Turbo Generator Control System

Chapter IX
Turbo Generator Control System

1. INTRODUCTION disturbing element(s). During the occurrence of fault con-
ditions, if contributed by a part of the control system
Modern thermal power plants are equipped with state-of- hardware/software, the subsystem control takes over so that
the-art technology instrumentation systems. Continuous the remaining part of the main plant can continue uninter-
advancement of science and technologies, especially in the rupted operation.
field of electronics, with microprocessor-based hardware
and befitting software has made great strides in the devel-
opment of instrumentation systems, including both mea- 1.1 Subsystems or Functional Subgroups
surement and control. Turbo generator control systems are As indicated above, the subgroups are functionally divided
no exception in this regard. In the initial stage, the turbine is to achieve better control over the entire turbine system. The
mainly controlled by a hydraulic system. As technological main items particular subgroups control are discussed in the
advancements were made, measurement systems became following clauses.
fully electronic and controlled by a mixture of electronic
and hydraulic systems. Today the complete instrumentation 1.1.1 Turbine HP Control Fluid Subsystem
package is supplied with an electronic system with hy-
draulic controls as a back-up. Whether combined or separate, subsystems have different
Unlike the boiler package, normally the turbine package standby liquid control systems (SLCs) and drives for LPBP
is equipped with modern hardware, software, and control and main valve systems to serve their assigned purposes,
strategies for their equipment and systems. Modern day which are to supply HP power/control oil. This is done by
turbine control systems include close loop control systems using control oil pumps, recirculation pumps, cooling fans,
(CLCS) and open loop control systems (OLCS) including pumps for regeneration circuits, etc.
automatic turbine testing systems (ATT) and the automatic
turbine run up system (ATRS). 1.1.2 Turbine Oil Subsystem
The turbine control system, which includes both CLCS
This subsystem takes care of the oil systems required for
and OLCS, comprises five main subsystems or functional
initial running of the turbine and shut-down procedure
groups categorized according to their functional require-
and includes SLCs and drives of auxiliary and emergency
ment, and takes care of the entire operation of the turbine
lube oil pumps, jacking oil pumps, turning gear gate
and generator side. Those subsystems include the
valves, etc.
following:
1. Turbine high-pressure (HP) control fluid subsystem for 1.1.3 Condenser Evacuation and Gland
the low-pressure bypass (LPBP) system Seal Subsystem
2. Turbine HP control fluid subsystem for main valves
(Above two systems may be combined also) This subsystem includes SLCs for condensate extraction
3. Turbine control oil subsystem pumps and turbine drains as well (although it is a part of the
4. Condenser evacuation and gland seal subsystem turbine control subgroup) and drives for vacuum pumps, air
5. Turbine control subsystem (warm up, start-up, loading, extraction valves, instrument/service air solenoid valves,
unloading, and shut down) vacuum breaker solenoid valves, etc.
In some plants, the generator exciter subsystem is also

1.1.4 Turbine Control Subsystem (Start-Up,
included for better coordination.
Loading, Unloading, and Shut Down)
The subsystem controls have their own group control
and various other subgroups, each containing similar or The heart of the turbo generator control system is the tur-
redundant drives. There are sufficient displays at every step bine control subsystem (start-up, loading, unloading, and
and an intelligent alarm annunciation system to enable shut down) comprised of SLCs for drains, warm-up
immediate action for detection as well as rectification of controller for generating the criteria for operation of drain
Power Plant Instrumentation and Control Handbook 695

Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
696 POWER PLANT INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL HANDBOOK
valves, soaking of turbine metals, and holding/speeding of 2. ELECTRO HYDRAULIC GOVERNOR

the turbine rotor. Also included are the start-up device CONTROL SYSTEM
(TSL), speed and load set point devices of the turbine
governing system, and the auto-synchronizer. 2.0 General Introduction
The turbine control subsystem or functional group as
1.2 Testing Process by ATT mentioned earlier is a very important part of automation of
the TG set, which comprises the electro hydraulic governor
In addition to the above subsystems, there are standalone
(EHG) control system. This takes care of start-up, shut
ATTs that enable online testing of all important drives or
down, loading, and unloading of the TG set. With the
devices required for safe operation and emergency tripping
advancement of technology, this control system has been
of the turbo generator. In other words, all the protective
transformed into an electro hydraulic system from a purely
equipment required for turbo generator safety is tested
hydraulic system. However, the hydraulic governing sys-
automatically with uninterrupted normal operation without
tem is not totally obsolete; it is used as a back-up as shown
jeopardizing the individual protection assignment bestowed
in Figures IX/2-1 and IX2-4.
on each device while running the test procedure.
The advantage of an electro hydraulic system is that it
The main function of the ATT system is to offer a fail-
uses electronic hardware and software for the measure-
safe operation of the protective drives or devices by
ments, processing, or signal conditioning and imple-
checking and analyzing their readiness throughout the tur-
mentation of critical and complicated control strategies,
bine operation regime. The system ensures that the
which could not have been possible by the pure hydraulic
abovementioned duty is done by performing the tests
system. The added plus points of an electronic system are
cyclically in the automatic mode of operation and manually
the tremendous speed of dynamic response, flexibility for
at the operator’s discretion. The essence of this particular
further modification at any stage, and interchanges of sig-
standalone facility is to test all the protective devices
nals with other subsystems or functional groups without
sequentially in a well-organized and systematic manner for
additional hardware. The advantage of the hydraulic system
verification of foolproof functioning of all the devices. The
is undoubtedly the fast and vast actuating force required by
system is built to eliminate operator error, resulting from
the increasing size of the final control elements. The EHG
manual intervention, using the fully automatic test
control system as a whole provides a very smooth, reliable,
sequence. Individual tests for a particular device can be
and speedy functioning as required by the modern, large-
done by proper selection.
capacity thermal power plants.
The standalone system for ATT includes the following
The EHG operates hand in hand with the ATRS and
items:
turbine stress evaluator (TSE), details of which are
1. Turbine generator (TG) set over speed trip (mechanical) described in Clause 6. The TSE guides the EHG control
2. Thrust-bearing trip (mechanical) system to generate the speed and megawatt power set point
Remote trip devices: within the safe operating margin, and ultimately the posi-
3. Hydraulic and electrical low vacuum trip tion demand of the turbine governor valvesdthe hydrau-
4. Opening and closing operation of control valves. lically operated final control elements, through which speed
5. Opening and closing operation of emergency stop or power can be maintained as the situation demands. The
valves (ESVs). TSE collects various temperature measurements related to
turbine parts and valves to calculate the safe margin for
Testing can be done for all of the listed items at any
speed and generator load considering allowable turbine
time, providing a protection device is substituted only after
metals stresses.
testing its good health.
Testing can also be done manually at the operator’s
discretion or cyclically through an automatic program. For 2.1 Task of the EHG
testing the turbine over speed trip, high-pressure oil is
With the continuous development of TG control strategies,
introduced via a shaft hole producing a simulated condition
the following tasks are accomplished by the EHG:
of over speed and actuation of trip bolts at TG normal
speed, causing the hydraulic circuit oil to drain. The 1. Admission of steam and starting of turbine, raising
resultant fall in pressure is detected by the tester and sends speed gradually up to synchronizing speed, and then
an alarm indicating successful testing operation. The oil maintaining the rated frequency of the generated
pressure, although low, will not be allowed to close the power load in accordance with the droop (load vs
main steam control valves (MSCVs) and ESVs as they will frequency) characteristics and associated provision
be supplied with high-pressure oil via the test valve. for the proper adjustment of the same unit running
Detailed discussions are included in Clause 5. on load
Turbo Generator Control System Chapter | IX 697
2. Addressing the problem of low transient frequency or 2. Using the processed or conditioned data in various auto-
speed excursion as well as permanent deviation taking matic control loops pertaining to EHG, which are TG
place throughout the period of TG operation set speed controller, generator power/load controller,
3. Generator load control under the guidance of TSE steam pressure controller, and the valve position
4. Pressure control when the boiler is not healthy but the controller
turbine is (initial pressure control in turbine follow
mode)
2.3 EHG Control Philosophy
5. Graceful switchover from load control to frequency
control in case of isolated grid condition As stated above, there are three basic control loops: speed
6. Smooth and reliable control in case of sudden discon- control, power/load control, and pressure control. Another
nection of TG set from the grid control is the valve position control, which actually re-
ceives the selected output out of the three controllers as its
input (see Figure IX/2-1).
2.2 Duty Assigned to the Electronic
There are various modes of operation for governing
Part of EHG control systems and these vary by manufacturer. Modes
As discussed previously, the duty assigned to the electronic from one of the reputed manufacturers of EHG control
part of the EHG is twofold: systems are elaborated in the Table IX/2.3-1.
1. Collection of measurement data, processing or condi-
2.3.1 Speed Control Loop
tioning of raw data, arranging of those data for trans-
portation to other subsystems or functional groups as Figure IX/2-2 is a ready reference for the speed control
and when required, and sending them as output to loop. The speed set point may be manually adjusted or may
the front desk indication/recording/data acquisition be an automatic signal generated elsewhere by some suit-
system able method (e.g., “synchronizer”). It is passed through a
FIGURE IX/2-1 Simplified flow diagram of steam cycle with turbine controls.
TABLE IX/2.3-1 Operational Modes of EHG
SL Operational Mode Details

1 Start-up mode EHG operates by switching ON the supply and setting speed/load set point to zero, with hydraulic
governor control in the upper end (as hydraulic controller and EHG are selected via MIN selector
switch). After turbine is put in barring gear the actual speed is sensed, and the speed controller is in
service until synchronization.
2 Load control After synchronization it is under load control either from load control center or various other
means. The frequency change is selected by integral action of the load controller as per frequency
droop* characteristic. Speed controller is in standby mode for load shedding.
3 Load shedding It is the sudden separation of the generator from the grid. At this point the output of the load
controller is immediately brought below that of speed controller. Because of the max selector as
shown in Figure IX/2-1, the speed controller takes over the control and brings the speed to the refer-
ence set point. (See HP and LP bypass control also.)
4 Shut down At normal shut down, the load controller is set to zero so that the speed controller can assume
control and bring the system to safe condition.
*Frequency droop characteristic: the mismatch in power causes speed to change to bring the mismatch to zero, but there will changes in speed. The
change in frequency due to the change in power is decided by regulation or droop. If 4% change in frequency/speed causes 100% change in power,
then the droop characteristic is 4%, i.e., 0.04 per unit power. At 100% load frequency is 100%. If there is a drop in 50% power, then there will be in-
crease in 2% frequency. Normally 4e5% is the standard droop value (see Figure IX/2-2). There is another parameter called dead band (governor con-
trol), which is very important in governing the system. There is a minimum value of speed that cannot be picked by the sensing mechanism, so it may
remain uncorrected. This minimum value is called the governor insensitivity or dead band. The governing system action depends on speed sensing.
With change of time for the same turbine due to wear and tear, this value may change. Normally dead band is expected to be 0.06% of the rated
speed.
FIGURE IX/2-2 Turbine speed controller block diagram.

tracking integrator whose output rises with a gradient and is the measured variable). This arrangement is made because
finally equal to the input. The speed gradient is manually it is the best-suited one for the load sharing of various TG
set and passes through a minimum selector whose other sets connected in a common grid. During the initial running
input is from the TSE margin, which is actually modified at of the TG set, the starting time constant of the TG set as a
every instant depending on the condition of the turbine whole is the most important factor to consider. If the TG set
metal temperature. control is taken over by the power/load controller, the speed
This time-dependent speed set value at the time of start- controller will still be operating in parallel as a standby and
up is therefore the optimum speed by which the turbine can will activate when required.
speed up. The automatic speed setter takes the TG set from The speed controller, with the help of other inputs, is
barring speed to first-hold speed (w20% rated speed) for used to take command of the TG set at the following times:
the soaking process for a specified time and temperature
1. Start-up of the TG set
margin. Then the speed setter raises the speed close to rated
2. Synchronizing the generator with the grid
speed, and when the metal temperatures permit and
3. Operation of TG set at a minimum load if required, for
generator voltage is matched through the automatic voltage
example, house load, huge load shedding, etc.
regulator (AVR) with the grid voltage, the TG set is syn-
4. Operation of TG set throughout the 0e100% range of
chronized. The time-dependent, set value generator, how-
load if required and dictated by extraordinary situations
ever, also takes care of the time when the TG set passes
5. Taking charge of the valve lift control during over
through critical speed (w2800 rpm). At speeds more than
speeding when the value exceeds the limit
2850 rpm, if the “difference between speed reference value
6. Graceful shut down of the TG set
and time-dependent set value exceeds a specified limit” and
any of conditions take placedlike TSE is not available or For synchronizing the generator, the separate and
during start-up or reference speed is <50 rpm than actual standalone synchronizer provides the appropriate command
speed during transition period from electro hydraulic con- to the speed controller input so that the TG set can attain the
trols (EHC) to hydraulic controllerdthe integrating action synchronizing speed at the proper time and with proper
for the time-delayed set point would be blocked. speed as required by the machine (generator).
This optimum speed set value is then taken as the input The TG set may be needed to operate at the minimum
of the speed controller whose measured value is the load delivered by the generator. This may happen during
selected speed transmitter signal of an appropriate voting large load shedding, house load operation, or low load
circuit. The integrator is ON only when the TSE has a running, which is also called the idling mode of operation.
healthy signal. If the TSE goes wrong, the integrator is Particularly in the case of load shedding, the speed of the
disabled and can be enabled again after switching the TSE TG set will tend to rise immediately above the synchro-
OFF. Then the speed set point will change as per the nizing speed, but the speed controller will automatically
manual setter of the speed ramp value. take over the control and corrected output will bring back
A speed gradient monitor is introduced that takes input the TG set speed very close to the synchronizing speed. The
from the actual speed and calculates the real-time speed speed controller temporarily takes over control of the TG
gradient and feedback to the set point generator. This does set whenever rapid and/or large change in speed is
not allow the output to be less than the minimum set speed experienced.
gradient. The speed gradient of the speed set point value
passes between maximum and minimum speed gradient to
2.3.2 Turbine Load Control Loop
avoid the critical speed criteria.
A tracking device also is introduced for follow-up ac- Figure IX/2-3 shows how the turbine load is controlled
tion that takes input from the actual speed. When the tur- manually. The load or generator power set point may be
bine trips, the speed set point follows the actual speed manually adjusted or may be an automatic signal-generated
(minus w60 rpm) and when the load controller is in action, from the Load Dispatch Centre (LDC) or from Coordinated
it follows the actual speed plus 10% load proportionate Control System (CCS). The selected signal is passed
value (within a band of 60e120 rpm). During follow-up through a high/low selector so that the demand does not go
action, the reference set point cannot be raised if rate of beyond the operating capability of a particular individual
change of speed is less than a preset limiting value. The TG set. The LDC/CCS signal can be turned ON or OFF by
speed controller action is P þ D, that is, the output responds the operator. IF the LDC signal is unhealthy, this compo-
immediately with a derivative action after an error is sensed nent would automatically be switched OFF. In that event
and then comes back to a value proportional to the error at a the manual load set point would take over the control of the
predetermined slope. At a steady-state condition, the speed TG set. While the LDC/CCS signal is in command, manual
controller output signal will always be proportional to the load set point would act in standby mode continuously
error value (that is, the difference between the set value and matching with the LDC/CCS signal through a tracking
FIGURE IX/2-3 Turbine load controller block diagram.
circuit so that bumpless transfer is achieved. The selected switching the TSE OFF. If that happens, the load set point
output is then passed through a tracking integrator whose changes as per the manual setter of the load ramp value.
output rises with a gradient to finally equal the input. Just The integrator would also be OFF when the load reference
like the speed control loop, the load gradient can be signal has been raised and the pressure controller goes/
manually set and passes through a minimum selector whose switches to limit pressure mode.
other input is from the TSE margin, which is actually The final integrated set point signal continuously
modified at every instant depending on the condition of the tracks the actual power/load until the main generator
turbine metal temperature. circuit breaker (GCB) is OFF, that is, before synchroni-
Another component is added to this time-dependent zation at the time the speed controller is in command and
integrated signal, which is actually a proportional fraction ensures bumpless and smooth transfer from speed
of the selected load set point. The total sum thus obtained is controller to load controller during start-up after the GCB
the P þ I response, which behaves like a proportional is ON.
output when the change is small and P þ I when the change With this time-dependent load set value another signal is
is significantly high. The proportional component of this now added which represents the frequency-related (droop-
load set value may be adjustable when the range is between characterized) influence, which is actually a correction
5 and 25%. It may be switched OFF when it is required to required on the load set value as per the frequency versus
make the time-dependent load set value a purely ramp one. generator load/power delivered curve typical for each and
Here the integrator is only ON when the TSE has a healthy individual generator. The total summation now is the opti-
signal. If something goes wrong with the TSE, the inte- mum power/load demand, which takes care of the grid sta-
grator will be disabled and can be enabled again after bility and the same signal is sent to the boiler control loop.
The frequency influence proportional component is typically charge and load controller output and tracks to speed signal
adjusted between 2 and 8% in steps of 0e0.5%.The fre- in follow-up mode. If there is an isolated power grid con-
quency influence component is liable to be automatically dition when load control is in action, the controller will
disconnected if any fault condition arises or it can be automatically switch over to a P action output only with
switched OFF through manual intervention. However, with w5% droop characteristics. The selected load controller
introduction of free governor mode of operation, all units in a output then constitutes an input signal rather than a set
grid run under governor control without attaching any load point of the valve lift controller through a series of selection
restrictions, etc., to maintain grid frequency within a narrow procedures.
band and droop characteristics are restricted within 3e5%.
In the approved grid code (in some countries) it is mandatory 2.3.3 Turbine Pressure Control Loop
for each generator to have the capability of 105% maximum
continuous rating (MCR) capacity generation whenever the In this control loop configuration, both the measured vari-
situation demands. able and the set values are supplied by the boiler manu-
This power/load demand is allowed to be the set value facturer. The controller output is set for P þ I action and
for the controller if it’s value is less than the maximum operates the main steam valve lift controller via the same
permissible load. In other words, the above set point cannot series of selection criteria (see Figure IX/2-4).
be more than the manual TG set capability. The turbine inlet steam pressure control loop is mainly
To avoid any problems in operation during maximum operated with any one of the three operational modes
permissible load setting during TG operation with the load selected from the control desk by the operator, which
controller in action, a rate adjuster of maximum load limiter include the following:
settings is provided for conservative operation of the TG set 1. Initial pressure control
without stressing the turbine thermally and mechanically. 2. Limit pressure control
The maximum load limiter setting is sometimes made 3. Sliding or variable pressure control
motor operated to take care of emergency shut down of the
turbine. 2.3.3.1 Initial Pressure Control
The load/power controller gets its measured value from
In this mode of control, the controller action is P þ I and
the selected active power transmitter signal of an appro-
the actual main steam pressure at turbine inlet is the
priate voting circuit. The potential transformers (PTs) of the
measured variable and main steam pressure set point is
generator output voltage and current transformers of the
issued from the CCS (furnished by the boiler manufac-
generator output current are connected to the power trans-
turer). Here the power/load delivered by the TG set is
mitter measuring circuit.
dictated by the boiler up to a certain load level. In other
The power/load controller action is P þ I, that is, the
words, this is called a “turbine follow” mode, where the
output responds immediately with a proportional action for turbine is following the boiler running with some limitation
small changes integral for large changes and then comes
beyond which it cannot deliver the load.
back to a final value at a predetermined slope. At a steady-
state condition, the load/power controller output signal will
2.3.3.2 Limit Pressure Control
always be the value to maintain the zero error between the
set value and the measured variable value allowing exact This mode of operation is envisaged when a condition
maintenance of the required power/load. The starting time arises where there is pressure deviation between the actual
constant of the TG set as a whole is the most important main steam pressure at the turbine inlet and the main steam
factor to consider during the initial running period of the pressure set point exceeds a predetermined value of w10
TG set for proper speed controller tuning, whereas kg/cm2. With the help of this mode, the power/load
the transfer function of the generator and power grid is the controller takes care of the fast and small demands in load
most important criterion for proper load controller tuning. utilizing the boiler storage capacity. Here the boiler is
In case the TG set control is taken over by the power/load healthy to deliver any power/load within its full capacity;
controller, the speed controller still operates in parallel as this operational mode, though well thought of, is rare as the
on standby through suitable tracking circuits and activates healthy boiler with an appropriate automatic pressure
when required. A gradient monitoring device/software is control system normally is able to maintain the main steam
provided that blocks the power/load controller output in pressure within the desired low excursion.
case the real-time gradient exceeds the preset maximum
load gradient. This is done to arrest the tendency of the 2.3.3.3 Sliding or Variable Pressure Control
controller failure in the direction of 100% load. In this operational mode, the actual power/load signal, after
When the GCB is not ON or the GCB is ON and load necessary voting, is biased in such a way that the power/
shedding has taken place, the speed controller takes the load controller output is modified to demand maximum
FIGURE IX/2-4 Pressure controller and selection of control valve position demand block diagram.
MSCV opening. When the MSCV is full open, the turbine There is a maximum selector provided between the
has no control on the power/load delivered by the TG set; turbine speed controller and the turbine load controller.
rather the boiler determines the full power/load. Here the After the selection is done, the selected output is taken to a
throttling losses across the MSCV are reduced to zero minimum selector along with the pressure controller output.
thereby improving the overall efficiency, and the turbine The final selected output of the controllers is then brought
control becomes less stringent as temperature variations to the electro hydraulic converter for further selection with
occur less rapidly. other hydraulic signals.
2.4 Selection of Controller Outputs 2.5 Selection of Hydraulic Signals

The response of the electronic turbine speed controller, The output from the electro hydraulic converter is the
turbine load controller, and turbine pressure controller is normal commanding signal, but a purely hydraulic speed
very fast compared with the hydraulically operated MSCV. controller is provided as a back-up. A separate hydraulic
An interface called a valve lift controller or position controller as a start-up device is also provided for initiating
controller has been introduced in between the selection unit the opening signal for the main steam stop valve (MSSV).
of the final control element of these three controllers to The above hydraulic signals of the hydraulic speed
provide the necessary thrust required by the actuator of the controller and start-up devices pass through a minimum
MSCV. selector and then again the minimum selected signal and
All three controllers running simultaneously are on the electro hydraulic converter signals are selected to
standby mode, except the one that is in command after the operate the MSCV. The start-up device of the hydraulic
selection. The controllers on standby mode continuously controller output is kept high when MSSVs are opened.
track their output with the output of the controller in Hydraulic signals of the hydraulic speed controller output is
command to provide a bumpless and procedureless transfer also kept high so that hydraulic signals of the EHC take the
during changeover of the controllers. command.
The electro hydraulic converter and hydraulic amplifier (item no. 2; moving up and down as per control signal),
are connected to a set of follow-up piston valves to which pilot valve (item no. 3), spring (item no. 4), power piston
trip oil is supplied through the restriction orifice and it (item no. 5), and position transmitter (item no. 12).
flows in the secondary oil piping to control valves. The Figure IX/2-5 (left side) is applicable for compara-
secondary oil pressure depends on the position of sleeves of tively smaller units up to w210 MW. The plunger coil
the follow-up piston valves, which determines the amount current value determines the vertical position of the
of trip oil drainage. control sleeve, which in turn dictates the drain cross-
sectional area of control oil. The change in drain area
2.6 Functional Description of Electro determines the control oil pressure acting on the pilot
valve, which will move upward or downward allowing
Hydraulic Converter power oil to enter one chamber of the power piston while
The electro hydraulic converter is not just a signal converter the other chamber of the piston opens the drain passage.
that has an electrical signal input and a hydraulic signal The power piston continues to move as long as the pilot
output. It is the interface between the selected controller’s valve stops the above action. The balanced condition is
output and the MSCV actuator directly with suitable restored by the position feedback system (item no. 7),
power-handling capacity as desired. See Figure IX/2-5 for which pushes or pulls the pilot valve along with the
the functional description. spring in the opposite direction so that the pilot valve
The electro hydraulic converter constitutes items such blocks both the entry and drain passage to the power
as an electromagnetic plunger coil (item no. 1; getting piston that has already moved to its new position. In the
signal from the selected controllers output), control sleeve steady-state condition, the force balance is achieved
FIGURE IX/2-5 Schematic diagram of electro hydraulic converter.

through the force acting on the pilot valve (determined by 2.6.1 Starting of Control by EHC
the control oil pressure on the pilot valve multiplied by
First, the electronic controller output signal is kept low,
the actual effective area of the pilot valve) and the force
which is a high current signal (as per design), to go to the
offered by the compression spring.
electro hydraulic converter plunger coil. This enables the
The control oil pressure is a variable one depending
control sleeve to move upward and as per the strength of
upon two components, of which one is the output of the
the signal it will rest at any intermediate position. Further
hydraulic speed controller entering the inlet (item no. 8).
lowering of the electro hydraulic converter at its minimum
The other component is the drain cross-sectional area be-
value means the maximum current to the plunger coil, and
tween the spool of the pilot valve and position of the
by this the control sleeve, achieves the top position and the
control sleeve as allowed by the plunger coil energized with
drain cross-sectional area between control sleeve and the
the selected electronic controller.
pilot valve becomes maximum. At this position the oil
It is therefore evident that the electro hydraulic con-
pressure sent by hydraulic speed controller is disturbed due
verter plays such an important role that it provides the
to the wide drainage area. Now this hydraulic speed
interface between the hydraulic and EHC at the inlet stage
controller oil pressure is raised to a sufficiently high value
of the device with a built-in minimum selector. The TG set
so that EHC output, if it starts increasing or decreasing the
automatic control has been developed with the idea that the
current value, above the drain area will also decrease and
leading control action is accomplished by the EHC and the
opening of the MSCV will commence. The entire range of
back-up support is provided by the hydraulic speed
EHC output will then control the entire range of opening/
controller.
closing of the MSCV.
Figure IX/2-5 (right side) is applicable for larger units
>210 MW. Here the “trip oil” is used to move the pilot
valve spool at the bottom in place of “secondary oil,”
2.6.2 Starting of Control by Hydraulic
which represents the hydraulic governor output. Just like Controller
the above system, the pilot valve spool is at the central To achieve entire control by hydraulic controller, EHC
position under steady-state condition. In the deflected po- output is kept at maximum value, which means no current
sition, the control oil is admitted above or below the power to the plunger coil. The control sleeves slip to the lowest
piston, the motion of which is transmitted via a lever and position allowing no drain passage, and the oil pressure
cam shaft to sleeves of follow-up pistons to change the from the hydraulic controller acting on the pilot valve
secondary oil pressure. becomes maximum. With EHC output at maximum value,
Another significant modification is introduction of the the hydraulic controller output may be varied to control
electronic “admission controller” (PID), also referred to as the entire range of opening/closing of the MSCV. In this
position controller for proper positioning of the pilot valve mode of operation, with total closing of the control oil
spool. The EHC output serves as a set point, whereas the drain, the movement of the pilot valve with a power piston
actual position of the power piston taken from two differ- is the function of the hydraulic controller output oil
ential transformers acts as a measured variable and the pressure.
controller output operates the plunger coil and regulates the
oil drains of the HP/intermediate-pressure check valves 2.7 Operational Mode of the Electro
(IPCVs). The current to the plunger coil is increased to close
the HP/IPCVs. The reference signal thus works in a reverse
Hydraulic Converter
manner. 2.7.1 Start-Up and Synchronization
Drain port opening of the follow-up piston depends on
the pilot spool valve of the EHC output and determines the As already described in Clause 2.5, the start-up device of
related secondary oil pressure. The drain port openings of hydraulic controller output is kept high when MSSVs are
follow-up pistons of hydraulic governors depend on opened, and hydraulic signal of the hydraulic speed
auxiliary secondary oil pressure, upstream auxiliary follow- controller output is also kept high at that time. Note that the
up pistons (due to action/position of speeder gear), and TG set has already started rolling by the turning gear at a
determine its related secondary oil pressure. The follow-up lower speed and sensed by the speed sensor. From this
piston valves constitute a minimum value gate for the point, the speed set point is raised manually by using the
output of both governors. This means the governor with the electronic speed controller. By increasing the speed of the
lower reference set point is effectively in control. This is TG set, as per TSE guidance, and minimum and maximum
also called hydraulic minimum selection of governors speed gradient to take care of the critical speed or kink
(applicable for bigger systems and that of the electro hy- speed criteria of the whole set, the TG set is raised to the
draulic converter). rated speed before synchronizing with the external power
grid. The synchronization is done with the help of a sepa- turbine instantaneously to protect it from an extremely
rate synchronizing device dedicated for this purpose only. dangerous operating condition or serious damage.
Turbine tripping actually means total and immediate
2.7.2 On Load and House Load Operation shut off (typical time is 0.3 sec for a large turbine) of all
steam valves responsible for steam admission to the turbine
Just after synchronization of the TG set, the power/load
internal components, and a failure or delay in executing that
controller takes the command of the TG set by increasing
action in the event any of the catastrophic conditions may
its output manually or automatically from the power grid
cause extensive damage to various components of the plant.
controller or LDC. After the power/load controller is in
Fixing this damage may either be expensive or need pro-
total control, the speed controller output signal is made to longed repair time or both meaning high cost. Thus, it is
match with the power/load controller output as a standby
necessary that the protection system must be capable of
controller. This standby mode is continued from full load
responding at the fastest rate possible to every catastrophic
operation up to house/station load operation. When there is
condition.
a sudden operation of a load-shedding relay, the loaded TG
Turbine protection, or to be more accurate, turbo
set is abruptly separated from the power grid. The power/
generator protection, means that the turbine should always
load controller output is reduced to minimum as there is no
be given safe passage in the event of any untoward situation
demand from the grid and the speed controller subsequently
at any time during start-up or shut down and loading or
takes charge of the TG set to provide house/station load unloading conditions. The actions include tripping and
through the minimum selector. During the house/station
post-tripping measures and limited occurrence of associated
load operation of the TG set, the speed controller almost
systems’ failure.
maintains the rated speed as it is meant for maintaining the
The protective devices are designed and selected in such
rated speed at house/station load during the start-up of the
a way that whenever the turbine protection system senses a
TG set operation under load up to the beginning of full load
dangerous condition, it automatically reacts to stop the
operation.
danger condition within the fastest time possible.
The mechanical and electronic trip mechanisms are the
2.7.3 Shut-Down Operation last line of defense for protecting the steam turbine. The
In this mode of operation, the shut-down procedure of the devices deployed for protection implementation must be
TG set calls for a power/load controller output set to zero. absolutely reliable and foolproof so that the duty imposed
From the minimum selector, the speed controller is in on them can be carried out in time of need only eliminating
command and the power/load controller is switched OFF; in any possibility of spurious operation. One way to
other words, it is disconnected from the grid. The speed set check their readiness is by using the ATT as described in
value then may be reduced by decreasing the house or sta- Clause 5. The operating description of the protective de-
tion load gradually to zero. Finally, the speed of the TG set vices is also described in Clause 5 as they are related to the
is gradually reduced to zero for initiating plant shut down. ATT. It is immensely important to avoid spurious tripping
and that the measurement of the ATT values are accurate
along with the system processing them. If there is emer-
3. TURBINE PROTECTION SYSTEM gency tripping, the redundancy with proper design and
number must be considered. Figure IX/3-1 is an example of
3.0 General Introduction a turbo generator protection system.
There are various conditions that may take place any Some protective devices are categorized as “passive
moment during the operation of a thermal power plant that protective devices.” They receive signals from sensors of a
demand an immediate and emergency shut down or “trip- “not so critical nature” and initiate prevention of further
ping” of the turbine. A few examples include low-bearing operation from start-up to graceful shut down. For example,
oil pressure causing serious malfunction and wear and if any of the start-permissive signals of a particular step
tear of the turbine bearings; a very low/inadequate goes wrong, the operation will not be allowed to proceed
condenser vacuum may cause overheating of turbine blades further. These are taken care of in the start-up/shut-down
located near the last row; excessive loss of metal or wearing procedure logic.
of the thrust-bearing results in axial movement of the tur- The protective devices, which receive signals from
bine causing misalignment of the rotating blades, which sensors responsible for turbine tripping signals, are popu-
may cause catastrophic/excessive damage to the turbine larly called “active protective devices.” In case of an
internals; a loss of electrical load causing a dangerous over abnormal situation the active protective device, excited
speed condition; or other critical conditions may occur from the tripping signals, may initiate either opening/clos-
necessitating emergency shut down or tripping of the ing or starting/stopping of some areas to arrest the
FIGURE IX/3-1 Schematic diagram of TG protection system.
unwanted deviation or may trip the whole turbo generator 11. High medium pressure wall (mid and inner) differential
unit depending on the severity of the situation. temperature
12. High ESV wall (mid and inner) differential temperature
3.1 Turbine Tripping Input Signals 13. Excessive differential expansion
14. Excessive bearing housing vibration
These following signals (typical only) will trip the whole
15. Very low steam temperature
turbo generator unit through active protective devices (see
16. Emergency hand tripping [both from remote (electri-
Figure IX/3-2):
cal) as well as from local hand trip lever (hydraulic)]
1. TG set over speed (normally in duplicate for a hydrau- 17. Generator protection operated as listed below.
lic type; in case in case of electrical systems it is
Tripping of equipment is carried out mainly in three
through a complex voting circuit, as discussed in
classes, A, B, and C, as per their severity in spreading and
Chapter V)
damaging. Of these three, Class C is only related to
2. Thrust-bearing limit position (both hydraulic and
generator protection so it is not detailed in this clause.
electrical)
3. Very low condenser vacuum (both hydraulic and A. Class A protection: Simultaneous tripping of the turbine
electrical) and generator take places if any one of the following
4. Very low lube oil pressure signals (typical) occurs:
5. Trip command from ATRS (during shut-down a. Generator reverse power relay operated
operation) b. Generator loss of excitation with under voltage
6. Very low main oil tank level c. Generator stator earth fault
7. Boiler tripped d. Generator rotor earth fault
8. High bearing temperature e. Generator over voltage
9. High top and bottom casing temperature f. Generator stator inter turn fault
10. High HP wall (mid and inner) differential temperature g. Generator differential
FIGURE IX/3-2 Typical steam turbine protection scheme.
h. Generator negative sequence b. Generator rotor single earth fault second stage
i. Generator distance back-up c. Generator over fluxing
j. Generator pole slipping d. Generator stator earth fault in the range of 0e5%)
k. Generator and generator transformer overall e. Generator stator winding distillate flow
differential f. Very high generator distillate conductivity
l. Generator transformer high-voltage (HV) side over g. Very high generator transformer winding
current temperature
m. Generator transformer restricted earth fault h. Very high generator transformer oil temperature
n. Generator transformer standby earth fault i. Unit transformer LV-side voltage operated earth
o. Generator transformer fire protection fault
p. Generator transformer Buchholz relay j. Very high unit transformer oil temperature
q. Unit transformer differential k. Very high unit transformer winding temperature
r. Unit transformer instantaneous and inverse definite
minimum time over current Out of the above tripping signals, the first three
s. Unit transformer low-voltage (LV)-side earth fault signalsdTG set over speed, thrust-bearing limit position,
t. Unit transformer fire protection and very low condenser vacuumdare normally received
u. Unit transformer Buchholz relay through mechanical/hydraulic active protective devices
B. Class B protection: Instantaneous tripping of turbine acting on the tripping circuit (hydraulic trip gear) in addi-
and generator; tripping (GCB opens) takes place after tion to parallel electronic/electrical tripping. Moreover,
“low forward or reverse power relay operated” (with redundant over speed tripping sensors are taken through
“‘AND” logic) if any one of the following signals complex voting logic, as detailed in Chapter V, Clause 2.0,
(typical) occur: for extra precautionary measures. An electronic system
a. Generator loss of excitation measures pulses from a toothed wheel on the turbine shaft
and counts those pulses through a frequency to voltage 3.3 Unit Protection
converter.
Tripping signals 6e11 are all thermal or mechanical This is the coordinated and integrated protection of indi-
parameters measured through electrical transducers and vidual boiler, turbine, and generator. The provision of HP/
are processed in an electrical protection circuit supplied LP bypass has added flexibility in unit operation by
with 220 V DC, which is still regarded as the most reliable decoupling the boiler and turbine in case of turbine trip-
source backed by a battery array. If any signals from these ping. The inter-relationships are indicated below:
parameters is activated, the trip solenoid valve(s) is 1. Boiler trip due to its own protection and some other
actuated, which in turn drain(s) the power oil responsible important tripping signals would cause tripping of
for keeping the main governing valves and stop valves both the turbine and generator; this is a Class U trip.
open. 2. Turbine trip due to its own protection would cause trip-
The tripping systems for TG set over speed, thrust- ping of the generator through low forward or reverse
bearing limit position, very low condenser vacuum, and power relay but no command to trip the boiler.
common electrical and emergency hand tripping are 3. Generator trip under Classes A and B would act as
described in detail in Clause 5, which also includes the already indicated above.
corresponding trip testing systems. 4. Class C generator trip would not cause turbine or boiler
Modern electronic trip systems are strongly preferred tripping; turbine may become stabilized due to the “load
by some manufacturers who adopt highly reliable voting shedding relay/governing system.” Boiler may cut back
circuits for higher “tripping speed” units. The spring- one or more mills and would dump extra steam to
loaded trip bolt/plunger may behave in an unstable condenser via the HP/LP bypass.
manner at higher trip speeds and requires separate hy-
draulic relay valves, which use hydraulic fluid in long
piping runs. The direct mechanical system requires extra
4. ATRS
shaft overhangs, which may be detrimental to vibration at Modern power plants are becoming larger in size, espe-
higher speeds. However, even now manufacturers still use cially with super ultra supercritical plants, to cope with
hydraulic systems as the last resort in case of power loss/ increasing power demands and at the same time reduction
wire snapping. of costs. Any delay in starting time creates less revenue and
The main advantages of the electronic system are high will never be accepted by modern day operation practice
accuracy and repeatability, fastest response, high flexibility code. To reduce starting time (with shut down as well) and
from adjustability, higher reliability through voting logic, eliminate human error, the ATRS was developed (see
and a testing facility with or without running the machine. Figure IX/4-1).
It may be noted that many uncontrolled over speed events The entire plant is grouped in relation to a particular
are the result of valves failing to close, even when the over functional requirement or subsystem. The main system
speed trip device operates. Further, nearly all uncontrolled identifies each subgroup with various subgroups consisting
over speed failures are catastrophic, resulting in blade of drives or devices to respond in a timely manner
failures, shaft breakage, and retaining ring bursts. In case of according to the program logic (by hardware or software).
turbine tripping the following typical actions are required to There may be some variations in features of this system
be performed: with different manufacturers but the basic control philos-
ophy and aim of the controls are the same. In view of this,
1. Immediate closing of the ESVs and HP control valves
an abridged discussion is presented here based on one of
(HPCVs)
the most reputed and popular steam turbine manufacturers
2. Immediate closing of the reheat inlet valves
in Europe.
3. Immediate closing of the nonreturn valves in extraction
lines
4.1 Subgroups Involved in Automatic
3.2 Generator Protection
Run Up
There is also a Class C type of generator protection (and
There is a number of subgroups connected to the automatic
also a Class E type envisaged by some manufacturers) and
run up systems including:
“manual trip,” which are meant for generator tripping only.
Class C protection is mainly for the faults beyond the 1. Turbine HP control fluid subgroup for the LPBP
generator transformer and HV circuit breaker and includes system
fault of the grid and bus bar, GCB pole discrepancies, and 2. Turbine HP control fluid subgroup for main valves
manual tripping. Class E protection is related to GCB (Above two systems also may be combined)
failure. 3. Turbine control oil subgroup
FIGURE IX/4-1 Typical ATRS scheme.
4. Condenser evacuation and gland seal subgroup section and its exhaust is directly sent to a low-pressure
5. Turbine control subgroup (warm up, start-up, loading, turbine (LPT) section before finally exhausting to the
unloading, and shut down) condenser. Although the steam sections are different, the
rotor shaft is common to them all with a series of (moving)
In some plants, the generator exciter subgroup is also
blades arranged to rotate inside an axial bore, which passes
included for better coordination.
centrally through the turbine casing with (fixed) blades. The
The basic function of ATRS is to reduce the starting
rotation of the rotor shaft is achieved by passage of steam
time in the most optimum way. To accomplish the function,
from fixed blade to moving blades. The rotor of the
certain operations are performed in an overlapping way, for
generator, which is firmly fixed to the rotor, normally is
example, admission of main steam into the steam chest and
cooled by hydrogen gas. A steam chest on both the right
a time period for warming up, maintaining the exact TG set
and left sides of the turbine includes ESVs and HPCVs for
speed for efficient soaking and speeding up of TG shaft
controlling the steam to be admitted to the HPT.
running through critical speeds, and shortening of vibration
run up.
4.3 Warm-Up Process
4.2 TG system The huge and thick metal mass of the steam chest as well as
As already described in several clauses in Chapters 2 and 3, the TG set rotor shaft must be brought to operating tem-
the turbine of the modern large thermal power stations must perature as quickly as possible before the main steam at
include a high-pressure turbine (HPT) section fed with high pressure and high temperature from the boiler can be
main steam from the boiler. HPT exhaust steam is called admitted into the steam chest. As steam with very high
cold reheat (CRH) steam, because it gets reheated in the pressure and temperature is to flow through the turbine to
boiler and becomes hot reheat (HRH) steam. It is then re- ultimately generate electrical power output, it is extremely
admitted into the intermediate pressure turbine (IPT) important the thermal stresses are kept under normal value
during start-up and normal operation. The start-up proce- During the turbine start-up, the steam flow and the heat
dure is more important as hot steam would stress the cold transfer coefficient are very low. Therefore, the rotor tem-
and thick turbine metals during initial entry of steam. peratures increase slowly and when, after a certain period
of time, the HP valves are opened more rapidly, the rotor
surface temperature travels nearer to both the HPT inlet and
4.4 Start-Up and Thermal Stress
first (impulse) stage outlet and steam temperature. At the
As steam with very high pressure and temperature passes end of the transient period, all temperatures are equal, since
through the turbine to receive power output, it is very there is no steady-state heat flow. After the heating ramp,
important that the thermal stresses are kept under normal the period is called heat soaking, which means the heating
value during start-up and normal operation. The start-up is continued for that period of time unless the desired
procedure is very important as hot steam would stress the temperature is achieved.
cold turbine metals during initial entry of steam, as detailed This is done to reduce the thermal stress peak by
out in Clause 6. reducing the thermal shock before the very beginning of the
After many years of close observation, it was found that steam turbine load pick-up. This can be obtained by
a set of particular initial steam temperatures with optimally allowing for a longer soak time for the turbine, i.e., once the
regulated flow rates passed through for a well-judged turbine has reached full speed it is kept running without
duration of time, which would enable the shortest period taking any load so that the steam flow can heat up the rotor
of time to start up the turbine and maintain thermal stress a little bit more. The turbine start-up is therefore initiated
within the permissive limit. This procedure of steam earlier than normal start-up transient, and the turbine is kept
admission, especially in the primary stage, is extremely idling for w1 hour.
necessary and important and is guided by the TSE by The load pick-up phase is then started, and the rate of
imposing upper and lower margin limits for the start-up load change is steered to get a flat stress curve. After a
operation. Any wrong step could lessen the life expec- desired load level is achieved, the rate of change is
tancy of the steam turbine and affect the start-up time of the increased to the maximum allowable level. Here, two
plant. thermal stress peaks are observed and each of them con-
The start-up procedure consists of cold start-up and hot tributes fatigue and thereby lifetime consumption. If the
start-up. Cold start-up is most important as the temperature peak values are analyzed then, it can be seen that the first
difference is the maximum during the first admission of peak value may be slightly higher than the elastic limit, and
steam and must be handled carefully to avoid reduction in thus correspond to a very low additional lifetime con-
plant life expectancy. sumption. The second peak is higher than the first peak,
As the name implies, the cold start-up of a TG set is however, still well below the previous standard start-up
applicable when the set is going to be started after a very value. The start-up time is also reduced by considerable
long period of shut down with turbine case, chest, valves, value from fuel savings.
and rotor literally cold with temperatures around the When the heating is completed the turbine can be
ambient condition. The temperature rise (heating ramps) started under close supervision of the differential expan-
must be controlled (by controlling steam flow rate and sion measurements and when the unit can be synchro-
quantity by experiencing minimum thermal stresses on the nized (usually at a speeds of 3000 rpm, which is called the
turbine metal, especially of thick components like the steam synchronizing speed). After the unit is synchronized, then
turbine shafts). It is also important to avoid high differential the TG can be loaded according to the related load ramp
expansion between rotor and stator case, which could cause (MW/min). The conventional system available requires
contact between them because of their different thermal that the steam chest be sufficiently warm before trans-
inertias. The most critical part of the plant as far as thermal ferring control of steam flow from the MSSV bypass
stresses are concerned, is the turbine shaft in contact with valves to the governor valves. If the steam chest metal
the highest temperature steam, i.e., downstream the first temperature is less than the steam saturation temperature
stage of the turbine. The start-up control system must, at existing pressure, then the transfer is delayed to allow
therefore, be capable of keeping the controlled variables the steam chest to heat up more. The improved method
within the safe allowable limits. The “turbine control” suggested that the start-up sequence can be squeezed by
subgroup contains a “sub loop control” of “warming up shortening the steam chest warm-up process through
main steam lines” and takes care of controlled heating of lowering the governor valves to maintain rolling speed
the pipes, components, etc., up to the inlet of HPCVs. and opening the MSSV bypass valves to the full stroke,
Subgroup “turbine control” then takes care of the rest of the thereby overlapping the MSSV and governor valve HPCV
controlled heating activities and the turbine load control control mode to partially pressurize the steam chest and
afterward. allow more steam to flow in.
4.5 Sequential Operation of the Subgroups only one runs during normal operation of the TG set. For a
for ATRS system with air ejectors, there is one “starting air ejector”
for the start-up purpose and running air ejectors for the
4.5.1 Turbine Oil Supply normal operation.
This system provides pumping, bearing lubricating/cooling, Once the ON command is initiated, the sequence for
jacking/lifting oil, turning gear operation, and vapor systems with a vacuum pump and systems with air ejec-
extraction of the system and control fluid. After getting the tions starts like the following:
ON command, the following sequence starts: For systems a with vacuum pump:
1. The AC auxiliary oil pumps (AOPs) and DC emergency 1. Both vacuum pumps start and when the vacuum ex-
oil pumps (EOPs) start at a per oil pressure setting and ceeds the preset value, one pump will be on the shut-
stop at a per pressure setting when the shaft-driven main down program as per selection with the other pump
oil pump (MOP) starts functioning. running. For a low vacuum condition, the second
2. The temperature control loop for the turbine-bearing pump will start to maintain the vacuum and will
lube oil is activated and run continuously as long as stop again at the preset exceeded value of vacuum.
the turbine keeps running. 2. The associated cooling water supply valve opens
3. Jacking oil pump (JOP) inlet valve is opened during whenever any vacuum pump starts.
start-up and the JOP is started manually and then the 3. The associated air-extraction valve opens whenever
SLC of all JOPs are turned ON. The valve closes and good running condition of the vacuum pump is
the JOP stops when the TG set attains a sufficient speed established.
of >540 rpm (typically) to ensure adequate bearing lube 4. The vacuum breaker valve closes.
oil. During turbine operation, the selected JOP(s) start 5. Warm-up system starts for the gland steam line in as-
(and valve opens) automatically if speed falls below sociation with the steam supply valve drain valve.
500 rpm (typically). 6. If the warm-up condition is established and the vac-
4. Hydraulic turbine mechanism for shaft-turning gear uum has reached a preset value, the seal steam con-
starts when its inlet valve opens. The preconditions trol valve will be released for gland steam start-up
required are hydrogen pressure, seal oil hydrogen DP pressure control and the gland steam cooler
is adequate, SLC is ON, and JOP is adequate at >130 exhauster will be switched on.
bar (typically). During turbine operation, the turning For systems with air ejectors:
gear starts (and valve opens) automatically if speed falls 1. To start the air ejector, the auxiliary steam supply
below 200 rpm (typically). The system will close auto- isolation valve opens with the start-up pressure con-
matically when the TG set begins to be driven by the trol valve crack open for the initial line warm up.
steam, that is, the speed is typically >250 rpm 2. If warm-up condition is established, the start-up
(typically). pressure control valve will be released to auto
control.
When the system gets the shut-down command, the 3. The vacuum breaker valve closes.
following actions are taken. The selected JOP(s) start (and 4. When TG set load is established, the start-up isola-
valve opens) when speed falls below 500 rpm. Turning- tion valve will be closed and the selected normal
gear system inlet valve will be open so that the system is ejector isolation valve will open and the associated
ON immediately when the turbine speed comes down to control valve will be released to auto control.
w200 rpm during coasting down. It will stop operating
automatically when the casing temperature settings permit The rest of the sequence is the same as the vacuum
it to do so. AOPs will again start and stop as per their pump system.
pressure setting and shut-down command. When the system gets a shut-down command, the
following action is taken:
4.5.2 Condensing System 1. The vacuum breaker valve opens.
2. Gland seal leak off pressure control valve closes.
The “condensing system” covers the drives and/or devices
3. Main air ejector(s) stop or the vacuum pump stops and
required for extraction of air and noncondensing particles
associated isolation valves close.
from the condenser-associated systems, a vacuum breaker
valve, and gland sealing system for the turbine shaft. The
4.5.3 Turbine Control
air-extraction function can be achieved by vacuum pumps
or steam air ejectors. Both vacuum pumps (normally two) The turbine control subgroup covers the functional re-
usually run during start-up and emergency conditions and quirements of the automatic run up systems and the
loading and run down systems of the TG set as well. The turbine with all its associated accessories is adequately
run up system includes the warm-up function of the soaked with heat transmitted by the main steam.
remaining part of the TG set and then controlled speeding As a next step, the generator’s AVR is switched on
up through different stages up to the synchronizing speed. when the TG MOP assumes the charge of total oil supply as
The complete operation of the turbine control system is the turbine is running at rated speed. The AVR is then set at
achieved through the TSE and the EHG system along its rated value and the generator is excited.
with speed, generator output/load controller, and pressure After receiving confirmatory signals from the above
controller (for special purposes). Once the ON command commands, the generator is synchronized by the auto
is initiated, the sequence follows these steps: synchronizer device and switched on with the help of the
GCB to the external power grid. No sooner than the
1. First, open the ESV with a hydraulically operated
generator is synchronized, a certain minimum amount of
starting device. The ESV is the first step to allow
power is delivered to the grid. The speed set value is then
the admission of live steam into the turbine. The
raised in stages and if generator output is more than a
following start-permissive signals are verified for
minimum value of w5%, the main steam pressure
availability:
controller is switched on to the limit pressure control.
a. Turbine is running (on turning/barring gear speed)
When the system gets the shut-down command, either
b. Differential temperatures between top and bottom
manually or automatically, and when a protective tripping
section of both HPT and IPT casings are below the
action is initiated and closing command of ESV has already
preset permissible values.
been issued, it will take the following actions:
c. The condenser vacuum is well established above the
preset value. 1. The TG set is unloaded by lowering the load set value
d. Condensate transfer subgroup and turbine oil supply 20e25% and then it automatically switches OFF.
subgroups are established. 2. The remaining unloading action is accomplished by
e. MSSV must be closed. reducing the speed set point of the speed controller.
f. Steam parameters are suitable before MSSV. 3. The GCB is opened by energizing the tripping circuit
g. Steam generator with firing system in well- with the help of reverse power protection logic.
established condition. 4. For the next restart, the necessary plant conditions are
h. Turbine drains are operating as desired (discussed ascertained as a last step of the shut-down program.
later).
2. The speed set point is increased to warm-up speed (or 4.5.3.1 Turbine Warm Up and Drain Control
the first hold speed for heat soaking) provided the
Turbine subgroup activates the warm-up controller to ensure
following permissive signals are available (a time delay
a smooth and safe warm up of the ESVs and HPCV turbine as
is introduced to make the system get ready):
permitted by the TSE. The automatic drain control forms a
a. Steam parameters are suitable before MSSV.
separate sub loop control with all the drains hooked up and
b. Steam parameters before ESV are suitable for admis-
does not follow any sequence. According to the operational
sion to turbine.
philosophy, the drain valves can open or close any time
c. Hydrogen (generator rotor coolant) temperature con- depending on the parameter operating status of the plant
trol is ready.
without any bearing with the load, speed, or time. Depending
d. Turbine seal steam pressure control system is in
on the relative importance and significance of various drain
operation.
valves, the criterion (mainly temperatures of relevant points)
e. Turbine oil temperature control system is in
for opening/closing of each individual drain valve is defined
operation.
and suitable logic built in to ensure safe operation. After the
f. Generator seal oil supply is made available.
warm up of the ESV and CV of the HPT, the ATRS admits
g. The starting device and speed changer are 100%
steam into the turbine to roll it.
positioned. After sufficient warming up with other permissive
Upon availability of these start-permissive signals, the criteria, the ATRS takes the turbine from the barring speed
speed set point controller would raise, as guided by the to the first hold speed (nearly 20% of the rated speed) with
TSE, the set point to “soaking up” speed for the speed the acceleration controlled by the TSE/turbine stress control
controller, which will dictate the rate of steam flow by system to prevent components from overstressing. The
positioning the HPCV-required steam flow. ATRS ensures a definite hold for soaking of turbine inter-
For a cold start, a certain amount of time delay is nally at this speed for a specified period if the HP metal
introduced after the TG set has reached its warm-up speed temperature is less than 250 C, otherwise the hold period is
and then the speed set point controller will raise, as guided determined by the time it takes for temperature margins of
by the TSE, the set point to the rated speed when the the TSE to be within permissible limits.
Once the desired thermal soaking of the components pumps are controlled by automatic start and stop (sub loop
and process requirements is complete, the turbine control controller) logic to maintain the pressure and flow as
raises the speed of the set to rated value with the guidance required by the TG system.
of the TSE by controlled acceleration, except for the time The subgroup gets “start-up operation” unit coordinated
when the rotor crosses the critical speed region. command when LPBP operation is about to start after the
After attaining a speed near synchronous speed (w2950 condenser vacuum has attained more than the preset value
rpm) with sufficient available temperature, the TG set is and/or ESV is about to get the open command. The
synchronized with the grid. For the saturated steam turbine, sequence follows this order after the ON command is
drain automatic control is accomplished by sensing level in initiated:
the drain loops.
1. The selected FRF pump will start.
4.5.4 Control Oil Supply 2. For 3 50% FRF pump selection, the second pump as
selected will start as per the unit load demand of main-
With the advent of using very high pressure oil as control taining pressure and flow.
oil for operating the hydraulic actuators of LP bypass 3. The FRF control oil temperature control is released for
valves, ESVs, HPCVs, etc., a separate independent sub- auto operation.
group control has been envisaged. The type of oil used is a 4. The circulating pump will cut in to ensure continuous
nonflammable fluid or a fire retardant fluid (FRF). The fluid filtration no sooner than the temperature has attained
known as “phosphate ester” is the FRF currently used in a the preset operating value.
majority of applications. This fluid provides excellent hy-
draulic capabilities and good fire-resistant characteristics. When the subgroup gets the shut-down command, the
However, some typical problems were encountered in using shutting down process starts after the LPBP operation has
phosphate ester over time including: completed the shut-down operation. When the system gets
the shut-down command, it takes the following action:
1. High water levels from 1. The circulating pump stops.
a. Moisture in the air breathed by the reservoir 2. The temperature controller is OFF.
b. Condensation formation inside the reservoir caused 3. The FRF pumps begin to stop as per selection.
by rapid fluid temperature changes
2. High acid levels in the fluid due to formation of phos-
4.5.5 HP Control Fluid Supply
phoric acids
3. Gel and varnish formation throughout the system; gels This subgroup controls the HP control fluid (HPCF) pumps,
can ultimately change to a varnish HPCF heating, HPCF recirculation pumps, and HPCF
4. Low electrical resistivity of the fluid temperature control valve. Both CF pumps get switched
ON through the SLC. The standby pump starts if the
Recently some alternative fluids were introduced as
running pump fails to develop the required pressure. The
replacements for the existing FRF fluids. These fluids are
required CF pressure enables SLC heating ON and starts
approved as FRFs by the Factory Mutual (the certifying the CF circulation pump, which feeds the regeneration
agency for insurance companies).
circuit. Temperature control valve is put in auto mode to
The replacement fluids do not create the harmful
regulate the temperature. CF temperature in the tank is
phosphoric acids like the existing fluids so they do not
maintained at w56 C by the CF heater ON/OFF control.
require the use of acid control filters. Replacement of the
The heater switches OFF automatically if CF temperature
FRF fluids with these alternate fluids not only eliminates
exceeds 65 C.
the problems and environmental hazards inherent with
In the shut-down program, all the oil pumps are
handling phosphate ester fluids, but it also eliminates the
switched OFF and an SLC CF pump is also turned OFF.
much larger problem of gel and varnish formation. SLC heating is kept on to maintain the temperature required
The replacement fluids lubricate better than the existing
for the next start-up and can be manually switched OFF, if
FRF fluids. If the fluid remains clean it helps prolong the
required.
life of most components in the hydraulic fluid system. The
replacement fluids also have higher viscosity indices, which
allow them to operate over a wider temperature range. 5. ATT SYSTEM
The basic components of the control oil supply sub-
5.0 Testing Process by ATT Systems
group include (2 100% or 3 50%) control oil FRF
pumps, one circulating pump for fluid transferring to the The ATT systems enables online testing of all the important
filters, and temperature control systems with heaters and drives (ESVs/HPCVs) or trip devices required for safe
coolers for maintaining the requisite temperature. The FRF operation and emergency tripping of a TG. In other words,
all the protective equipment required for TG safety is tested tests for a particular device can be done by proper selection.
automatically with uninterrupted normal operation without Due to limited scope, control philosophy of only one
jeopardizing the individual protection assignment bestowed reputed manufacturer (KWU) is discussed so that the reader
on each protective device while running test procedures. becomes familiar with the basic idea of this type of control.
The mechanical or electronic turbine trip mechanisms are
the ultimate line of defense for protecting the steam turbine
5.1 Scope of ATT
and need to be available when required. However, testing is
permitted only under specified conditions, such as health- ATT covers the following items:
iness of a substitute device, no trip conditions exist for 1. TG set over speed trip (mechanical)
turbine, etc.
2. Thrust-bearing trip (mechanical)
For turbine tripping, i.e., to close the ESVs (also HP/
3. Low vacuum trip (mechanical)
IPCVs through secondary oil), the trip oil is drained,
4. Electrical remote trip
meaning substantial quick reduction of trip oil pressure,
5 Opening and closing operation of control valves
which is achieved through any of these protection devices.
6. Opening and closing operation of ESVs.
Normally ATT (if supported by the control system pro-
vided for the turbinedas not all manufacturers support Testing can be done for all the above items manually at
ATT) extends in to the trip oil piping network, and with the the operator’s discretion or periodically through the auto-
help of test oil performs a similar function. matic program (see Figure IX/5-1).
The main function of the ATT system is basically to During the test program, the trip oil pressure is reduced
ensure a fail-safe operation of the protective valves or de- by the ATT for testing of each tripping cause so that the
vices by checking and analyzing their readiness throughout tripped signal is available at proper strategic locations.
the turbine operation regime. The system ensures this duty The HPCVs and ESVs, until they are tested, would not be
by performing the tests periodically (see Figure IX/5-3C) in allowed to close during the testing of the protective de-
automatic mode of operation and manually at the operator’s vices as they would still continue to be supplied with high-
discretion. The essence of this particular standalone facility pressure oil via trip test solenoid valve and ATT
is to test all the protective devices sequentially in a well- changeover valve by the ATT system itself so that normal
organized and systematic manner for verification of fool- operation of the turbo generator is continued (see
proof functioning of all the devices. The system is built to Figure IX/5-2).
eliminate operator error, resulting from manual interven- All simulated electronic trip components, however,
tion, by using the fully automatic test sequence. Individual could be tested (through the remote electrical trip solenoid)
FIGURE IX/5-1 Schematic diagram of ATT system.

FIGURE IX/5-2 Schematic diagram of ATT oil circuit.
more frequently, for example, once a month if they have no When the over speed trip mechanism is actuated (shaft
direct effect on the steam turbine operation. speed exceeds the safe speed level, generally 10% more
than the normal speed value), the TG set is tripped on an
5.1.1 TG Set Over Speed Trip (Mechanical emergency shut-down basis by quickly draining the actu-
and Electrical) and Testing ator/trip oil to close the ESVs. The system is absolutely
independent of the TG set governor control system and
It is customary that the steam turbines are fitted with an forms one of the most important and last resorts for tripping
emergency over speed tripping system in addition to criteria as electromagnetic/electronic type (as a part of the
normal operating speed governors. Uncontrolled over speed remote electrical trip) tripping is also included in addition
failures due to the malfunctions or inappropriate control to direct mechanical tripping.
system of over speed protective devices are catastrophic, The over speed trip system consists of two over speed
resulting in blade failures, shaft breakage and rotor winding sensing bolt/plungers normally mounted on the frontend-
retaining, ring bursts, etc. bearing pedestal of the TG shaft (location may vary as per
the manufacturer’s design), speed set point adjustment
5.1.1.1 Trip System screw, pawl, etc. The over speed sensing bolt/plungers are
5.1.1.1.1 Direct Mechanical Type Over speed eccentric, that is, they have their center of gravity slightly
Trip The over speed measuring systems may be of any away from the center and covered along with mounting.
type, such as mechanical (fly wheel), hydraulic (positive When the TG speed increases beyond the safe value, the
displacement pump), or electromagnetic/electronic (Hall centrifugal force of the unbalanced bolt/plunger over-
probe). In a thermal power plant, the hydraulic signal is comes a spring force at a preset trip speed and moves
used for the mechanical type of over speed tripping for outward to strike the respective pawl from the trip lever.
faster response. When struck, the trip lever releases the spring-loaded
valve to drain the auxiliary trip oil and in turn drain the 5.1.2.1 Trip System for Low Vacuum Trip
main trip oil, the pressure of which is no longer in a 5.1.2.1.1 Direct Mechanical Type Low Vacuum
position to hold the ESVs. Different manufacturers use Trip The function of this protection device is to trip the
several methods such as some high-speed machines use a turbine in case the condenser vacuum becomes lower than a
weighted disk and a dished washer to accomplish the very low preset value. The basic device is a spring
tripping action. diaphragm-operated sensing element with the upper side of
the diaphragm connected to the condenser vacuum line and
5.1.1.1.2 Electrical Type Over Speed Trip For the to the primary oil pressure through a piston with an isolated
electrical/electronic trip, speed is sensed by the Hall probe chamber. The lower side is connected to the atmospheric
technique or proximity type sensing and the subsequent pressure with the spring acting against the force applied by
electronic and relay circuit generates a switching contact the primary oil pressure. When the vacuum falls, that is,
when speed reaches beyond the set point. There is a trip pressure increases on the upper side, the net downward
solenoid valve along with a trip relay that energizes along force experienced by the diaphragm is more than the up-
with other electrical trips that act in parallel and drain the ward force offered by the combination of spring tension
trip oil to trip the TG set. and atmospheric pressure. The result is the downward
movement of the spring diaphragm assembly causing the
5.1.1.2 Trip Testing System of Over speed Trip trip oil to drain and ultimately to trip the turbine. The
5.1.1.2.1 Direct Mechanical Type Over Speed Trip protection need not be bypassed during start-up as the
Testing Testing of proper functioning of a turbine over primary oil pressure builds up only when the TG set speed
speed trip device, although centered on the over speed trip is more than the preset value.
mechanism, should be treated as a complete system.
For functioning rather than simulating the trip condition, 5.1.2.1.2 Electrical Tripping Type of Low Vacuum
high-pressure oil is introduced by a hydraulic test signal Trip For the electrical tripping type, vacuum switches are
transmitter (HTT) via a shaft hole producing a similar but used with sufficient redundancy and clubbed with other
artificial condition of actual over speed for actuation of trip electrical tripping signals to operate the separate trip sole-
bolts at TG normal speed. This causes the hydraulic circuit, noid valves. The scheme/procedure of testing of this trip-
that is, the trip oil, to drain. The resultant fall in trip oil ping system is similar to over speed tripping/testing except
pressure would be detected by suitable pressure switches the sensing of low vacuum, which is from an electro/me-
and the signal sent to the turbine trip tester, which in turn chanical type switch for the electrical part.
sends the alarm indicating successful testing operation. All
associated alarms and indicators are also provided for
proper observation in different operational and manage- 5.1.2.1.3 Direct Mechanical Type Low Vacuum Trip
ment areas. After testing resetting is done to move up the Testing As the basic tripping device is a spring dia-
HTT spool and drain test oil. phragm with the upper side connected to the condenser
vacuum line and the primary oil pressure, manipulation of
5.1.1.2.2 Electrical Tripping Type Over Speed Trip any of the above parameters (depending on the manu-
Testing Some manufacturers provide an automatic on- facturer) to a higher value increases the downward force.
line over speed test through the internal injection of a The lower side is connected to the atmospheric pressure
ramping frequency signal into the speed channels. This with the spring acting against the above combined and the
test verifies proper operation of the software, hardware, forces do not change, and the net downward force on
and hydraulic components of the trip circuit. Some man- the diaphragm will cause the downward movement of
ufacturers provide an automatic online over speed test by the spring diaphragm assembly by the simulated turbine
generating electrical relay contact at an over speed set trip, which is more than the upward force offered by the
point more than that of the mechanical trip set point and combination of spring and atmospheric pressure.
club it along with other electrical trips to act on the remote A separate solenoid-operated test valve is provided to
trip solenoid. perform this test.
During testing, first the hydraulic circuit is established,
and with the help of the HTT (test solenoid valve) dis-
5.1.2 TG Set Low Vacuum Trip (Mechanical
cussed above, the trip device is disconnected from the
and Electrical) and Testing
condenser vacuum line and simultaneously the upper port is
This parameter is also very important as far as turbine connected to the atmosphere via resistances provided by a
protection is concerned, which is the reason why both long spiral tube and restricting orifice, which causes the trip
direct mechanical and electrical tripping are provided along oil to drain. After testing the HTT is de-energized and the
with the provision of testing its functional operation. vacuum trip gets reset automatically.
5.1.2.1.4 Electrical Tripping Type Low Vacuum Trip 5.1.3.2 Thrust-Bearing Trip System Testing
Testing This procedure is similar to that of over speed 5.1.3.2.1 Direct Mechanical Type Thrust-Bearing Trip
trip testing. Testing The test scheme/procedure is similar to the over
speed trip test. The thrust-bearing trip function is simulated
5.1.3 Thrust-Bearing/Axial Shift High Trip by the solenoid-operated HTT, which simulates the
(Mechanical and Electrical) and Testing movement of the pawl. When the ATT-generated test signal
is sent to activate the solenoid of the test valve, pressurized
Thrust-bearing trip (mechanical) and testing is another
test oil is allowed to pass through it to a spring-loaded
important parameter for the turbine protection for which
power cylinder, the shaft of which pushes the pawl in the
testing facility has always been provided in the ATT. Axial
direction of what happens for actual tripping by a direct
shift may be simply described as a rotor movement
mechanical method. After testing, resetting is done when
resulting from the wear and tear of the thrust pad. The
the HTT is de-energized, and auxiliary start-up oil resets
difference in thrust created on the TG shaft by steam
the device back to normal position
flowing through HP and combined IP/LP causes constant
rubbing of the thrust pad in the thrust bearing by the high-
speed TG shaft. The designed movement is kept at a 5.1.3.2.2 Electrical Tripping Type Thrust- Bearing Trip
minimum (typically 0.2e0.25 mm). The measuring/detec- Testing This procedure is similar to that of over speed trip
tion point is provided at a rotor anchor point where the testing.
thermal expansion of the rotor is zero so that the axial shift
is not affected by thermal expansions of the casing/rotor. 5.1.4 Electrical Remote Trip Solenoid
and Testing
5.1.3.1 Trip System of Thrust-Bearing/Axial Shift
High Trip All other trips, including generator tripping signals, are
taken together as a part of the electrical remote trip and
5.1.3.1.1 Direct Mechanical Type Thrust-Bearing Trip ATT. The remote electrical trip system includes the signals
Device This is a direct type of tripping provided for pro- from electrical signals as well as mechanical process sig-
tection of the turbine against large amounts of wear and tear nals in the form of processed electrical contact or the pro-
on the thrust-bearing pad and axial shift/movement. The cess switch itself. These signals are already discussed in
physical arrangement is such that two pairs of cams are Clause 3. All of these signals are tested individually but
provided on the turbine shaft at an angle of 180 to each through a common trip relay and a common remote trip
other. In each position of both pairs of cams, a pawl in solenoid valve when energized. The testing procedure is
provided between the cams. The pawl is positioned in be- similar to that of earlier systems.
tween the cams, and it touches any of the cams whenever
the TG set shaft moves horizontally toward a forward or
backward direction.
5.1.5 Testing of MSCVs (HP and IPCVs)
If the pawl comes into contact with any cam, the latch It is often desirable to test individual MSCVs or governor
of the thrust-bearing trip device is released and actuates the valves. To test them with minimum disturbance, the load
trip part just like the above tripping systems. Two pairs are must be reduced to a load that can be run by the other
provided diametrically apart to have redundancy in the running governor valve(s) when a particular governor valve
protection system. The typical set value is between 0.6and is closed. A valve test signal is generated in the ATT sys-
0.75 mm. depending on the manufacturer of the turbine. tem for calculation of the valve position demand signals,
which implements closures of the valve under test and
5.1.3.1.2 Electrical Tripping Type Thrust-Bearing Trip appropriate proportionate increasing signal (from the EHC)
Device Redundant position pick-ups are provided with for remaining valves to open further to maintain the load
the standard turbo supervisory instrument (TSI) package and stem flow as demanded by the load/speed controller
to monitor the axial movement of the disk mounted on during the test.
the rotor near (normally within 25 mm) the thrust-bearing For a system with many control valves, normally one
collar. Movement of the disk may be taken as the axial control valve is tested. The corrected, individual valve
movement of this collar (neglecting the linear thermal position demand signals are generated at the EHC
expansion between the two). If there is excessive move- depending on the load. The valve test procedure is then
ment of the disk from thrust-bearing wear (if it is more followed by gradual closure of the governor valve under
than the value set for direct mechanical trip), relay con- test and at the same time opening of the others.
tacts are generated in the TSI system and are utilized When a particular HPCV is closed, the associated ESV
for energizing the remote trip solenoid to initiate the may be tested for closure so as not to disturb the load/speed
turbine trip. control as dictated by the EHC. After the closing tests, as
considered by the ATT, the further corrected test-related 5.2 Scope of ATT
position demand signals enable gradual opening of the
previously closed HPCVs and proportional closing of the 5.2.1 ATT Overview Based on KWU Steam
remaining HPCVs. Turbine Control Philosophy
Listed below is the ATT overview (see Figure IX/5-3):
5.1.6 Testing of ESV for HP and IP
1. Salient features of an ATT: These are essential to the
It is quite common for all types of valves to experience ATT so normal operation of the turbine is not affected
several constraints, such as deposits/build-up on the valve and they include the following:
stem, different worn out components, poor stem condition, a. Separate and individual testing of each protecting de-
etc., which may pose problems with free and smooth vice and valves so that individual specialist func-
operation of the valve if not total control. The ON/OFF tions/duty can be checked.
valves are affected the most due to the above effects, as the b. Provide functional substitute so that during testing
control valves normally modulate continuously and are less normal operation and protection is never affected.
affected. c. To ensure that substitute devices are healthy and oil
These valve operations should be checked on a regular circuit is established so that during testing normal
basis. The frequency may vary and some manufacturers operation and protection is never affected; for this
suggest that valves be tested more frequently to assure reason before a main test the preliminary test and
they do not get stuck in a particular position due to pro- hydraulic circuit is checked
longed process demand. It is also a stringent requirement d. After each test the resetting procedure must be fol-
that each and every valve must be able to attain full shut- lowed so the system goes back to its original condi-
off condition to avoid excessive over speed. If the valves tion for readiness.
are not fully shut off, and the other devices do not work e. During testing if the turbine trips or the test is not
properly, the turbine may still excessively speed up performed within a specified time, the test must be
beyond normal value, because the steam source is still abandoned and solutions must be found.
present and uncontained despite the trip mechanisms 2. Test category and procedure: There are two kinds.
actuating properly. The desired testing method demands a. One is protective devices such as mechanical over
checking of full-stroke excursion of valves, that is, the speed, thrust wear, low vacuum trips, and testing
capability to operate through its entire range from fully of remote solenoid valves. Each of them can be
open to closed position. tested one at a time. The health of each substitute de-
ESV test valves are provided for each ESV so that vice must be tested and a hydraulic circuit must be
individual testing operations can be accomplished. ESVs established, i.e., control oil must be sent to the trip
are supplied with trip oil through this test valve, which oil line during testing. During testing of the protec-
provides port openings for both trip oil and start-up oil. tive devices a substitute device is very important,
This start-up oil is utilized for resetting of ESVs after the for example, while testing the remote solenoid valve
turbine tripping takes place. Handwheels are provided test trip, the solenoid through the changeover valve
with each test valve to test the ESV operation from the keeps the trip gear pressurized. Balance testing pro-
field as well. There are separate and individual solenoid- cedures were discussed above and are well depicted
operated ESV open/close tests and reset valves, which are in Figure IX/5-3B (left side).
operated through ATT for testing ESV opening and b. The other part of testing is the testing the control
closing operations. The details are stated in Clause 5.1.1, and stop valves (see Figure IX/5-2). Since this
point 2b. Upon getting a signal from the ATT, it allows directly acts on main turbine load-controlling de-
control oil to act as auxiliary starting oil, which pushes vices, some criteria must be considered such as
down the plunger of the ESV test valve. This action en- the load must be greater than the preset value and
ables the control oil to enter the upper part of the ESV EHG must be in operation so that normal load/
power cylinder while the control oil for the lower part is pressure control of the turbine is not jeopardized
guided to the drain. Figure IX/5-2 depicts this operation. due to ATT operation. Preset value stated above de-
If the closing operation is tested on load condition, the TG pends on MW rating of the TG and on turbine
set load must be brought down to a lower level such that configuration, i.e., number and type of stop cum
sufficient steam can pass through the other valve to take control valve, for example, a 500 MW turbine
care of the load. It is normal practice that a particular ESV with a four set of such valves. ATT is carried out
may be tested for closing action after the associated at a load <160 MW. In any case not more than
HPCV is closed by the ATT command so as not to disturb one set of valves can be tested at a time. As stated
the load/speed control as dictated by the EHC. earlier, with ATT initiation the positioner motor of
FIGURE IX/5-3 Overview of ATT system (typical for a particular turbine type).
the control valve moves to lower the oil pressure 3. Details of the testing and checking schedules of other
beneath the servomotor to close the control valve. important devices are detailed in Figure IX/5-3C.
When it is fully closed, ESV open/close test sole-
noid valve is energized to drain the trip oil (through
6. THERMAL STRESS EVALUATOR
the ESV test valve) beneath the disk of the stop
valve servomotor piston; stop valve closes due to Large-capacity thermal power plants are often required to
low oil pressure. After it is closed, the signal ener- start up and shut down the turbine a continuously
gizes another solenoid valve called the “test reset” increasing number of times. In consideration of the plant’s
valve, which allows trip oil to force the test valve long life (w25e30 years), the turbine metal stress condi-
spool to come down and supply oil to a place above tions must be maintained for the plant to reach its life ex-
and press the servomotor piston and the piston pectancy. During each start and stop, some metal stress is
starts sitting on the disk. As soon as it sits on the experienced by the turbine, which reduces power plant life
disk, the pressure increases and is sensed by a pres- expectancy in proportion to the amount of stress. Therein
sure switch indicating preloading completion of the lies the necessity of the TSE, which evaluates and guides
ESV servomotor. Both of these solenoids are de- the TG set to run at minimum stress. The methods and
energized; the ESV test valve afterward moves up equipment for monitoring turbine stresses are considered
to admit trip oil beneath the disk, and the space essential for all large-capacity turbines.
above the piston disk is drained. Naturally the The TSE calculates and monitors the operational heat
stop valve goes up to open. After it is opened, the stresses of the turbine during every operational phase. The
command goes to the control valve motor position goal is to achieve continuous optimization between material
to move in reverse direction to open the control stresses on the turbine and flexibility in reacting to opera-
valve. This is well depicted in Figure IX/5-3B tional changes. The TSE makes it possible to conduct both
(right side). qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the thermal
stresses induced in the metal bodies during thermal shock. 6.1.1.1 Low-Cycle Fatigue
Detailed analysis of the TSE results in manufacturers Low-cycle fatigue is the product of changes that take place
developing materials with a high resistance to thermal in temperature and associated stresses whenever a dynamic
shocks. There are a few methods by different manufacturers change in TG operation is concerned such as start, shut
used to evaluate the thermal stresses at a given instant of down, loading, unloading, etc. The TG set has certain
thermal shock. The influence of the material anisotropy, components with a thick cross-sectional area, for example,
that is, different properties at a given condition, on thermal HPT and IPT casing, rotor, HPCV and ESV parts, etc.,
stresses induced by thermal shocks is still unknown. which are most affected by low-cycle fatigue.
However, simple expressions may be available using sim-
ulations to evaluate the thermal stresses when the material 6.1.2 Creep
has anisotropies in physical properties, such as Young’s
modulus and a linear expansion coefficient. Creep is a phenomenon detected by dislocations on grain
boundaries of materials made of steel or related products
caused by high temperature associated with high centrifugal
6.1 General Causes of Turbine Stress forces, which ultimately result in permanent deformation
In rotating machines like a turbine operating in a high- on the affected turbine component. It is quite natural that
temperature and high-pressure environment, repeated ther- the rotating components such as rotors, HPT and IPT
mal shock causes damage and fracture. Such eventualities blades, center bore, serrations, blade roots, etc., suffer most
are big problems. There are many types of stress in metal due to creep phenomenon.
bodies such as fatigue, creep, thermal stress, etc. Those
type of stresses in turbine components are mainly caused by 6.1.3 Thermal Stress
cyclic loading/unloading, steam temperature differences, Clause 3.5 of Chapter II discusses thermal stress; however,
and pressure and centrifugal forces(creep).The greater the some brief discussion is incorporated here for quick reca-
applied stress value, the shorter is the material life. The pitulation. Whenever there is a difference of temperature
damage is cumulative and materials do not recover even between the metal surface and inner metal, or mid-metal,
when rested from cyclic loading and unloading. thermal stress develops. It will be quite significant when
The TSE helps to calculate and predict nonsteady-state metal thickness is appreciable.
thermal stresses to which the steam turbine is exposed During start-up and normal operation, steam with very
during different stages of operation, especially during start- high pressure and temperature passes through the turbine to
up and shut down and as a result of changes in heat input to become heated and deliver power output. The start-up
components during power operation are acquired and procedure is more important as hot steam can cause cold
compared with the permitted limits. Such stresses mainly turbine metal stress during initial entry of the steam. During
occur due to temperature difference between the exposed normal operation, it is not as critical as the main steam
metal surface and the inner metal surface. temperature; a suitable temperature controller is always
kept near a fixed temperature (after about 60% load) where
6.1.1 Fatigue thermal shocks are not expected. It is therefore extremely
important that the thermal stresses are kept under normal
Material science is the progressive and localized structural
value during start-up, whether it is a cold or the hot start-up.
damage that occurs when a material is subjected to repeated
loading and unloading. The nominal maximum stress
values are less than the ultimate tensile stress limit and may 6.2 TSE
be below the yield stress limit of the material.
6.2.1 Purpose
If the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic
cracks will begin to form at the surface. Eventually a crack Modern power plants are equipped with a TSE for the
will reach a critical size, and the structure will suddenly purpose of safe operation guidance under all possible types
fracture. The shape of the structure also affects the fatigue of running conditions. A TSE is an instrument cum device
life significantly. TSE determines the thermal stresses that measures the turbine stresses in thick materials caused
during operation and compares them with appropriate limits mainly from casing temperature and temperature differen-
established on the basis of predictable operating conditions tials compared with the permitted limits.
by means of appropriate low-cycle fatigue (typically less The TSE generates the speed and load upper and lower
than 103 cycles) diagrams. TSE predicts various margins to margins, which are incorporated in the turbine start-up
limit rate of heating/cooling after evaluation of such fatigue system, turbine automatic control systems, and are even
and has now become a highly effective preventive main- used in the boiler control system while running on “coor-
tenance feature for turbines. dinated control mode.” The TSE guidance, popularly called
TSE influence, dictates the speed or load gradients along temperature and are derived through the function gener-
which the set value changes. In other words, the purpose of ator. The results, that is, the subtracted values, are the upper
TSE influence is to limit the acceleration and load ramp and lower temperature margins and are available for warm
gradients in optimum mode as regarding both degree of up, loading, unloading, etc. The maximum selected upper
component fatigue and economical operation. and lower temperature margins are then the representative
values for increasing or decreasing steam flow during start-
6.2.2 Measuring Temperature Points up and then the rest of the on load operation. These values
are indicated and also are utilized for further calculation.
Some typical and important measuring temperature points
for a 250 MW plant are indicated below, but the actual The upper load margin is added to and lower load margin is
subtracted from the actual load, and the borders of the load
number and measuring points may vary with the size of the
range thus obtained are displayed as maximum and mini-
plant and even with continued development of the device.
mum permissible load, respectively.
1. ESV inner and middle wall metal temperature
2. HPCV inner and middle wall metal temperature
3. HP casing inner and middle wall metal temperature 7. LPBP SYSTEM
4. HP shaft surface and simulated middle wall metal The LPBP system enables live steam to bypass the LPTs.
temperature These sophisticated systems as offered by different manu-
5. IP shaft surface and simulated middle wall metal facturers have been working satisfactorily with much
temperature needed operational flexibility. The LPBP system was
For items in 1e3, the mid or inner wall metal temper- invented basically to cope with several transient modes of
atures are measured at exact position by making grooves operation to ensure the protection of the plant components
with the help of a honing process from the top through the during various phases of turbine operation, which is a start-
wall of the subject material. But for items 4 and 5, since it is up and shut-down requirement in many plants.
a rotating object, the mid-metal temperatures are computed With LPBP and high-pressure bypass (HPBP) systems
from the corresponding surface temperature, which is functioning properly, the steam generator in fossil-fired
located at a representative temperature point of surface of utility boilers can operate on standalone mode as per its
the shaft. own system and process requirement bypassing the turbine
Other parameters are measured/calculated in TSE for mainly during start-up, shut down, and load shedding or any
computing the lower and upper margins, such as: other type of huge load disturbance. It is therefore necessary
that the LPBP systems must be adequately designed and
l Effective power and reactive power sized to meet the requirements of different operating modes
l Steam before HPT and IPT pressure and temperature, as decided by both owner and manufacturer.
also HPT mass steam flow The system helps not only in reducing time toward start-
l HPT exhaust steam pressure and temperature up and reloading of the TG set but also in enhancing
l HPT expansion section differential temperature the availability of the plant components and sizeable
During start-up and shut down, the ESV and HPCV improvement on equipment life. The LPBP systems have
inner and middle wall metal temperature sensors (thermo- been used in large, coal-fired thermal power plants as well
couples) are utilized by the TSE to calculate necessary as in combined-cycle power plants.
margins to the controllers for controlling the steam
admission rate and quantity. 7.1 Purpose of LPBP System
For the remaining TG set operations, that is, under
Detailed discussions have already been incorporated in
normal loading/unloading operations, HP casing, inner and
Chapter VIII, Clause 11.
middle wall metal temperature and HP and IP shaft surface,
and middle wall metal temperature sensors (thermocouples)
are utilized by the TSE to calculate necessary margins to 7.2 Components of a Turbine LPBP System
the corresponding controller for controlling the steam
As mentioned earlier, the main objective of the LPBP (and
admission rate.
HPBP) system is pressure and temperature conditioning of
steam with suitable pressure reducing cum control valve,
6.2.3 Principle of Operation compatible de-superheaters, and spray water control valve.
For each and every channel, the differential temperature As the process demands all the valves to reduce the pres-
between mid-metal and inner metal is calculated and then sure in any way, they must be suitable without generation
compared with the permissible highest and lowest tem- of noise and vibration (associated with damage of valve
perature differences, which are dependent on the mid-wall trim due to wear and tear) beyond the limit values as
stipulated by controlling authorities. The LPBP system also 3. One hundred percent of MCR flow to keep the steam
controls the condenser protection by closing the associated generation uninterrupted at full load in case of a turbine
valves in keeping with the system design demands. There or generator trip without wasting energy and steam
are block valves in both steam and spray water lines to through operation of the safety valves
accomplish this job. The pressure control valve and de-
superheater may be combined into one IP and LP turbine 7.2.2.2 Noise and Vibration of Valves
HRH bypass pressure control and de-superheating valve. The LPBP system valves are used to reduce pressure and
hence are subject to generate a high noise level. The noise
7.2.1 Isolation/Block Valves level as stipulated by different controlling authorities for
The isolation/block valves upstream each of the LP bypass the thermal power plant is 85 dBA from the source of noise.
valves are provided to close the LPBP system for condenser The standard method of abating noise is using acoustic
protection as mentioned earlier. Isolation valves are insulation or providing back-pressure diffusers downstream
installed according to regulatory body stipulation to ensure the valve plug and near the outlet of the valve body. Some
that leakage does not occur so that fluid can enter the manufacturers’ designs provide multiple zigzag channels in
condenser in LPBP closed condition. This function could the specially invented outlet port of the valve that divide the
be integrated in a composite control valve, provided the fluid flow path into several discrete paths increasing the
isolation valve’s purpose is not compromised. The isolation frequency of the generated noise. The adjacent piping and
valve therefore may be separate from the control valve or a structures can easily absorb this higher frequency noise to
combined valve having control function with a quick such an extent that noise abatement is 10 dBA as
closing function and suitable leakage class as per the compared to conventional noise-reduction methods.
owner’s specification/stipulation. This type of valve is Some manufacturers’ designs incorporate special types
normally hydraulically operated for achieving requisite of contoured profiles so that wave interference is produced.
very high actuating force and fast-closing criteria. Due to this phenomenon a majority of the aerodynamic
effects are canceled out resulting in reduction of noise and
vibration. The injection of spray water for de-superheating
7.2.2 Pressure-Reducing and Control Valves
within the body also causes noise attenuation in the com-
7.2.2.1 Sizing of Valves bined pressure reduction and de-superheating system
Normally sizing of the LPBP system valves depends on the (PRDS) if applied for LPBP. Noise generated by the valve
main system design as stipulated by the customer or can thus be kept below 85 dBA throughout the entire
consultant on their behalf as envisioned to take care of the operating range. A highly turbulent zone is created just near
individual plant requirements for a specific capacity. downstream the valve seat of the specially designed and
However, the range may go up 100% of the steam flow contoured cage. For highly efficient mixing of steam and
generated by the boiler as MCR. The pressure reducing/ de-superheating spray water, the ideal place for in-body
control valve and the de-superheater are available in com- injection is this turbulent zone. The noise is automatically
bined configuration for less space requirement and other attenuated as water injection takes place inside the valve
advantages like low noise and vibration design. Sizing of body, thereby ensuring that this turbulent zone is removed
these valves actually depends on the quantity of steam flow from the valve surface and the source of vibration is
to be bypassed to the condenser through the LPBP system, eliminated.
which in turn is dictated by a number of other variables Excessive vibration in LPBP valves can damage pipe
such as condenser internals, start-up, loading, unloading, hangers, valve-trim materials, and shake accessories of
and shut-down practices and requirements for the unit, different parts of the actuators causing high maintenance
plant safety aspects, and of course the economic aspects. costs and unscheduled downtime leading to a loss of
There are a number of considerations and factors that revenue.
determine the size of the bypass system. The combined
HPBP and LPBP system may be selected to take care of the 7.2.3 De-superheaters
following operating conditions:
In modern thermal power plant application normally a
1. Fifteen percent of MCR flow when the system is to direct water spray de-superheating system is used. This
match the steam-to-turbine metal temperatures, which type of de-superheater represents the vast majority of de-
may save half an hour during start-up superheating applications. In water spray de-superheaters,
2. Forty percent (or more) of MCR flow when the system superheated steam is passed through a section of pipe
is to match the difference between the supplied steam fitted with one or more spray nozzles. These inject a fine
flow and the steam utilized for power generation and spray of cooling water into the superheated steam, which
other uses during any disturbed or transient conditions causes the water to be converted into steam, reducing the
quantity of superheat by the temperature of the steam. The mixing with the steam and resulting in quick evaporation
cooling water may be introduced into the superheated enhancing de-superheater performance.
steam in a number of ways, consequently, there are a For an efficient de-superheater, proper location and di-
number of different types of water spray de-superheater. rection of the spray water jet is extremely important so that
The design of water spray de-superheaters are affected by complete evaporation is attained before the first pipe bend
the following factors: to stop any high-speed water particles impinging on the
pipe walls causing erosion. The relative speed of steam
1. Particle size: The smaller the water particle size, the
flow to that of injection water flow determines the quality
greater the ratio of surface area to mass, and the higher
of spray water atomization. Full atomization is always
the rates of heat transfer. Since the water is directly
followed by high water injection speed and injection of the
injected into the moving superheated steam, the smaller
de-superheating water into a one of turbulent, high-speed
the particle size, the shorter the distance required for
steam flow. Other factors, such as piping layout, selection
heat exchange to take place. The water is broken into
of spray water valve, flow range, and selection and per-
small particles using either a mechanical device (such
formance of the control system, influence the performance
as a variable or fixed orifice nozzle) or steam-
of the de-superheater as a whole.
atomizing nozzles.
A de-superheater may produce good atomization when
2. Turbulence: As the flow within the pipeline becomes
there is multistage pressure reduction to ensure smooth
more turbulent, the individual entrained water particles
downward pressure drops to eliminate any cavitation,
reside longer in the de-superheater, allowing for greater
flashing, trim erosion, noise, and vibration and ultimately to
heat transfer. In addition, turbulence encourages the
maintain exact temperature control at all steam flows as
mixing of the cooling water and the superheated steam.
required by the plant operating condition. The ideal place
Increased turbulence results in a shorter distance
for water injection into a high steam-flow turbulent zone for
required for complete de-superheating to occur. The
efficient de-superheating is downstream the valve body just
phenomenon of turbulence can be attributed to these
after the plug/seat/trim assembly. Appropriate selection of
two things:
material, properly designed arrangement of the injection
a. Pressure drop across the nozzle: Subjecting the
nozzles, and shape and hole pattern of the cage around the
cooling water to a higher pressure drop will increase
injection zone may give the best results for fully atomized
its velocity and induce greater turbulence.
spray water before the steam leaves the valve body. The
b. Velocity: By increasing the overall velocity of the
efficient implementation of the whole process results in the
water and steam mixture, the amount of turbulence
shortest evaporation length.
is inherently increased. The increase in velocity is
There are various types of de-superheaters: single-point
usually achieved by creating a restriction in the
radial injection spray, multiple-point radial injection spray,
steam path, which further generates turbulence by
single nozzle axial injection, multiple nozzle axial injec-
vortex shedding. In addition to these high veloc-
tion, etc. In the following clauses commonly used de-
ities, if poor piping design practices are used, the
superheaters will be discussed.
speed of the superheated steam could, in theory,
approach Mach 1. At such speeds a number of prob-
lems occur (including the generation of shock 7.2.3.1 Ring Type De-Superheater
waves). However, this would be far in excess of Ring type de-superheaters are also suitable for LPBP ap-
the velocities used in good piping design. Typical plications. Here, a separate de-superheating chamber is
velocities of steam entering a de-superheater should provided downstream the pressure-reduction area. In a ring
be w50e60 m/s. type de-superheater, the shape of the steam-flow steam
causes the creation of turbulence inside the chamber. The
In LPBP systems de-superheaters are very important
steam velocity is increased by a contraction of the flow path
where comparatively low-temperature water is sprayed
and then allowed suddenly to expand. The injection and
over the hot steam to lower the mixture temperature as
mixing are arranged to take place in this turbulent region so
desired by the process. A thermally efficient design of de-
that the shortest distance as desired for atomization is
superheater bodies can eliminate the stresses caused by
ensured for proper evaporation.
various reasons such as thermal transients associated with
cycling duty.
In any efficient type of de-superheater design, complete 7.2.3.2 Steam-Assisted De-Superheaters
evaporation of the injected water is ensured to avoid water This type of de-superheater is also another type of atomi-
particles hitting the adjacent walls of the valve or down- zation outside of the valve body. The design is based on a
stream piping. A high degree of atomization of the injected combination of high-speed water injection into a high-
water is responsible for accomplishing a superior class of velocity Venturi steam flow. Cooling liquid is introduced
into the steam header through a stainless steel nozzle as- spring, and plug. Unbalanced forces created by the coolant
sembly, which uniquely divides one large jet of liquid into over line pressure differential cause the plug to move,
many small jets. Just prior to entrance into the main header, exposing more or fewer flow nozzles. The coolant is
each jet is bombarded by a higher pressure steam jet, atomized as it passes under pressure through the spray
creating a fine mist, which enters the stream flow without nozzles, which further assist in evaporation of the coolant.
the need of a thermal liner inside the main header. The de- In some designs, a spring-loaded nozzle incorporates a
superheater thus reduces the size of the liquid particles so unique swirl pattern, which provides rotational energy to
that the droplets can be quickly and efficiently evaporated. the spray water over the entire range of flow conditions.
Downstream temperatures can be controlled to within a This ensures an even distribution, which produces good
small value higher than that of saturation. The thermal mixing of steam and spray water with extremely good
sleeve around the liquid tube ensures uniform expansion rangeability.
with the steam tube, thereby minimizing thermal stresses
due to unequal elongation of the liquid and atomizing steam 7.2.4 Instrumentation and Control System
tubes. The cooling liquid is introduced through a series of
small orifices, which are drilled circumferentially into the This system was discussed in Chapter VIII, Clause 11.
nozzle. Small slots are milled 90 to the drilled holes.
Atomizing steam passes through each of the slots and blasts
each of the cooling liquid jets. Liquid pressure of only a
8. TURBINE CONTROLS: SEAL STEAM
few bars above the steam header pressure is necessary to PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM
inject the cooling medium. Hard face (stellite) in the nozzle 8.1 Seal Steam Pressure Control:
head minimizes erosion wear and tear.
Background
Some designs introduce a compound swirl-type nozzle,
which provides high injection speed while the atomizing The turbine shaft has to exit its casings to couple up or
steam provides a velocity that is virtually independent of connect with the unit that the turbines drive (generator,
the main steam flow that may be taken from a different reduction gears, pumps, etc.). The seal steam system en-
source altogether. The spray pattern is centered in the ables the turbine to be sealed where the shaft exits the
piping to produce even temperature distribution at all flow casingdin effect keeping “air out and steam in.” Sets of
conditions. For this type of de-superheater, the distance labyrinth packing are used along the turbine rotor where the
required for atomization is the shortest of all downstream rotor exits the turbine casing to maintain this pressure dif-
de-superheaters. This design provides significantly better ferential between inside and outside. The labyrinths create
atomization than the ring type and spring-loaded nozzle many little chambers causing pressure drops along the
de-superheaters currently available in the industry. shaft. The number of labyrinth sets depends greatly on the
possible steam pressure in that area. Labyrinth packing
7.2.3.3 Spring-Loaded Injection Nozzles alone will not stop the flow of steam from the turbine high-
Spring-loaded nozzles are typically used for LP bypass pressure part or prevent air into the turbine connected to the
applications by introducing cooling liquids directly into the vacuum.
hot fluid. Multiple nozzles, which can be opened or closed The gland sealing steam system provides low-pressure
to vary the coolant flow and provide a higher turndown steam to the turbine gland in the final sets of labyrinth
than single nozzle units and where the amount of coolant packing. This assists the labyrinth packing in sealing the
flow is dependent only on the ability to vary the pressure turbine to prevent the entrance of air from reducing or
drop across the nozzle, are used. The atomizing principle of destroying the vacuum in the associated condenser. Excess
spring-loaded injection nozzles is based on high-speed in- pressure (excess gland seal) also has to be removed and put
jection. Due to the design of the spring-loaded nozzles, a into the gland steam condenser. The large, turbine gland
sufficient injection pressure and injection speed exists at sealing systems are basically self-sealing, in the sense at a
minimum load. The injection speed results not only in good load >40% HP steam coming out from the HPT side could
atomization but also in a sufficient penetration of the spray be enough to seal the same on the LPT side. Up to nearly
water into the steam flow. The design contains an integral 40% load low-pressure auxiliary steam is supplied to the
spring-loaded flow plug, which moves in response to a sealing header to seal HPT, IPT, and LPT glands. During
change in pressure differential between the coolant inlet this period the flow line to the condenser is closed with the
pressure and the main header pressure. As the plug moves, help of a control valve. Above this load point the steam
nozzles are uncovered introducing coolant into the main coming out of the HPT will be more than enough to seal the
header. The varying inlet coolant pressure is controlled by a LPT gland and more, and the excess is sent to the
separate water or coolant control valve. The coolant enters condenser. At around this load point the auxiliary steam
the unit and passes through the center of the spring spacer, supply control valve is closed and the HPT and IPT glands
(as applicable) leakage steam is routed through the leak instrumentation package by the turbine manufacturer. Also
control valve to other glands so that seal steam pressure can during start-up, trip, and/or large throw off there will be a
be maintained and excess steam will be sent to the gland great deal of disturbance inside the turbine pressure so the
steam cooler/condenser. During start-up, vacuum building control system needs to be designed to cope with these
is the first step. It is necessary that some steam is supplied eventualities and has to respond fast to avoid unnecessary
to the turbine glands from auxiliary steam via the seal steam leakage in the turbine. For this reason, the actuators for
supply control valve. With load building up inside the these valves are often the electro hydraulic type. Also,
turbine, HPT and IPT leakage from there will go to the some special characteristics are incorporated in the loop at
gland steam supply header to increase the pressure, which the proportional part to cater to varying conditions of seal
will compel the supply valve to close. Normally the steam under different operating situation/eventualities.
auxiliary steam header is maintained at a fixed pressure and
temperature (at 10 kg/cm2 or 16 kg/cm2 and w210 C).
However, because this seal steam is required during start- 8.3 Control Loop
up and low load the seal steam pressure and temperature See Figure IX/8-1 for an example of seal steam pressure
requirement may be much lower than the auxiliary steam control.
header pressure and temperature. Therefore it is necessary
that there will be requirement of the PRDS, which must be 8.3.1 Objective
considered (not shown).
Seal steam from the seal steam pressure header is used to
seal turbine glands so that steam does not out come out of
8.2 Control System the turbine and air does not go into the turbine. In both the
Since this control loop is connected with the start-up of the cases there will be loss of turbine efficiency. The main
turbine, it is often supplied as an integral part of the turbine objective of this loop is to ensure constant pressure at the
FIGURE IX/8-1 Seal steam pressure control.

seal steam header so that there is no leakage through any of system forms a part of the integral instrumentation package
the turbine glands. of the turbine.
8.3.2 Discussions
9. HYDROGEN SEAL OIL SYSTEM AND
As discussed earlier, at lower load auxiliary steam supplies DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE CONTROL
the required steam to the header used to seal the glands in
HPT, IPT, and LPT. Pressure rather than flow to the seal 9.1 Hydrogen System
steam header is controlled by regulating the supply steam The brief description in Chapter II, Clause 4.1, incorporates
control valve. As load increases (i.e., >40%) when the the requirement and basic process of hydrogen and seal oil
pressure inside the HPT and IPT increases, leakage from system. Hydrogen leaking because of a dangerous explo-
the these glands occurs. The supply steam from the auxil- sive mixture with atmospheric oxygen is prevented by oil
iary steam may not be necessary and it will self-sealing, i.e., sealing supplied with a slightly higher oil pressure. A
this leakage steam from HPT and IPT glands is utilized to CLCS is provided to maintain seal oil to hydrogen differ-
seal the LPT gland and excess steam is regulated via ential pressure (DP) control along with hydrogen and seal
leakage control valve. oil temperature control.
8.3.3 Control Loop Description
9.1.1 Moisture in Hydrogen Cooling System
As discussed in the previous clause, there will be two
control valves regulated to control the header pressure. The In its delivered form, whether from an external or in-
header pressure is measured by a number of pressured house source, hydrogen gas has a dew point of
transmitters with due redundancies. It is important that re- approximately 50 C. The hydrogen dew point for this
dundancies are considered, but it depends on the manu- type of requirement is normally maintained at <0 C.
facturer and owner. The measured value is compared with Problems may crop up when the generator is in shut-down
the set point, which could be set from a control room condition and hydrogen moisture levels increase beyond
monitor and/or control plaque as applicable. The error thus this point. The water particles deposit and cause the
created is fed into the controller. However, prior to sending retaining rings of the rotor windings to crack if there is
the error signal to the controller it is passed through a dy- moisture on the rings. There are generators cooled by
namic gain characterizer. Apparently the loop is quite hydrogen with dew points of 30 C or lower depending on
simple, but one has to bear in mind the eventualities. the climatic condition of the site.
During turbine trip, shut down, quick loading, and
large load throw off, there will be a huge fluctuation in
9.2 Seal Oil System
steam pressure inside the turbine and these would take
place at a very fast pace. To cope with such situations, the Hydrogen is hazardous if it leaks and mixes with air with
error signal thus created is passed through the dynamic the possibility of an explosion. The idea of preventing
gain characterizer so that when there is an error signal leakage of hydrogen along the rotor shaft developed into a
more than the preset value, the gain will change to a sealing system consisting of oil with pressure slightly more
greater value. Output of the controller is fed to a propor- than the hydrogen pressure. It receives make-up oil from
tional controller via auto/manual (A/M) station. So, po- the bearing lubricating oil system. The seal oil system de-
sition can be controlled manually as well. Here also a fines the arrangement of arresting not only the escape of
dynamic gain characterizer is kept to meet the challenges hydrogen from the generator casing but also the ingress
discussed earlier. of air into this casing near the rotor shaft projected outside
Finally, the output is fed to the two control valves. As of the casing at both ends.
discussed earlier, the supply valve normally operates up to Seal oil pressure at the seal housing is w 0.25e0.4 kg/
a preset (i.e.,40%) load, and after that it will close. Whereas cm2 higher than the generator coolant hydrogen gas pres-
the leakage control valve comes in to the operation load sure. The sealing arrangement is such that the seal oil flows
more than the preset value (i.e., 40%), and at lower load it in both directions, that is, the air side and the hydrogen side
remains closed. To utilize this characteristic to regulate two along the shaft. As the seal oil pressure is slightly more than
control valves from one output, each of them have been hydrogen-side pressure, some oil flows toward the
provided adoption-characteristic function generators to hydrogen (6e7 kg/cm2) thus blocking the flow of hydrogen
operate both valves in split range. Normally the final to atmosphere along the shaft. Conversely, most of the seal
actuator of these valves are hydraulic, so the electronic oil flows toward the atmospheric pressure zone through the
signal from the loop is fed via an electro hydraulic con- bearing housing. On the air side, the aireoil mixture mixes
verter with a suitable positioner. In most cases this control with the bearing lubricating oil, while on the hydrogen side
some hydrogen gas mixes with the sealing oil. In some The standby pump starts automatically when the pump
generator cooling systems, the bearing cooling oil and seal discharge header pressure falls below a preset value
oil systems are different, whereas most of the manufac- through interlock with the pressure switch. There may be a
turers of generator cooling systems offer combined lubri- flow switch instead that actuates the standby pump when
cating oil and hydrogen seal oil systems. the bypass flow falls below a preset limit. Many designers
prefer the use of the flow-measuring device rather than DP
sensors, because this flow-associated system can detect
9.3 Description of Seal Oil Flow Diagram
many types of malfunctions and anticipate the need for
The seal oil system supplies seal oil to the seal plates of the initiating standby pump operation before seal oil DP actu-
gas-tight TG set and all types of operation irrespective of ally begins to drop.
normal or emergency conditions. A DP between the seal oil In many thermal power plants the seal oil system is
and hydrogen gas is maintained to prevent hydrogen combined with the lubrication oil system of the turbine. The
leakage (see Figure IX/9-1). lubrication oil pump provides oil to the seal plates through a
This system normally takes its suction either from the seal oil pressure-regulating valve. The back-up provisions
governing or lubrication pump discharge with standby made for the lubrication system are also available for the oil
emergency supply from AC and DC seal oil pumps. supply of the sealing system, making the system simplified
Alternatively, the suction is from the oil reservoir and without requiring a separate source of seal oil but necessi-
supplies oil to the seal plates with the help of separate seal tating a relatively high-pressure lubrication system. These
oil pumps with sufficient redundancy. There is a recircu- systems typically operate with a pressure differential of
lation line connected from seal oil pump discharge lines w0.25e0.4 kg/cm2. This is necessary to eliminate hydrogen
to the reservoir through a control valve, which modulates contamination by air ingress in the seal oil, which is forced
to maintain the DP between seal oil and hydrogen. to flow along the shaft toward the hydrogen-filled generator.
FIGURE IX/9-1 Seal oil flow diagram.

9.3.1 Requirement of Accumulator excess oil necessary to maintain this DP returns to the
reservoir (see Figure IX/9-2C and D).
To cope with abrupt change or failure, the standby pump
The direct type envisages the control valve in the pump
cannot be brought up to full pressure immediately and for
discharge line, which regulates the DP by directly allowing
maintaining uninterrupted seal oil flow an accumulator may be
oil flow (see Figure III/11.1.2-7) as per the controller
provided, which supplies seal oil for a few minutes when there
output. In some double-injection types, separate sets of seal
is a sudden drop in seal oil pressure below the normal oper-
oil pumps are provided for the hydrogen-side and air-side
ating value. The nonreturn or check valve in between the
sealing systems and DP is controlled only for the
accumulator and the pump discharge header (after the recir-
hydrogen side; one control system each for exciter end
culation line) would prevent seal oil to flow back but supply
and turbine end is also provided. Seal oil and hydrogen
the seal plate. The pressure or flow-measuring devices are
temperature controls are shown and incorporated in Figures
excellent in detecting maloperation when the seal oil supply
IX/12-2 and IX/12-3, respectively.
decreases at a relatively slow pace. The nonreturn or check
valve in between the accumulator and the pump discharge
header prevents seal oil from flowing back and supplies the 9.3.3 Type of Pumps
seal plate.
There are three types of pumps available:
9.3.2 DP Control System 1. Screw: Generally used for the services where constant
There are two types of control philosophies: indirect and flow with high pressure is the requirement.
direct. The indirect type has the control valve placed in the 2. Centrifugal: Generally used where constant pressure is
recirculation line, which modulates as per the output of the required for the system.
controller’s measured variabledthe DP between the seal 3. Positive displacement gear type: Recommended for
oil and hydrogen against a fixed set point. The amount of constant flow services.
FIGURE IX/9-2 Basic type of (axial and radial) seals used in hydrogen and seal oil systems.
All of these pumps are supplied with an integral safety For the axial ring shaft seal (Figure IX/9-2A) the seal
relief valve at the pump discharge side to return to the ring floats on the shaft and does not rotate. The seal ring is
reservoir to avoid high-pressure build-up over and above held against the shaft ring face with the help of axial force
the designed pressure. The pump discharge head is calcu- exerted by the spring and partly by the seal oil pressure.
lated on the basis of maximum generator hydrogen gas The seal ring at the front of it is provided with a continuous
pressure plus the DP to be maintained between seal oil and soft metal face. The seal oil pressure forces itself to flow
gas, pressure drop of the system, and 10% spare capacity. toward the seal face while the majority of the oil flows
outward and the rest flows inward toward the rotor shaft.
The pressurized oil is supplied at a particular pressure to
9.3.4 Requirement of Filter
both sealing sides to maintain required oil-film thickness
Whatever the type of sealing arrangement, the effect of formed in between the soft seal metal of axial thrust face
generator contamination is the same. Shaft-sealing system and the rotating collar, which acts as lubricating oil and as a
failure may take place when a particulate contaminant en- cooling agent for the heat generated from friction and to
ters the seal oil system due to wear of the gland seals. This lessen the wear and tear caused by the same.
untoward situation lets hydrogen escape the generator and Radial oil seal (Figure IX/9-2B) or journal type seals are
results in a forced outage with particulate contamination in the most common type of seal. These seals are different,
the sealing process. because they do not have any contact with the turbine shaft
To circumvent particulate contamination, filtration of and thus require no soft metal seal face. The inner diameter
sealing oil is essential before it reaches the generator seals. of the seal is slightly larger than the outer diameter of the
Ensuring the proper mesh size of the filters prevents pas- rotor shaft and is held tightly around the shaft with springs.
sage of particulate coarse enough to cause damage to The ring with the narrow clearance is placed between the
associated materials. The international guideline as per ISO sealing ring holder/bracket and the rotor shaft. High-
4406 is generally followed to minimize erosion and maxi- pressure oil is injected from a set of holes/ports and
mize the component life of the seal oil system. Normally grooves into a stationary seal ring surrounding the rotating
the above guideline is expressed as “cleanliness level” and shaft. High-pressure oil is thus spurted onto the shaft to-
for the generator seal oil system it is recommended to be ward both sides of the seal. These seals are sometimes
maintained at an ISO 14/12 cleanliness level. ISO 14/12 referred to as hydrogen gland seals. If only the ring is
has now become a standard recommended practice and it pressed without any clearance from free movement, the oil
specifies using a 3e5 mg filter with a duplex construction injection can be avoided. But in that case, friction between
and online changeover facility. the ring and shaft develops and causes damage to both of
them. The pressurized oil acts here as a cooling and sealing
9.3.5 Requirement of Seal Oil Coolers media, and lessens the DP across the seal (without seal oil
the DP would have been the generator casing hydrogen
Note that function of seal oil is not only to arrest leakage of pressure). The seal oil system may consist of both single or
hydrogen gas from the generator but also to keep the seal dual/multiple (for air and hydrogen side) pressurized oil
metal at an acceptable temperature limit. During the sealing lines. Figure IX/9-3 incorporates the views of single seals
process, the seal oil takes the heat away from the sealing and two separate hydrogen-and air-side seals. Two sets of
surface and experiences some rise in temperature that needs holed rings are for the hydrogen side and the air side with a
to be transferred to another cooling media to maintain the vacuum ring located in between these two rings to extract
closed loop seal oil system. Redundant seal oil coolers are the oil from the seal area. These rings can accommodate
provided for that purpose and the cooling media is the both axial and radial shaft movements. Radial seals are
water supplied from the clarified cooling water header. used for both separate and common seal oil pressure lines
as depicted in Figure IX/9-3.
9.3.6 Basic Types of Seals
Hydrogen seals are metal rings normally made of babbit,
9.4 Hydrogen and Air Removal
bronze, brass, or may be of carbon. They use very precise
geometry to maintain proper sealing over the total range of
from Seal Oil
operating conditions. The seal system may consist of a Other critical components of the seal oil system are
single seal or a separate seal for hydrogen- and air-side included in the hydrogen and air removal systems, which
leakage prevention. The seals are categorized into two supply clean and pure oil to the extent possible for sealing
basic sealing systems, which are widely deployed: purposes. Examples are listed below:
1. Axial ring shaft seal or thrust collar type 1. Degasification through spray nozzles: Degasifying
2. Radial oil seal or journal (ring) type plants use a very common method of removing
FIGURE IX/9-3 Different types of radial seals used in seal oil lines and hydrogen flammability range.
entrained hydrogen and other gases is through “vac- 2. Removal through detraining tank: A separate “detrain-
uum-treat” of the seal oil before applying it to the ing tank” is provided along with a “hydrogen trap” and
seals. The same is done directly in the main seal oil “extraction fan” to accomplish removal of entrained
supply tank when separately provided. The seal oil hydrogen from the seal oil system. Due to the configu-
is extracted right from the sealing location into this ration of the seals and sealing arrangement, the major-
tank, which is maintained under vacuum. The oil rea- ity of seal oil flows to the air-side drain of the seals and
ches the tank through a spray nozzle and is converted is led to the main/seal oil tank through bearing sumps,
into a fine mist and supports the action of liberating etc. A small portion of seal oil flows toward the
dissolved gases from the oil, which are then hydrogen side and drains through to reach the detrain-
are removed from the system. In this type of plant, ing tank. The two sides of the tank are connected
an additional recirculating pump is also provided to through pipelines of sufficient bore diameter to enable
recirculate oil back to the supply tank through a series seal oil to drain and hydrogen to pressurize the tank.
of spray nozzles for continuous gas removal Two lines are used to keep the tank under pressure bal-
(Figure IX/9-1B). ance. The entrained hydrogen is almost separated from
the oil and the oil accumulated at the bottom of the tank 9.5 Discussions on and Problems with
is forced upward to the hydrogen trap by the generator Hydrogen and Seal Oil Systems
hydrogen pressure,. The trap is equipped with an
extraction fan, which removes any remaining entrained With aging and harsh process conditions, the geometry of
hydrogen by venting it to the atmosphere at a safe various parts of the seal, such as rings, brackets, holding
place. The oil in the hydrogen trap, however, returns springs, etc., may change due to wear and tear or even by
to the turbine oil tank through gravity action (see premature damage resulting in excessive leakage of seal oil.
Figure IX/9-1C). For example, dirty oil can also be responsible for wear of
3. Removal through scavenging via enlargement tank: It is the seal rings due to abrasion. The application of the type of
possible that air is entrained in the source of the seal oil, seal oil system depends on the type of shaft seal used in a
which may be released from the seal oil that flows into particular generator. Axial and radial movement (although
the generator-side hydrogen area causing reduced very small) and vibration of the generator rotor, drift in set
hydrogen purity if not removed. The removal process value, or any other problem of the seal oil/ hydrogen DP
is popularly known as “scavenging.” The hydrogen- control system may be the source of increased seal oil flow.
side seal oil drain is arranged to accumulate in the In some generator cooling systems, the bearing cooling
enlargement tank whose oil level is maintained though oil and seal oil systems are different; in that case, the
overflow pipe. The tank may be a single type with aireoil mixture of the air-side mixes with the bearing
one vertical separator or one for each side. The two lubricating oil, while on the hydrogen side the sealing oil
overflow pipes are connected via loop seals to a float drains mixed with hydrogen gas return to the seal oil
trap. This arrangement assists entrained hydrogen and reservoir. The trouble with having individual seal oil sys-
mainly air bubbles to release and gather at the top of tems is that somehow at some point the seal oil and bearing
the tank. A small amount of gas (air and hydrogen) is lube oil mix with each other causing problems. Most of the
allowed to be vented from this seal oil enlargement systems, however, provide combined lubricating oil and
tank where the entrained air is expected to be released hydrogen seal oil systems to avoid this problem.
from the seal oil to the atmosphere at a safe area. The A great deal of care is taken to avoid mixing water with
seal drain enlargements are vented through the needle lubrication oil as it causes many problems. As per ASTM
valves in the scavenging lines, and scavenging flow D95, the concerned regulatory authority, the limit value
rates can be controlled according to the hydrogen purity imposed on the presence of moisture in the lubricating oil is
reading. Because a small amount of gas (air and specified as 2000 ppm (0.2%) for a turbine/generator of a
hydrogen) is continually vented to atmosphere through typical thermal power plant. Hydrogen dew point is
the scavenging system, the pressure inside the generator affected with the amount of moisture present in the lubri-
decreases and must be replenished into the system in the cating oil, so users prefer the moisture concentration
generator casing from a source of high-purity hydrogen maintained at a value well below 2000 ppm if not 1000
(see Figure IX/9-1A). ppm. There is always a chance of the contaminated lubri-
cating oil mixing with the seal oil where in turn it can mix
The air-side seal oil is also taken to a vessel known as a with the hydrogen gas.
bearing drain enlargement tank with maintained oil level In service, the hydrogen gas dew point usually is
with mainly air on the top where it is released to the at- required to be maintained between 30 and 0 C depending
mosphere through a vapor extractor. on the seal oil system clearances and operation, size of the
The hydrogen-side seal oil drain after the float trap generator, and on the hydrogen gas pressure (higher gas
is sent to the bearing drain enlargement tank for normal pressure calls for lower dew point). It is obvious that
plant operation or sent to the seal oil recirculation line generators operating with high dew point are very prone to
for standstill condition. For the common turbine oil insulation failure in the windings.
tank, vapor extractors are provided to release the The moisture content in hydrogen is important because
entrained air (mainly) to prevent air ingress in the hydrogen gas is hygroscopic at about 50 C dew point and
generator casing through the generator-side seal oil as looks like a dry sponge in the presence of oil with 1000
the only source. ppm water. Because of this, hydrogen may become phys-
In some closed loop seal oil systems, the hydrogen-side ically “changed,” for example, by an increase in stickiness
seal oil drain enlargement tank is also called a “H2 or volume.
detraining tank” without a scavenge connection line, It is a well-known fact that one of the common sources
whereas the air-side oil drain enlargement tank is called an of moisture contributing to the deterioration of hydrogen
“air detraining tank” with a vent connection to release dew point is the presence of water in the hydrogen seal oil
entrained air and hydrogen. The major gas removal is done system. Experiment results indicate that <50 ppm of
at the main seal oil tank as stated above. moisture in seal oil is obligatory to maintain hydrogen dew
points below 10 C (provided other sources are negli- entrained air may also be released, if not properly taken
gible). Seal oil moisture >50 ppm increases the hydrogen care of, from the oil and mixed with the hydrogen, which
dew point, and ultimately increases the dew point above further reduces hydrogen purity. Decreased hydrogen pu-
acceptable limits and at point of seal oil moisture presence rity, as already discussed, results in increased windage loss
exceeds w250 ppm of water. with its consequent problems.
Another important source of moisture in hydrogen gas It is therefore very important that the concentration level
is leakage from the cooling water provided by the hydrogen of water and entrained air in the oil should be kept well
coolers. The dryers and desiccants used to remove moisture below the limit. The seal oil reservoir, whether common
in the hydrogen gas path requires regular and proper with the turbine lube oil system or separate, needs suitable
maintenance. measures against water and air contamination. Strict stip-
It is therefore of the utmost importance that necessary ulations by customers want the oil purifier to ensure 100%
actions are taken to limit the moisture level. The major removal of free water and air, and up to 80% of the dis-
source of water ingress in the TG set lubricating oil is the solved water and air present in the oil.
condensed water from inadequate performance of the steam
sealing arrangement of the turbine. If the lube oil and seal
10. GENERATOR CONTROL SYSTEM
oil use the same facility, this type of water contamination
needs to controlled. It is a “must” situation to find the actual The generator control system normally consists of the
source of the seal oil moisture and attend to it to avoid following items:
destructive consequences. Routine analysis of moisture
1. Generator voltage control by AVR
content in both lubricating oil and the hydrogen seal oil
2. De-excitation system of the rotor
(whether common or separate) can prompt the concerned
3. Generator protection system
person to maintain them at required levels, for example, in
4. Instrumentation system
the range of 10 ppm (0.001%) for hydrogen seal oil. If the
moisture content of hydrogen seal oil rises above 250 ppm, Main systems pertinent to the generator are discussed in
it is possible that the dew point of the hydrogen would Chapter II, Clause 4.2.
shoot up beyond acceptable limits.
Increased hydrogen gas dew point in the generator 10.1 Generator Voltage Control by AVR
cooling system affects the overall reliability of the gener-
ator and must be taken care of with proper priority. The Power demand is increasing for large-capacity thermal
formation of water vapor or moisture contamination inside power plants, and in view of modern lifestyle requirements,
a generator reduces the life of various generator increasing population, etc., large-capacity thermal power
components. plants are being installed at a faster rate. As a consequence
The reason moisture in hydrogen gas must be main- to this increasing constant and huge power load, there is the
tained at acceptable levels is the stator winding short circuit possibility that stability of both power and voltage may
and failure due to stress corrosion cracking of retainer rings deteriorate in the power system. Today, this is a burning
used to hold the rotor winding in place. If the retaining issue that needs to be addressed.
rings are not in place, the winding is flung from the rotor
due to the centrifugal force caused by the rotor speed 10.2 Effect of Excitation Control on Power
(typically 3000e3600 rpm depending on the country). The
System Stability
apprehension is quite legitimate as the repairing time may
take 3e4 weeks at a minimum, which means a unit outage The rotor field excitation is controlled by the AVR. This
entailing costly repairs and loss of revenue. The worst-case control system is very effective during steady-state opera-
scenario is that failure of the retaining ring destroys the tion; however, during abrupt load changes or disturbances
generator altogether. there may be some negative influence on the corrective
The normal practice in a modern thermal power plant is action taken toward damping of power swings. The reason
to maintain an upper limit dew point at <0 C. Dew points for this is that the AVR always try to force field-current
higher than this might allow moisture in the hydrogen gas changes in the generator. The modern tendency is the
to condensate on the retaining rings when the unit is out of introduction of an additional control loop to supplement the
service. AVR action, which is supposed to suppress the untoward
In addition to dew point problem, water present in seal system swings, such as voltage oscillations. This supple-
oil can be evaporated due to heat produced by the churning mentary control loop is popularly termed the power system
effect when it comes in contact with the high-speed turbine stabilizer (PSS). It produces a correction signal at its output
shaft. This water vapor, if it enters the generator shell, re- to compensate for the oscillations of all the electrical
duces the purity of the hydrogen gas. Additionally, the parameters.
The typical range of associated oscillations in fre- 2. AC excitation systems: Use AC generators with the help
quencies without PSS might go up to 3.0 Hz and cause of rotary or static rectifiers to feed the field winding of
problems in smooth transmission of power to the grid. The the generator.
measured variables included in the PSS input lists include: 3. Static excitation systems: Use transformers and rectifiers
for conversion of AC to DC current for exciting the
1. MW generation or active power generator field winding.
2. Generator current
3. Generator EMF Another general and broad classification of excitation
4. Speed/frequency (real-time and set values) system also exists, which categorizes by excitation power
source. The two major classes are
Whenever a number of generators is connected in par-
allel, disturbances may arise from sharing power in between 1. Separate excitation systems that are be static or brush-
the generators. This needs quick suppression and a steady less: These systems are independent of disruptions and
power must be maintained to return the power stability. faults that occur in electric power systems, and can
Power system stability in turn is associated with voltage force excitation. Brushless systems are used for excita-
stability and ensures a constant voltage restoration. This can tion of larger generators (power generation at w600
be maintained even when there are changes in load by taking MVA) and in flammable and explosive environments.
care of the most severe operating conditions. The improve- Brushless systems consist of an AC generator, rotating
ment of power system stability, however, needs the diode bridge at the rotor, and field at the stator. When
improvement of all other associated systems, such as by this system is equipped with a pilot exciter, it consists
increasing the system voltage, availability of adequate power of another AC generator at the stator and realized
transmission lines, availability of sufficient numbers of ca- with permanent magnet excitation at the rotor. Attempts
pacitors to improve power factors to decrease reactive power, to build a brushless system with a thyristor bridge were
installation of the static volt ampere (VAR) compensator not successful because of problems with thyristor con-
(SVC) if not already installed, etc., and last but not the least trol reliability. The result of this problem is a significant
an improved method of generator excitation control system. disadvantage of these systems as well as the inability to
Introduction of an improved control approach by digital provide generator de-excitation. Another disadvantage
control hardware and software makes it possible to haul out is slower response of the system, especially in case of
the capability of the generator the capability of the generator low excitation (see Figure IX/10-1).
to the maximum extent by improving the control algorithm. 2. Self-excitation systems: The advantages of this system
are simplicity and low costs. The thyristor or transistor
10.3 AVR by Rotor Excitation Control bridge is supplied from generator terminals via trans-
former. The main disadvantage is that excitation supply
Excitation current needed for the generator is provided by voltage, and thereby excitation current, depends directly
the excitation system. The AVR is a vital component of that on generator output voltage. Brushless self-excitation
system along with the exciter or the power source, the systems also exist, although they are not used much.
measuring elements, the PSS, and the protection unit.
The excitation power source can be from the exciter, Initially the generator output voltage was controlled by
which is either a separate DC or AC generator. The exciter a separate small generator or exciter machine coupled to the
has its field winding (DC current) in the stator and arma- shaft of the generator. The field was installed on the stator
ture winding in the rotor. In the case of an AC exciter with AVR controlling its input current. The exciter rotor
generator, the three-phase AC is induced in the rotor acted as a DC generator and output of the exciter is then
winding, which is rectified using diode, thyristor, or tran- controlled by AVR to deliver excitation for the main
sistor bridge installed in the rotor. However, for a brushless generator DC field through slip rings.
excitation system and with a pilot exciter, its armature in The above system introduced lag in build-up of mag-
the stator and field is a permanent magnet. The main netic fields in both the exciter and the main generator.
exciter, however, is the AC generator at the rotor. Different Therefore, the idea of a self-excitation/shunt excitation
options and alternatives of excitation systems are depicted system was developed. In this system, the separate exciter
in Figure II/4.2-1. machine was eliminated and the power source was utilized
Rotor excitation systems are, in general, broadly clas- directly from the generator output terminal with suitable
sified into three groups according to the power source used controlled output rectifiers for the DC field excitation cir-
for excitation (IEEE, 2006): cuit. The advantage of this excitation system is that it can
change the output voltage instantaneously to deliver the
1. DC excitation systems: Use DC generators to feed the required current as needed to control the main generated
field windings of the synchronous machine. voltage. Although the lag in the main generator field
FIGURE IX/10-1 Schematic diagram of brushless excitation system.
winding still persists as dictated by its time constant, the excitation systems are widely used to provide DC to
availability of a higher voltage source to supply instant develop the rotor magnetic field for the main generator.
required field current reduces the lag. The brushless excitation system consists of a main
In the self-excitation/shunt excitation system, generator exciter and a pilot exciter. Figure IX/10-1 is a repre-
output voltage is not available in the initial stage of starting sentative idea for the arrangement and location of
up of the TG set. To take care of this situation, initially the different accessories of the excitation system of a syn-
excitation system was flashed by a brief application of DC chronous generator.
from the station battery. This procedure helped to develop The pilot exciter includes a stationary armature winding
adequate field strength for generation of sufficient terminal in the form of an AC generator with rectifier and the DC
voltage, which in turn could be fed back as a power source to magnetic field in the form of a permanent magnet and
start the normal excitation system. Some problems still exist mounted on the same rotor shaft as the main generator of
in this system; as the machine starts at slow speeds, the the TG set. The main exciter, on the other hand, includes a
excitation system needs to be on from the very beginning. stationary DC magnetic field and an armature winding in
This type of field-flashing excitation is suitable for axial flow the form of an AC generator with rectifier on the same rotor
turbines where the turbine is already at a fairly high speed. shaft as the main generator of the TG set.
An alternative scheme was necessary to avoid all of Whenever the TG rotor shaft rotates, an electromotive
these problems, which meant provision of another source of force (emf) develops across the generator or armature ter-
power during the TG start-up time. The start-up excitation minals of the pilot exciter due to the effect of the rotation of
would continue until the TG set is ready to produce pre- the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The AC
requisite power to feed the self-excitation system. At this voltage thus produced is converted to DC voltage from DC
point, the excitation power source is switched over to a by the rectifiers. This rectified DC output is then fed to the
system connected to the generator output terminal. The stationary field winding of the main exciter. As soon as this
power source of start-up excitation may be from the station current flows through the field, emf develops across the
transformer or a diesel generator or a gas turbine, which is rotating generator terminals of the main exciter due to the
supposed to be available all the time. effect of relative motion of the magnetic field and exciter
The rectifiers available today are the thyristor-based generator winding. This AC voltage is again converted to
bridge circuit with a digital voltage control system. Other DC voltage from DC by the rectifiers. This rectified DC
important and necessary accessories include field circuit output is then fed to the rotating field winding on the rotor
breakers, field discharge resistor, potential transformers, shaft of the main generator.
AC input circuit breakers, switch fuse unit, etc. As the main exciter generator, its associated rectifiers
and the main generator’s field winding are all mounted on
the rotor, and the connection among them does not require
10.3.1 Brushless Excitation System for AVR
any sliding contacts in the form of slip rings, brushes, etc.
The AVR has slip rings, brushes, and commutators and Thus function of a brushless excitation system is achieved.
is a bit of a cumbersome system; hence, the search was The use of the brushless arrangement improves the reli-
on for a brushless excitation system. Today brushless ability/availability and efficiency by lessening the losses.
The maintenance problem is also reduced. Another kind of improvement in the power factor, which in turn would
brushless excitation system is seen in Figure II/4.2-1b. require less generator emf to maintain the output terminal
voltage compatible for connection to the grid.
10.3.2 Use of Thyristors/Semiconductor in a
Brushless Excitation System 10.4 De-excitation System of the Rotor
Normally thyristors are used in the circuit of rotating rec- De-excitation is the withdrawal and suppression of exci-
tifiers of the main exciter instead of semiconductor diodes tation field current of the main generator when a major
because of the following: fault, namely a short circuit or excessive load current,
1. Higher current handling capacity and their suitability takes place requiring immediate shut down of the power-
for the rotating machine application. generating plant. A conventional de-excitation system
2. Thyristors are less sensitive to vibration, accelerative requires shorting of the main generator’s magnetic field
force, and extreme weather namely temperature. windings on the rotor so that the flux becomes zero and
3. Output currents can be controlled smoothly over a wide eventually the generator terminal voltage also becomes
range for both normal operation, that is, forcing mode zero.
of operation and de-excitation mode of operation, which The brushless de-excitation system, on the other hand,
is also known as counter-excitation arranges to send the current in the other direction for a short
time by triggering the rotating rectifiers to be conductive
Many prefer power transistors to thyristors because of only during the negative half-cycle of the main exciter
low (junction capacitance) dV/dT effect and better switch- generator or armature winding voltage waveform. As a
ing actions. Currently used are insulated gate-bipolar tran- result, during this part, the polarity of the generator field
sistors (IGBTs) because of their input MOSFET advantage winding in the rotor becomes reversed. Due to this action
coupled with the bipolar advantage of bipolar junction the resultant current through the main generator field
transistors (BJTs). IGBT use in rectifiers as well as in AC winding decreases to zero at a fast rate, allowing the
drive control is very popular. Switching time of the IGBT generator stator winding-induced voltage to become zero.
may not be like MOSFET, but is faster than BJTs. ABB The time taken for de-excitation is faster than the system by
Unitrol is an example of excitation control by IGBT. shorting the rotor terminals.
Another procedure for de-excitation is the static de-
10.3.3 AVR Controller Output and Thyristors excitation system, which is the fastest de-excitation sys-
Gate Control in Brushless Excitation System tem and works by subjecting the rotor field winding with a
reverse polarity voltage across its terminals with the help of
The digital or microprocessor-based control system takes
an external source and through slip rings, etc.
the measured variable from the PT at the point of the
generator output terminal and checks the error value by
subtracting it to the set value as desired. The controller 10.5 Generator Protection System
output is in the form of pulses of equal magnitude, but their
timing of appearance at the thyristor gate, that is, the firing All signals for a possible cause of tripping the generator
and turbine as a protection measure are already indicated in
or triggering gates, varies as per the controller output. Po-
the Clause 3.1. This is a standalone system provided by the
wer transistor digital control systems issue current pulses to
TG supplier as a part of their standard scope. The system
control the input base circuit of power transistors, but for
includes necessary software and hardware with redundant
the IGBT it is a voltage-controlled device.
measurements and multichannel measuring arrangements
with adequate periodical testing facility.
10.3.4 Effect of VAR Control on AVR/Rotor
Field Current
10.6 Instrumentation System
On many occasions the rotor fails due to very high current
flowing through it used to maintain generator terminal 10.6.1 Process Instrumentation
voltage. The highly mechanically stressed rotor insulation,
The following instruments(typical) are supplied with the
when subject to excessive heat due to high rotor current,
TG set as a minimum:
may fail at an earlier stage than the normal expected life. As
the rotor repair work is time-consuming and costly, great 1. Hydrogen purity in percentage: Three indicators,
effort is made to lower the rotor current to a value less than namely hydrogen in air, hydrogen in carbon dioxide,
the limit but still at a safe and stable one. By using a and carbon dioxide in nitrogen are provided.
suitable method and hardware to control reactive VAR, the a. Hydrogen in air is meant for normal generator
generator output current may be reduced with remarkable operation.
b. Hydrogen in carbon dioxide indicator is useful when the Figure IX/11-1. The main condensate control valve is
generator is shut down and by slowly introducing car- placed in between the gland steam cooler and the drain
bon dioxide hydrogen is driven out from the generator cooler. The controller receives its measured variable input
casing (as an intermediate measure to scavenge gener- from the condenser hotwell level at a fixed set point. The
ator casing) for the preparation of a long shut down. controller output is connected to the abovementioned
c. Carbon dioxide in nitrogen is meant for a long shut control valve, which opens more for a high level in the
down when nitrogen is introduced to drive out car- condenser hotwell and vice versa. In case this valve is fully
bon dioxide to completely fill the generator casing open and the level still rises, then another control valve
and is capped thereafter. before the this valve connected to the reserve feed water
2. Hydrogen pressure and seal oil/hydrogen DP (RFW) tank opens so that the level is maintained at the
3. Monitoring the seal oil system including vacuum preset value. If these two valves are fully open and
treatment the condenser level is still high, then the control valve to
4. Monitoring and control of the hydrogen cooling system the demineralized (DM) storage tank, whose connection is
5. Monitoring and control of stator and rotor cooling sys- before gland steam condenser, would start opening to dump
tem and primary/secondary water system the condensate. For this loop, the corresponding deaerator
level control loop is depicted in Figure IX/11-3.
10.6.2 Instrumentation System for Stator and In some other control loop configuration, there is a
Rotor condensate minimum recirculation valve that opens and al-
lows the requisite flow to go back to the condenser hotwell in
The required electrical instrumentation package is also a low-load and start-up situation and maintain the condensate
included as a part of the standard scope of the TG supplier. flow to maintain the level. The other configuration is the
The following typical measurements are provided: control valve in the main condensate line going to the
1. Active power generation in MW, power imported and/ deaerator via LPHs. As the load increases, the condenser
or exported through different feeders level would tend to increase and cause the main condensate
2. Voltage in kV at the generator terminal, grid, and at any valve to open gradually and the CEP recirculation valve
other points would close accordingly. After a certain time at a higher load
3. Current in amperes through generator bus and any other the CEP recirculation valve would be closed and the hotwell
feeders level maintained by the main condensate valve.
4. Reactive power in mega VAR For some large-capacity thermal power plants (500
5. Frequency in Hz MW), the philosophy of using a control loop for the
condenser hotwell level is different. A typical control loop
(500 MW TPS) for the condenser hotwell level in its
11. CONDENSER LEVEL AND
simplest form is depicted in Figure IX/11-2.
DEAERATOR LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEM Here there is a three-level domain with dead band in
Condenser level control and deaerator level controls are between each level. The normal level control in the
very interactive closed loop controls. The direct type of condenser hotwell is controlled by the addition of make-up
level control loop envisages the control valve after water by modulating the control valve in the make-up line
condensate extraction pump (CEP) discharge to modulate from the DM plant to the condenser. The low-level control
to control the condenser hotwell level, the deaerator level domain in the condenser is lower than the normal-level
control to modulate its own dump valve to a reserve tank domain by a dead band and is controlled by a control
for a high-level band, and to modulate the make-up valve valve located in the gravity make-up line to add condensate
from the reserve tank to the condenser in case of a low- to the condenser. When this is still at a low level in the
level band. In contrast, the indirect type of level control condenser and the valve is nearly full open, the condensate
envisages the control valve after CEP discharge to modu- transfer pump across the gravity make-up valve automati-
late to control the deaerator level, the condenser level cally starts to take care of the situation by supplying
control to modulate its own dump valve to the reserve tank required water via an emergency make-up line. In the level
for a high-level band, and to modulate the make-up valve rising situation, the gravity make-up control valve would
from the reserve tank to the condenser in case of a low- close first, and the condensate transfer pump would stop
level band. when the level reaches normal.
In the eventuality of a high-level domain higher than the
normal level domain by a dead band, the high-level control
11.1 Condenser Hotwell Level Control in the condenser hotwell is controlled by a control valve
A typical direct control loop (250 MW TPS) for a placed in the condensate dump line and the excess
condenser hotwell level in its simplest form is depicted in condensate is dumped to the condensate storage tank.
FIGURE IX/11-1 Condenser hotwell level control loop A.
FIGURE IX/11-2 Condenser hotwell level control loop B.

FIGURE IX/11-3 Deaerator level control loop A.
The corresponding deaerator control loop is depicted in the main condensate valve (as described in the condenser
Figure IX/11-4. hotwell level control) modulates to maintain the deaerator
To ensure CEP protection, flow control valves are level. In case of further high levels, the control valve in the
provided in the recirculation line from CEP discharge to line from deaerator to condenser drain flash box modulates
condenser. The flow control valve in each pump recircu- to maintain the level after the (condensate line to RFW
lation line modulates as per the output of the controller, tank) control valve is fully open. When the level comes
which has its measured input signal as the condensate flow. down from the high-level domain, this valve will remain
The set point is fixed, which actually means the minimum closed. After some dead band (of level), if the level still
flow is to be maintained. This loop is normally activated decreases, then the control valve in the line from RFW tank
during start-up and low-load application and detailed to condenser modulates to allow more condensate to the
Chapter XI, Clause 3. condenser so that its level increases and the condenser level
control valve opens more to force more water to deaerator.
The control loop philosophy for the 500 MW (or even
11.2 Deaerator Level Control
250 MW) TPS may be different from the above. A typical
A typical direct control loop for deaerator level in its control loop for the deaerator level in its simplest form is
simplest form is depicted in Figure IX/11-3 and matches depicted in Figure IX/11-4 and matches with the control
with the control strategy of the condenser level control strategy of the condenser level control depicted in
depicted in Figure IX/11-1. In this control loop, there are Figure IX/11-2.
two operating level domains where the separate control In this control loop philosophy, three element control
valves modulate to control the level of their respective systems are provided for a better response. The three ele-
assigned range. This may be achieved by a single control ments are
loop and split range control or by two sets of level trans-
mitters and control loops. 1. Deaerator level
For a high level in the deaerator, the control valve 2. Total outflow from deaerator such as feed water flow
(condensate line to RFW tank) in the condensate line after plus total attemperation (SH þ RH) flow
FIGURE IX/11-4 Deaerator level control loop B.
3. Total Inflow to the deaerator such as HPH 5 drain flow, 12. VARIOUS TG OPTIONS
first emergency drain from HPH 6, condensate flow to AND MISCELLENIOUS TG CONTROLS
deaerator, extraction steam flow to deaerator
12.1 Steam Turbines
The controller gets the deaerator level as a measured
variable with a fixed set point and the difference between To cope with the stiff competition, thermal power plants,
total outflow and inflow as the feed forward signal so that like other commodities, need to have suitable options and
the deaerator level is not disturbed much due to the features that match the demands or requirements of the
excursion in demand. The controller output modulates ever-changing market. In general steam turbines are
the flow control valve(s) in the main condensate line. For applicable to both nuclear and thermal power plants.
the pump (CEP) safety from low discharge pressure, the While being used in a combined cycle power plant
controller output is taken through a minimum selector for (CCPP), steam turbines can be hooked up with the gas
maintaining minimum discharge pressure at the value turbine in both multi-shaft and single-shaft configurations.
above the CEP run out condition. In CCPP the scheme is related to the number and type of
The interlocks are provided from the deaerator level, installed gas turbines. In the single-shaft configuration a
and in case the levels are very high as sensed by the level gas turbine rotor shaft and a steam turbine rotor shaft are
switches coupled together to drive the rotor of a single generator.
For start-up and shut-down operations, this configuration
1. The pegging steam supply (from low-temperature auxil- obviously requires a switch gear to separate the steam
iary steam line or CRH line) valves with their bypass turbine from the shaft train. Multi-shaft configurations use
valves will be closed. independent gas turbine generators and steam turbine
2. The HPH 5 drain control valves will be closed. generators.
12.1.1 Factors influencing Options in 12.1.2.2 HPT and IPT in Single Modules
Turbine Selection For medium-size power plants from 250 to 700 MW the
Options of TG sets in a modern thermal power plant depend selection is the other way around. In this option LPT is
on many factors including: provided in one module whereas the other module com-
prises the combined HPT and IPT sections. Both modules
1. Size of the plant are available with down, both sides, or a single side.
2. Overall efficiency of the plant The combined HP/IP module is a double-shell design
3. Lifetime of the plant with horizontally split inner and outer casings including
4. Flexibility and reliability an admission section with stationary blade carriers.
5. Minimum start-up time A thermal sleeve close to the center of the combined HP/
6. Capital and running cost of the plant IP turbine is provided for admission of the main steam.
7. Optimized steam cycle path The reheat steam enters the IPT section of the same
8. Reduction in downtime/ease of maintenance module again close to the center of the machine. Suitable
9. Minimum turbine manufacturing/delivery times shaft gland seal with an abradable coating to improve the
10. Different main steam conditions for suitable material sealing efficiency separates the two HPT and IPT expan-
selection sion sections.
11. Ambient temperature and cooling system influence the
size and design of the low-pressure end of the steam
12.1.3 Selection of Single-Flow or Double-
turbine.
Flow Turbines
To implement the above technological ideas and com-
IPTs and LPTs can be either a single- or double-flow type,
mercial aspects, turbine components along with the asso-
which is mainly dictated by the capacity of the turbine. For
ciated equipment connected to it are modified in design
a single-flow turbine, steam enters from one end in the axial
and/or with improved materials.
direction and exits from the opposite end. The selection of
Different turbine stages, namely HPT, IPT, and LPT are
the entry side depends on the design of thrust calculation
accommodated in modules. In modern practice, there are, in
and balancing requirement and axial shift limitations. For a
general, three modulesdHPT, IPT, and LPTdwhich are
double-flow turbine, the steam admission is provided at the
elaborately discussed in Chapter II, Clause 3.
center of a particular turbine and exits from both sides of
the turbine.
12.1.2 Selection of Modules
In addition to the traditional concept of accommodating 12.1.4 Selection of Multiple Identical
each stage of turbine in a single module, other configura- Modules
tions, that is, more than one turbine stage in one module,
Very large capacity power plants comprise more than one
are also available for subcritical steam power plants
identical IPT or LPT module to take care of the huge steam
ranging from 50 to 700 MW output capacity requiring
volume flow at the later stage. The nuclear power stations
main steam temperatures up to 600 C at main steam
normally operate on low pressure comparative to fossil-
pressures of 177 bar. The modular concept has evolved and
fired pressures; hence, they are provided with multiple
is expected to reduce the number of alternative compo-
identical IPTs or LPTs.
nents, ensuring short lead times, moderate prices, and
proven reliability.
12.1.5 Selection of Governing System
12.1.2.1 IPT and LPT in Single Modules There are multiple regulating valves for controlling
For power plants with lower power output up to 210 MW the steam admission to the turbine at different loads and
with/without high back pressures, IPTs and LPTs are often for receiving control signals from the EHC as already
put together in one module with axial exhaust. HPT is a discussed in Clause 2. The final controller output
single module with combined control and stop valves. The distributed to these regulating valves are varied as
turbine casing structure normally follows the proven barrel- per governing system philosophy. There are two types
type design without horizontal flanges at the outer casing to of governing systems: nozzle governing and throttle
ensure a homogenous distribution of the forces. The governing.
improved design, as claimed by the manufacturer, provides
the symmetrical expansion behavior of the turbine, and thus 12.1.5.1 Nozzle Governing System
facilitates realization of small radial clearances between The nozzle governing system is the system where the
stationary and moving blades. regulating valves open one after another. In case of partial
load condition, a load for a main steam pressure may be 12.1.7 Options Regarding Regulating Vales
controlled by varying the nozzle area at a constant pres- and ESVs
sure. This type of control is widely used in the United
States and Japan. Here the internal efficiency of the turbine The steam admission to turbine is first through the ESVs
is much more than the throttle governing system as the with open/close function only. The actuator is hydraulic
pressure drops across the regulating valves are not and suitably sized to meet the emergency closing feature.
applicable. The regulating or governor valves are provided to maintain
the steam flow/pressure to the turbine as desired by the
EHC or hydraulic controller. These actuators are also hy-
12.1.5.2 Throttle Governing System
draulic to meet fast-closing and huge power requirements
In the throttle governing system, which is popular in for operating the valve for all situations.
Western Europe, all the regulating valves open or close Normally these two types of valves provide different
simultaneously. Here the load is controlled by varying the services for all the turbine stagesdHPT, IPT, or LPTd(if
inlet pressure to the nozzle envisaged for operating at a any) are combined in a single casing and arranged at right
constant nozzle area. The internal efficiency is lower than angles to each other. The connection with the turbine is
the nozzle governing system. made through flanges. Separate valves are also provided by
some manufacturers.
12.1.6 Selection of Constant Pressure or In general the Venturi type valves have been used as
Sliding Pressure Controls turbine governing valves for quite a long time in large
thermal power turbines to regulate the steam flow. The
The turbine, as it gets high pressure and temperature steam convergingediverging configurations of the valve passage
from the boiler or the steam generator, may be a constant restricts the total pressure loss at a low value, which is the
pressure or a variable (sliding) pressure at the normal main reason for their wide demand. However, to accom-
controllable load zone (60e100% load). modate larger turbines there is a great demand for
improved designs because of the complicated nature of the
12.1.6.1 Constant Pressure Controls fluid, the basic mechanism causing valve vibration, and
For a constant pressure control system, the steam admission failure. The valve plug vibration is due to interactive force
to the turbine is slowly increased to suit the turbine condition exerted by the fluid-induced excitation on the valve plug
and load is increased up to a certain designed value by and hydraulic forces acting on the plug at its balanced
admitting steam with gradually higher pressure and tem- position causing plug vibrations in the lateral and vertical
perature. Around this load, the steam condition at the turbine directions. There are several improved designs available by
inlet is the same as in the full-unit load condition and is kept at changing the plug shape, etc. The flow patterns can be
constant values by the boiler and turbine controls. Any in- made much more symmetric, which reduces the intensity
crease in load is accomplished by increasing the steam flow of steady forces and fluid plug interaction. For large power
through the turbine governor valves. plants, there is not much choice in selection of these
valves, but for smaller plants the other standard type valves
12.1.6.2 Sliding Pressure Controls can be used.
In this type of control operation, the steam condition is
gradually increased. The temperature is brought at the rated 12.1.8 Options Regarding HPT/IPT and LPT
unit load value much earlier than the actual load reaches
Blading
full load value, but the pressure is maintained by the steam
generator at a value depending on the actual load. The Overall efficiency of steam turbine power plants depends
relationship between the steam pressure and the unit load on and is very much related to the turbine blading per-
for any value of the unit load is predefined and the turbine formance and efficiency. The construction of the blade
governing system takes care of this by full or wide opening path is normally designed from guidelines of the stan-
of the regulating valves after a particular specified load. dard and proven flow elements such as airfoils, roots,
Before that, the nozzle or throttle governing system con- grooves, shrouds, etc., with its own advantages and
trols the load as per requirement. disadvantages. Other aspects regarding specific design
Modified sliding pressure operation, however, suggests boundary conditions such as aerodynamics, forces, ma-
that the throttle valves operate slightly closed at 90e95% terials, and temperatures are also considered for optimum
load to utilize the reserve capacity of the valves and stored blade design. However, the customer probably has no
energy of the boiler can respond more quickly to rapid load choice regarding the selection of blades but on the TG
change near full load. The throttling effect as temperature set has a choice of overall efficiency and performance
loss is nominal and cycling damage is disregarded. only.
12.1.9 Options Regarding Type of 12.2 TGs

Condensers
Since cylindrical rotors for a high-speed generator were
Condensers are a very important subsystem equipment/ invented in 1901, its use as a TG set for steam turbine and
accessory. There are various types made to suit the turbine gas turbine is now a part of the history. In 1912, Ludwig
design, construction, connectivity, etc. Details have been Roebel invented the continuously transposed stator bar,
discussed in Chapter II, Clause 3.4. There are so many which made it possible to implement large-scale winding
options and types, and the selection depends on the con- application. Around 1930, generators were designed with
siderations, such as minimum back pressure from various pole options (i.e., 2, 4, and 6 poles) to match the
maximum output, lower condensate sub cooling, enhanced speeds of the steam turbines. There was continuous devel-
condensate deaeration, minimum tube corrosion and opment in stator winding insulation also, which started with
erosion, minimum cooling water leakage, improved tube some form of mica paper compounded by shellac varnish
cleaning system, etc. and later substituted by asphalt withstanding voltages up to
There may be an option for once-through cooling water 12 kV. The use of hydrogen as a generator coolant also was
supply from external and flowing water resources such as a introduced around 1930. Today, TG sets ranging from 30
river, sea water, etc., or in-house cooling tower arrangements. (and even less) to 1500 MW (or more) are available.
The main improvements for design upgrades to match
12.1.10 Options Regarding Subcritical the demands for higher capacity TGs are a more efficient
and Super Critical Steam Parameters cooling and insulation. As the future demand would always
be for higher capacity units, the options would naturally be
As modern technology and a suitable choice of super crit- oriented around efficiency and stability with the availability
ical steam parameters with suitable design provides most of commercially viable technologies.
efficient power plants with the lowest fuel cost and mini- Around 1960, DM water was introduced first as a
mum emissions such as carbon dioxide, etc., there is a cooling media in the hollow conductor of stator winding
demand for super and ultra super critical steam parameters, and the insulation system was adapted to the use of mica
especially when the capacity of the power plant is on the tape with synthetic resin impregnation, which permitted
higher side. even higher temperatures of w150 C, and is still used
The worldwide power demand, according to general today. By early 1960 the TG set unit ratings escalated to as
forecasts, will be twice that of the present value. To cope with high as 500 MW. By that time there was tremendous
future demand, higher capacity, super critical thermal plants improvement in the field of power-handling capacity of
are the optimum and ultimate selection for fossil-fired steam- semiconductors, and close to the end of 1960 it was
generating units with a view to reduced fuel consumption, possible to change the then conventional DC machine
reduced emissions, and maximum efficiency. The optimum excitation system to the static excitation system and even
(43e46% efficiency) critical steam parameters are observed at with a system with an AC exciter machine with rotating
w270e285 bars and 600 C for HPT inlet and w60 bars and diodes, which totally eliminated the cumbersome system
610e620 C for IPT inlet. The super critical steam turbine using slip rings, commutators, and brushes.
setup is influenced by the capacity of the plant, number of The early gas turbine models developed well before
reheat cycles, plant atmospheric conditions, etc. The range of 1980 had a 25e40 MW capacity (low-capacity models
electrical power output generally covers from 600 to 1200 were also available). Options for both 50 and 60 Hz with
MW. In this category, normally the IPT and LPTs are double- the same generator with a gear box wheel and pinion
flow design and the number of IPT and LPT modules is more arrangement for frequency variation were presented as a
than one, depending on the capacity of electrical power output standard. The gas turbine technology in early 1980
of the plant. emerged with the introduction of 100 MW units and the
same type of generators could be used for both gas turbines
12.1.11 Options Regarding Fossil-Fired or and steam turbines. The first 300 MW gas turbine was
Nuclear Thermal Power Plants introduced in 1996 as a response to the growing demands
Considering the limited resources of fossil-type fuels, there from the user with a comparatively simple and robust air-
developed (around 1970) very large capacity nuclear ther- cooling technology from some manufacturers.
mal power plants up to 1500 MW and 27 kV generator
voltage using radioactive elements as fuels. These plants 12.2.1 Options for Power Output Ranges
are generally characterized by low steam temperature tur-
bines with four pole generators or 1500 rpm rotors with 12.2.1.1 Low Range Up to 150 MW
more than one IPT/LPT module of double-flow design, Low-range generators of w150 MW TG sets are normally
depending on the capacity of the plant. designed for low cost. The models used for gas turbines can
easily be adapted for steam turbines. The maintenance of media should be air-cooled units instead of hydrogen-
these types of generators claimed to be quite simple and cooled units and substitution of hydrogen/water-cooling
requires only some recommended spare parts with a small system by the hydrogen-cooling system only continues to
storage space. All of these machines are made for easy budge the ratings upward. Some major benefits from an air-
transportation and mounting on site. Even the turbine cooled TGs include elimination of the hydrogen generation/
manufacturers often can mount and couple the generators to transportation/treatment system and seal oil system and less
the turbine themselves. sealing, civil work, piping, maintenance, and better reli-
ability. However, the maximum achievable capacity of air-
12.2.1.2 Medium Range Up to 500 MW cooled generators, proven by tests and experiments, is
TG set generators with pressurized hydrogen as a coolant w400 MW so far.
are filled up with a gauge pressure of w5.0e6.0 kg/cm2.
These machines are designed for both single-shaft and 12.2.3 Options for Insulation
combined-cycle applications. The main theory of operation
Regarding options for insulation, important criteria are
of the gas-cooled design is the same as that used for the air- sensitivity to inconsistency in manufacturing, environ-
cooled design. Normally the hydrogen-cooled types are
mental compliance. and availability of the components
used for high-capacity machines requiring more heat-
from an alternative source. The generator windings insu-
dissipation facilities. They have also been used for both
lation normally used today is based on the synthetic resin
gas turbine and steam turbine applications.
mica tape as discussed earlier, and the search for a better
Air-cooled TG set generators are also available from
insulation is ongoing. Polymer insulations, as the experi-
some manufacturers where the technological improvement
ments and test results indicate, might become a suitable
is mainly made in the cooling arrangement, such as rotor
option. Such new technology products are improved tape
axial cooling and winding indirect cooling using a special with high thermal conductivity using fillers, and higher
type of stator with a provision for multi-chamber air flow.
mica content by denser roving carrier. The target for
These generators are distinguished by their simple design,
improving the insulation system to a higher thermal class
which facilitates ease of operation and maintenance. By
(namely class 180) is in the close proximity of being
adopting suitable measures toward improved electrical
introduced. The higher value of electrical field stress is also
design and cooling technology with increased air pressure
an added parameter allowing better heat transfer and more
inside the generator, the air-cooled generators also are
conductor in the slot. It is of utmost importance that both
increasing their market share by claiming high efficiency
stator and rotor winding designs can accommodate their
and usage up to 21 kV as a maximum limit. elongation due to thermal expansion.
12.2.1.3 Higher Range Up to 1500 MW
12.2.4 Options for Stator Bar
These thermal power plants, both fossil fired and nuclear, are
all necessarily equipped with a hydrogen-cooling system for For any new TG development, a refined stator bar improves
the rotor by axial flow of hydrogen through all conductors of efficiency to a great extent. The eddy currents and the
a slot. Stator cooling is performed with direct flow of DM circulating currents in the stator bars are very important
water through stainless steel tubes embedded in the hollow factors and can represent w30% of the total losses in the
conductors of stator winding bars. Apparently the stator stator bars. The modified stator bar, actually made in
water cooling system has no upper limit as far as size of the accordance with the design of a compact Roebel bar,
TG. In contrast, the limiting factor is associated with comprising strands of minimum possible size reduces sig-
the rotor winding. At 50 Hz, the rotor diameter of 1.25 m is nificant losses with practically no eddy currents; thus, the
the limit of mechanical stress. The rotor shaft dynamics calls efficiency is enhanced. This design is beneficial for both
for cautious and careful calculation in case active length directly and indirectly cooled stator bars.
extension goes beyond 8 m. However, experiments are still
performed regarding multi-zone rotor cooling concepts with 12.2.5 Options for Superconducting
the possibility of higher hydrogen pressure with associated Field Coil
fan pressure in an effort to overcome the freeloading con-
In 1911 Heike Kamerlingh discovered that “superconduc-
sequences like effects of stray flux, etc.
tivity” of a conductor/certain materials is an exactly zero
electrical resistance that takes place below a particular
12.2.2 Options for Cooling Media temperature called critical temperature. The electrical re-
As the stability, reliability, and performance of a generator sistivity of a metallic conductor decreases as the tempera-
depends greatly on the temperature rise of the stator and ture is lowered. However, in ordinary conductors, such as
rotor windings, it is strongly believed that the cooling copper and silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and
other defects. Even near absolute zero, copper shows some

resistance. In 1986, experiments revealed that for some
ceramic materials the critical temperatures are 183.15 C.
From a practical perspective, even 183.15 C appears to
be easy to reach with readily available liquid nitrogen
having boiling point at 196.15 C, resulting in more ex-
periments and applications. For TGs, field winding is the
potential area where application of superconductors is
considered for small generators only.
12.2.6 Options for Excitation of Field Coil

As previously discussed in Clause 10, there are different
categories regarding options for excitation of field coils as
listed below:
1. External static excitation system through slip ring,
brush, commutators, etc.
2. DC generator/battery system through slip ring, brush,
commutators, etc.
3. Rotating diode or thyristor rectifier circuit through
main exciter with/without pilot exciter eliminating slip
rings, etc.
AVR controls the generator terminal voltage by
varying the excitation current. In case of “external static
excitation” employing thyristors, the system is directly
supplied by the three-phase voltage generated by the
generator itself. There may arise a situation when the
generator voltage drops to a certain value below the limits FIGURE IX/12-1 TG lube oil temperature control.
given by its AC feeding. There are some systems that
provide slightly oversized transformer inputting from the
generator and supply the excitation system with a suitable
voltage regulator. This keeps the control of the excitation
current as required, even if the generator output voltages 3. Loop description: Lubrication oil temperature is
are at a low level. In some systems, there are adequately measured in the header after the cooler with the help
designed capacitor banks to maintain the said voltage, of the redundant temperature elements (e.g., Pt RTD)
even if the main supply voltage experiences temporary with a temperature transmitter, since this is an impor-
heavy drops. tant parameter. The measured value is compared with
the set point from the monitor (or setter in the plaque
as applicable). Set point and measured value is
12.3 Miscellaneous TG Control Loops compared to create an error value. The error thus
12.3.1 TG Lubrication Oil Temperature created is fed to one PID controller with an A/M sta-
control tion. The output via converter is fed to each of the con-
trol valves to regulate coolant flow to the redundant
1. Objective: As the name implies, the basic purpose of LO coolers.
this control loop is to maintain the desired temperature
of lubrication oil to ensure good flow ability and its
12.3.2 Generator Seal Oil Temperature
proper action as coolant (see Figure IX/12-1).
Control
2. Discussions: In some systems this control loop may be a
part of the ATRS oil subgroup, because the oil goes to 1. Objective: As the name implies, the basic purpose of
various turbine-bearing lubrication and other places, this control loop is to maintain the desired temperature
and is directly connected with start-up and shut down of seal oil to ensure good flow ability and proper action
of the turbine. However, it could be a separate system sealing medium (see Figure IX/12-2).
in other turbines (especially for smaller units), so it is 2. Discussions: As discussed earlier, there is a possibility
discussed separately. of moisture in seal oil, which may deteriorate the
FIGURE IX/12-3 Generator hydrogen temperature control.
FIGURE IX/12-2 Generator seal oil temperature control. created is fed to one PID controller with an A/M station.
The output via converter is fed to the control valve to
regulate coolant flow to the hydrogen cooler.
12.3.4 Stator Coolant Flow Diagram

performance of the sealing application, so it is necessary and Temperature Control
to maintain the desired temperature to circumvent such
a situation. 1. Objective: Basic purpose of this control loop is to main-
3. Loop descriptions: Similar to item 3 in Clause 12.3.1. tain the desired temperature of stator cooling water to
ensure good cooling of the stator. The stator conductors
are cooled by closed-circuit DM water. The stator holes
12.3.3 Generator Hydrogen Temperature
through which water flows are quite narrow, and unim-
Control
peded flow through these holes is critical, because any
1. Objective: Basic purpose of this control loop is to main- overheating of the stator reduces generation and even
tain the desired temperature of hydrogen to ensure good leads to a catastrophic failure of the generator. There-
cooling (see Figure IX/12-3). fore suitable control is envisioned maintaining the tem-
2. Loop description: Hydrogen temperature is measured in perature of stator water.
the line going to both the ends with the help of the tem- 2. Discussion: Stator winding of the TG is cooled by
perature elements (e.g., Pt RTD) with a temperature circulating DM water through the hollow conductor
transmitter. Since this is an important parameter, redun- of stator winding. DM water (known as stator cooling
dancy in measurement is recommended so that the tem- water, SCW) is fed to the feed header mounted inside
perature on each side is considered and am average of the generator casing, toward the turbine side, from
all four is taken in the loop. The measured value is their Teflon lines are drawn to supply water to the con-
compared with the set point from monitor (or setter in ductors. This is done in a closed circuit. A pump (al-
the plaque as applicable). Set point and measured value ways with an auto standby pump) is used to drive the
is compared to create an error value. The error thus water through the filter, cooler, and the conductors and
FIGURE IX/12-4 Generator stator cooling water system and temperature control.
returned back to a hermetically sealed expansion tank, create an error value. The error thus created is fed to
which is kept in vacuum (200e250 mmHg) and one PID controller with an auto/manual station. The
mounted above the generator. The temperature of sta- output via converter is fed to each of the control
tor cooling water is controlled by regulating the valve(s) to regulate coolant flow to the redundant
coolant supply to the heat exchanger. The mainte- SCW cooler (s).
nance quality of stator water is very important. For
this reason often it is supplied with standalone mixed
bed units in a recirculation line. The conductivity mea- BIBLIOGRAPHY
surement of stator water going to the generator is [1] Instrumentation and Control Systems for Steam Turbine Generators:
extremely important and is normally monitored. Also By Wolfgang Kindermann and Hans Georg Schwarz. Germany.
in some cases dissolved oxygen (DO) is often moni- Seminar document (1981).
tored. Since DM water passes through the stator con- [2] Instrumentation and Control for the Steam Turbine Generator Sets:
ductors, which are quite narrow, any contamination or By M/s KWU Germany. Seminar document (1981).
rise in temperature is very detrimental and often [3] Automatic Control of KWU Steam Turbine Generators: By Heribert
causes line blockage. A short flow diagram of typical Kurten Germany. Seminar document (1981).
stator cooling system is seen in Figure IX/12-4A. [4] Electrohydraulical Controller (EHC) for Steam Turbines e
Conventional Power Plants: By M/s KWU. Germany (Seminar
3. Loop description: SCW temperature is measured in the
Document - Write up). Doc no. V 793/8.1-8460/1/Pr/mt/engl 01.78.
feed header with the help of the temperature elements
[5] Electrohydraulic Steam Turbines Controller (EHC) (Iskamatic A):
(e.g., Pt RTD) with a temperature transmitter. Since By M/s KWU. Germany (Seminar Document no. PSW 213/05.81 for
this is an important parameter, redundancy in measure- Control Loop Strategies).
ment is recommended, so in the loop 1 of 2 redundancy [6] Seal Oil System: Scavenging Type: BY M/s General Electric.
is shown. The measured value is compared with the set [7] Doc no. PI 30.23e2 (Excerpts from M/s Canteach CANDU). Elec-
point from the monitor (or setter in the plaque as appli- trical Equipment - Course PI30.2. Generator Auxiliary Systems.
cable). Set point and measured value is compared to January 1990 (ITPO.01).
[8] Application Update for the Power Generation market: By M/s Pall [17] Overspeed turbine Trip: By Boyd Davis.
Corporation. http://www.hydrafab.com/pdf/AU-Seal%20Oil.pdf. [18] Basic Electrical Theory: By Science and Reactor Fundamentals.
[9] Product Catalog of M/s Westinghouse Type Seal ring and Seal Oil Electrical CNSC Technical Training Group (Revision 1. March
system. 2003).
[10] Basic A C Electrical Generators (American Society of Power Engi- [19] Product Bulletin of M/s Whitby Hydro Energy Services Corporation:
neers). Obtained by O&M Consulting Services Inc. http://www. Engineering and Construction Services on Generator & Exciter
asope.org/pdfs/AC_Electrical_Generators_ASOPE.pdf. Basics. http://www.whitbyhydro.on.ca/pdf/5.2.C_GenBasics.pdf.
[11] 11th Annual Conference and Exhibition on Electric Power. [20] Workshop on Mechanical Systems (Power Cycle) in thermal power
[12] Fuji Electric Review: Vol. 12 No. 5: By M/s Tatomi Iwamitsu & station: By M/s BHEL India: dtd: July, 1982.
Ryoichi Kuramochi. udc 621.313.322-81. http://www.fujielectric. [21] Steam Turbines Hydraulic Systems Problems and Solutions: By M/s
com/company/tech_archives/pdf/12-05/FER-12-05-129-1966.pdf. Barry Sibul and Company. Copywrite 2012. Barry Sibul Company,
[13] United States Patent no 4,152,636 dt May 1, 1979 by Dale I. Gorden, 3720 S. Ocean Blvd., Suite 108, Highland Beach, FL 33487 Phone:
Munhall, Pa. 888-433-0003 FAX: 877-789-4133 Email: barry@sibul.com Web:
[14] LPBP System e Product Bulletin from M/s Sulzer, USA. www.sibul.com.
[15] Turbine Bypass Systems (Vector Control Technology): By Nihon [22] Bringing to Light Lube Oil Moisture in Hydrogen Cooled Generators:
KOSO Co., LTD. Japan. By James R. Mickalec, AEP Pro Serv Inc. A Noria Publication on
[16] Turbine Bypass Systems for greater plant performance-SULZAR Machinery Lubrication. http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/
valves a product of CCI. 132/oil-hydrogen-cooled-generators.

Turbo Generator Control System

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What are the main components of a modern turbo generator control system?

What are the main components of a modern turbo generator control system?

What are the main subsystems or functional groups of a turbo generator control system?

What are the main subsystems or functional groups of a turbo generator control system?

Chapter IX

Turbo Generator Control System

In some plants, the generator exciter subsystem is also

Power Plant Instrumentation and Control Handbook 695

valves, soaking of turbine metals, and holding/speeding of 2. ELECTRO HYDRAULIC GOVERNOR

TABLE IX/2.3-1 Operational Modes of EHG

SL Operational Mode Details

FIGURE IX/2-2 Turbine speed controller block diagram.

FIGURE IX/2-3 Turbine load controller block diagram.

2.4 Selection of Controller Outputs 2.5 Selection of Hydraulic Signals

FIGURE IX/2-5 Schematic diagram of electro hydraulic converter.

FIGURE IX/3-1 Schematic diagram of TG protection system.

FIGURE IX/3-2 Typical steam turbine protection scheme.

FIGURE IX/4-1 Typical ATRS scheme.

FIGURE IX/5-1 Schematic diagram of ATT system.

FIGURE IX/5-2 Schematic diagram of ATT oil circuit.

FIGURE IX/8-1 Seal steam pressure control.

FIGURE IX/9-1 Seal oil ﬂow diagram.

FIGURE IX/10-1 Schematic diagram of brushless excitation system.

FIGURE IX/11-1 Condenser hotwell level control loop A.

FIGURE IX/11-2 Condenser hotwell level control loop B.

FIGURE IX/11-3 Deaerator level control loop A.

FIGURE IX/11-4 Deaerator level control loop B.

12.1.9 Options Regarding Type of 12.2 TGs

other defects. Even near absolute zero, copper shows some

12.2.6 Options for Excitation of Field Coil

FIGURE IX/12-3 Generator hydrogen temperature control.

12.3.4 Stator Coolant Flow Diagram

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