC Mains Answer Writing Program Day 1 - History

PALA ART

The Pala dynasty ruled from 8th century to 12th century in the regions comprising Bihar and Bengal. The
development of art had been in a full-fledged manner during the Mauryas and Guptas which was further carried by
the Pala rulers. Distinctive achievements of Palas are seen in the arts of architecture, sculpture, terracotta, painting
and wall painting.

Pala Art

Architecture Sculpture Painting

Stone Manuscript Wall painting

Bronze
Buddhist Hindu

Viharas
Temple
Stupas
Chaitya

 Architecture -
The Palas built a number of Malaviharas, Stupas, Chaityas, Temples, monasteries and other sacred
structures. The gigantic structures of other Viharas, including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are the
other masterpieces of the Palas. These mammoth structures were demolished by the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji.
The art of Bihar and Bengal during the Pala dynasty influenced the art of Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka and Java. Most
of the architectures were religious.The first two hundred years of Pala period art were dominated by Buddhist art
and Hindu art dominates last two hundred years.

▪ Budhhist Architecture

➢ Viharas -

Among the various Mahavihara Nalanda,

Vikramshila, Somapura, Traikutaka, Devikota,
Pandita, Fullabadi and Jagaddala Vihara are notable
Planned residential buildings for monks was made.
Dharmapala built the Vikramasila mahavihara (at
Patharghata in Bhagalpur district of Bihar) and
Odantpuri Vihara in Bihar. Somapura Vihara and
Vikramasila Vihara were acknowledged in the
Buddhist world as two important centres of
Buddhist learning in the period between 9th and
12th centuries AD. The Somapura mahavihara at
Paharpur, Bangladesh, a creation of Dharmapala,
proudly announces the excellence of the
architectural art achieved in the Pala period. It is one Vikramasila Vihara Somapura Mahavihara
of the largest Buddhists

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Vihara with a 21-acre complex with 177 cells, numerous stupas, Rooms
temples and a number of other ancillary buildings, in the Indian
Porch
subcontinents and the plan of its central shrine was evolved in Bengal.
The Sompura Mahavihara is a World Heritage Site.
Mahaviharas were made during Pal rule mainly for residential
purposes for Buddhist monks. But Mahavihars also served as
important Buddhist educational centers.
Mahaviharas were generally in rectangular in structure, which Courtyard
included an open courtyard in the middle. All around the courtyard,
porch/veranda was used to be made, in which gates of rooms were opened. Some Mahaviharas in which gates of
rooms were opened. Some Mahaviharas had double storeyed rooms and stairs for the 2nd storey rooms were
made in the courtyard.

➢ Stupas -
Although culture of stupas was ancient, but some stupas were also made during Pal period with slight
differentiation. Stupas were made to hide the relics of Buddha/Bodhisatavas inside them.
Stupas had multiple parts, which include Yashti, Chhatra, Harmika, Anda, Medhi, Vedika, and Toranas.
Anda is a hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to cover Buddha’s remains (in many stupas
actual relics were used). Medhi was used (predestrian Path) for devotees to wave in homage to stupa. Medhi was
approached by double staircase sopana. Harmika is a square railing on top of the mound. Toranas were cermonial
gateways placed at cardial point similar to Aryan village gates.

➢ Chaityas -
These were basically a kind of Buddhist temples. The tradition of building Chaityas were old, but these
got diversification during Pal rule. Many remains of Chaityas can be found from different parts of Bihar.

It may rightly be said that the fame of Bengal spread in the then Buddhist world for the cultivation of
Buddhist religion and culture and of other knowledge in the various centres that grew under the patronage of
the Pala rulers. Many scholars came to these centres from far and wide. Devapala granted five villages at the
request of the Sailendra king of Java for the upkeep of the matha established at Nalanda for the scholars of that
country. The Buddhist Viharas in the Pala empire played a significant role in the propagation of Buddhism in the
neighbouring countries of Nepal, Tibet and Sri Lanka. Many of these mammoth structures were demolished by
the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji.

▪ Hindu Architecture
➢ The temples are known to express the local Vanga style.

➢ Mahipal got built hundreds of temples and building at Kashi.

➢ Vishnupada temple with hemispherical mandap like umbrella at Gaya.

➢ Siva temple at Konch in Gaya district is architecturally important because of

its pinnacle and corbelled lattice window.

➢ Rock-cut temple at Kahalgaon (Bhagalpur), dating from 9th century, is an

interesting one as it has gabled valuted roof, which is the characteristic of

South Indian Architecture.

➢ The 9th century Siddheshwara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan

District shows a tall curving shikhara crowned by large amalaka is an example

Siva Temple at
of early Pala style
Konch

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BPSC Mains Answer Writing Program Day 1 - History

→ Many of the temples from the ninth to the twelfth

century were located at Telkupi in Purulia District. Large Amalaka
They were submerged when dams were built in the
region. These were amongst the important examples
of architectural styles prevalent in the region which Tall Curving Shikhara
showed an awareness of all the known Nagara sub-
types that were prevalent in the rest of North India.

→ However, several temples still survive in Purulia

District which can be dated to this period. The
temples used black to grey basalt and chlorite stone Siddheshwara Mahadeva Temple
pillars and arched niches.

 Sculpture -
The Gupta tradition of sculptural art attained a new height under the patronage of the Pala rulers and it
came to be designated as Pala School of Sculptural Art. It is Eastern Style of medieval sculpture. The art
incorporated lot of local characteristics in Bengal under the Palas and it continued right up to the end of the 12th
century.

Most of the sculptures of this period drew their inspiration from Buddhism. Apart from Buddha, sculptures
of God and Goddess of Hindu Dharma like Vishnu, Balram, Uma, Maheshwar, Surya and Ganesha were also
constructed. The finest sculptures include a female bust, two standing Avalokiteshwara images from Nalanda;
Buddha seated in 'Bhumisparsasamudra' and images of Avalokiteshwara seated in 'Ardha Paryanka' etc. Mainly
two types of sculptural art are found from Pal period i.e., Bronze Sculptures and Stone Sculptures.

▪ Bronze Sculptures -
These are made up of bronze using molds. One of the main
characteristic features of these sculpture were excellent
ornamentation used in them. Another important feature of
these sculptures was that they were plain from behind despite
being ornamented and decorated from front.

Dhiman and Vithpal were two important sculptors of

Nalanda, they were contemporary of Dharma
Pal and Devpal (Pal rulers). Bronze sculptures are found in large
numbers from Kulkihar (Gaya), Nalanda and Sultanganj. These
sculptures can be compared with the aesthetics of the Natraj
sculptures of Chola Empire.

These sculptures were mainly religious in nature, which include sculptures various god and goddesses of
Hindus and Buddhists. Important examples of this sculpture style were of Buddha, Vishnu,
Balram, Bodhisatavas etc.

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▪ Stone Sculptures -

The Pala sculptures also present examples of artistic beauty carved out of
stone sculptures. These are made of "black basalt stones" which are obtained from
Santhal Paragana and Munger. They had stylish elegance, technical precision, and
a harsh outline skin to metal work.

Generally, the front part of the body has been tried to be shown. Rear part
of the Images has hardly been artistically built. Most of the images are of gods and
goddesses especially of Bodhisattvas. Important life events of Lord Buddha have
been especially depicted. Brahamanical gods like Vishnu, Shiva or Jain sculptures
are also found but they are comparatively less in numbers.

▪ Features of Pala Sculpture -

→ The Pala Style is marked by slim and graceful figures.

→ Elaborate jewelry and conventional decoration.

→ The main features of Pala sculptures are their free-flowing movement.

→ Almost all the figures are of similar sizes.

 Painting -
There were two types of paintings which were used to be done during Pal rule: - Manuscript Painting and Wall
Painting.

▪ Manuscript Painting -
→ Manuscripts was written on palm leaves. In these paintings, scenes of life of Buddha and several god and
goddess of Mahayana sects are depicted. Many Paintings illustrated manuscripts belong to the Vajrayana
School of Buddhism.
→ The impact of Tanricism on these paintings is easily visible.
Sometimes it also resembles some of the qualities of Nepalese
and Burmese Art.
→ Though limited to manuscript paintings, the art shows a very
developed stage and scholars have held that the paintings of the
Pala period definitely influenced the Eastern Indian, Tibetan and
Nepali paintings of the 14th century.
→ A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to Buddhist
themes were written and illustrated with the images of Buddhist deities at Buddhist centres like Nalanda,
Odantapuri, Vikramshila and Somapura.
→ Red, blue, black and white colors are used as primary colors whereas green, purple, light pink and grey are
used as secondary/auxiliary color on a fine variety of palm leaf, as well as on the lacquered wooden covers
of manuscripts.
→ Decorative paintings could be seen on manuscripts depending on the subject matter.
'Ashtasahasarikpragyaparamita' and 'Panchraksh'. Both of these paintings are archived in Cambridge
Museum (England).

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▪ Wall Painting -
Besides manuscript painting, wall paintings were also used to be done on the walls of Mahavihar, Chaityas,
temples etc. In these paintings various elements like fruits, flowers, animals, humans, birds and trees were
imprinted. One of the best examples of wall paintings of Pal period is a wall painting found from Saraikila
(Nalanda). In this painting a woman can be seen doing make-up, while looking into a mirror. This painting shows
the human emotions along with art simultaneously. Impact of Ajanta and Bagh painting can be noticed, as the
way of making images and painting are very much similar.

 Limitations -
▪ Architectures in Pal period were generally made out of burnt Bricks instead of stones and rocks, which
resulted into lesser permanence and availability now.
▪ Sculptures of Pal art were plain from behind and only focus was on front.
▪ Ornamentation was heavily used in the Pal sculptures, which hide the real beauty of the sculptures.
▪ In Pal art religious aspects had more prominence that social, cultural and political aspects.

Multiple art forms developed vehemently during the period of Pal rulers. Despite the triangular conflict among
Palas, Rashtrakutas and Gurjar-pratihars for occupation of Kannauj, various art forms were flourished during
the Pal periods without any impediments. The Pal rulers maintained the tradition of art and culture developed
during Mauryan Period raised them to a new level.

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PATNA KALAM

Patna Kalam is a style of Indian painting which existed in Bihar in the 18th and 19th centuries. It was influenced
with three different school of painting i.e., Persian school, Mughal art, and British style of painting. Patna Qalaam was
the world's first independent school of painting which dealt exclusively with the commoner and their lifestyle which
also helped Patna Kalam paintings gain in popularity. The Principal centers were Patna, Danapur and Arrah.

Evolution of Patna Kalam

The Mughal style of painting saw its golden age during the reign of Jehangir but suffered a lot in the later 17th
and early 18th century under the influence of Aurangzeb. Many of the artists fled away from Delhi and found shelter
in centers like Murshidabad. In the mid-18th century, after the fall of the Nawab of Murshidabad, they moved towards
the next largest center of the East, Patna. Patna being a trade center on the banks of the Ganges, the painters found
easy access to the market and settled there. Through these settlements, they were also able to cater to the European
market. The European patronage achieved due to market need and the rich heritage of Mughal paintings gave birth
to a very distinctive style of miniature paintings called Patna Kalam.
Unlike the rich, opulent and courtly Mughal miniatures, the painters of Patna Kalam focused on the daily life of
India. The subjects are really very simple depictions of the ‘sets of caste occupation’ known ‘Firka’. The contents of
Firkas were based on common everyday life like the washerman, butler returning from the market, tailor, sweeper,
and slave struggling with dog, etc. The main reason for this kind of content was the curiosity and interest of the
European, towards the Indian culture. This also prompted the painters to assimilate the European still life and
miniature painting styles into the traditional Mughal and Pahari ones.

 Influence
Patna Kalam is regarded as an off-shoot of Mughal painting, with influences from Persian and Company (British)
styles.
1. Mughal style
Similarity :
• In Patna Kalam, bright colours were used and lines were
almost identical to Mughal art forms.
Difference:
• In Patna Kalam paintings subject was used to be most
important.
• In Mughal paintings, background and borders were
equally important as subject, but in Patna Kalam paintings
background and borders were not much significant.
• In this painting style background and border were used to
be either white or plain, while in Mughal paintings,
coloured background and stylish borders were used.
2. Company style
Similarity :
• European realism was adopted.
• The excellent use of shadow and lighting in the paintings.
Difference:
• The bright colours and lines used in Patna Kalam were inspired from Mughal Painting.

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 Materials used in Painting

1. Colours Used
→ Colours used in paintings of Patna Kalam were generally obtained
from natural sources like minerals, fruits, and flowers.
→ The paints themselves were prepared by the artists from natural
sources to paint the paintings. Red was made from lacquer, white
was made of clay, black was made of soot, blue was made of indigo,
and a mixture of blue and yellow was used to make green. Apart
from this, gold was prepared from gold works and silver-like color
was prepared from silver works.
→ Important colours used in paintings were Indian Red, Zink white,
Gamboge white, Yellow, Golden Yellow, Golden leaf, Grey, Yellow
leaf, Bronze, Purple, Green, Gold Powder, Silver leaf, Mica powder.
2. Canvas
→ Mainly paper was used as canvas in Patna Kalam painting. The paper used was mostly handmade in the
initial days, like bamboo-based paper imported from Nepal.
→ Paintings were made on metal, ivory and bone surface too
3. Brushes
→ Thin brushes used to be made from squirrel hair, mounted on pigeon feathers, whereas swine, goat,
and buffalo hair were used for the thicker ones.

 Technique

 The Patna Kalam painters did not use pencils. This technique was called Kajli Seahi.
 Since the paintings were made for commercial purposes, they lacked the richness of Mughal art, yet, the
delicacy of lines has been retained throughout.
 Light colors and subtle shading were used. Along with this, the softness of the lines and the rich detail of the
motifs were also done.

 Process of Painting in the Patna Kalam

The whole process of a piece of painting involved

below three stages-
1. Preparation of Colours - Colours were used to
be prepared during the rainy season. It used to
be done so because of increased moisture during
rainy season reduces pollution in atmosphere,
hence the colour obtained was used to be of good
quality and without any dust and dirt.

2. Sketching -Although instead of drawing

sketches, pictures were directly painted using
brush and colours. But some paintings were done
by sketching also. In such paintings sketching was used to be done during summer.

3. Filling of colours in the sketches - Colour was used to be filled during winter season, because in winter
humidity is very low which results into good bonding of colour with the Canvas. It also helps in creating
shadow in paintings.

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 Main features and characteristics of Patna Kalam Paintings

▪ Miniatures were the primary paintings.
▪ These paintings were very simple, lucid and proportionate.
▪ Painters of Patna Kalam were deeply influenced by daily life of common
people like the artisans working, the merchants at the market, iron smith,
bazaar scenes, local rulers, local festival and ceremonies.
▪ These paintings are characterized by light colored sketches and life-like
representations.
▪ One of the important characteristics of Patna Kalam is that usually they
do not paint any Landscape, foreground or background.
▪ Other feature of the Patna School of Painting was the development in the
shading of solid forms.
▪ The figures in these paintings are characterized by pointed noses, heavy
eyebrows, slim faces, sunken and deep-set eyes, and large mustaches.
▪ The paper was treated with vitriol and arrowroot which not only used to give it a shining face but also acted
as preservatives so that the paintings could really last long.
▪ The paintings are painted straightway with the brush without using the pencil to delineate the contours of the
picture. This technique was commonly known as 'Kajli Seahi'.
▪ A painting of tanga (house cart is very famous). Another painting of Golghar is remarkable which shows that
Golghar was actually built near the bank of the river Ganges which shows changes in the landscape.

 Some well known painters

▪ Sewak Ram, Hulas Lall, Shiv Lal, Shiva Dayal, Mahadeo Lal etc. The last renowned painter of Patna Kalam
was Ishwari Prasad Verma. There is currently no one to carry on the tradition.

 Some well known painters with their painting

▪ The separation of the heroine is depicted very closely in 'Godhari Chitra' by Mahadev Lal.
▪ A picture based on 'Ragini Todi' by Madholal in which the heroine is depicted playing the Veena.
▪ Similarly, the picture of 'Muslim Nikah' made by Shivlal and
▪ 'Drinking of Begums' by Yamuna Prasad also holds an important place in Patna Kalam.

 Contribution of Patna Kalam in the development of the art in Bihar: -

▪ The development of Patna Kalam painting proved to show the cultural development of Bihar.
▪ The scenes and simplistic depiction of common life displayed in this art established the form of the new
painting.
▪ This art tradition established the art from the past into a new genre, through which the culture of the present
day can still be understood.
▪ The latter played an important role in the development of new art styles.
▪ Helped to bring the fame of Bihar's painting to the international world.

 Major reasons for the fall of Patna Kalam: -

▪ Death of local artisans.
▪ Invention of printing press, camera and film.
▪ Relying on imports for raw materials.
▪ Transfer of political power to Bengal.
▪ Increased cost price of painting produced by local painters and lack of demand in the market
▪ This style was developed as a regional style so, it could not be spread on a large scale.
▪ Background and landscape are not heavily used in this style, possibly because of this a large section did not
encourage it.

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