EE 513

Control Apps in Power Systems

Load Frequency Control

Prof. Hossam Eldin Talaat

Prof. at Electrical Power Eng. Dept.
11/16/15

Ain-Shams Univ.
Load Frequency Control

Power System Functions on Time

Horizon

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Load Frequency Control

Why Load Frequency

Control?

System Frequency
is the PowerSystem Health
Indicator
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Load Frequency Control

North Americas 2003

Blackout
2003 Blackout Simulation.flv

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Load Frequency Control

2003 Blackout
Power/Frequency

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Load Frequency Control

Impact of Under/Over
Frequency on Power System
Turbine (very tight
Components
1/2
over/under frequency
tolerance): vibrations arise in
turbine blades when the
generator is operating at off
nominal frequencies. Resonant
frequencies lie in the
neighborhood of the
fundamental base operating
speed of the turbine. Running
at these resonant freq. under
load for any extended period,
there is cumulative damage to
the
anFrequency
eventual
11/16/15blades and Load
Control

Impact of Under/Over
Frequency on Power System
Components
2/2

Generator (under frequency

limit):
Reduced frequency results in reduced ventilation
-> overheating -> reduced kVA.
Network Components: Transformers, Motors,
Drives, Controllers, more tolerant frequency
limits.

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Load Frequency Control

Steam Turbine Operating Limitations

During Abnormal Frequency (IEEE
C37.106 Standard)

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Load Frequency Control

Power/ Frequency Vs
Time

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Load Frequency Control

System Frequency Response to a

Disturbance

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Load Frequency Control

10

Evaluation of System
Performance

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Load Frequency Control

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Load Frequency Control

(LFC)
The highest priority in system operation

is to ensure generation/load balance

leading to maintaining system
frequency.
Each utility defines a CONTROL AREA
Controls its generation to help maintain
SYSTEM frequency
Controls its generation to meet load and
interchange.

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Load Frequency Control

12

Interconnected Control
Areas
(Power Pool)

Control Area
Net Interchange from area
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Load Frequency Control

13

Objectives of LFC
1. Maintain(Regulate) System

Frequency at steady state

2. Enhance transient response of
frequency
3. Maintain Tie-Line Power
interchanges.
4. Minimize integration of frequency
deviation
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Load Frequency Control

14

Levels of Generation
Control
Local Governor Control
Responds at generator level to correct frequency
deviation. Does not attempt to restore all the
way to nominal frequency 50/60 Hz
Automatic generation Control
Real-time control from Control centers controls
generation to restore frequency to 50/60 Hz and
interchanges to contracted amount
Economic dispatch
Reallocates generation to minimize cost
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Load Frequency Control

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Generator Model
Generation (Mechanical Power) Load (Electrical
Power) Imbalance results in change in machine speed
(frequency).
Machine electro-mechanical dynamics are described by
the swing equation
For a single machine serving a load ( in per unit)
Pm-Pe = M d/dt

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Load Frequency Control

16

Generator Model (1/3)

Pe
Pm

Pm- Pe = M d/dt

Pm= mechanical power IN

Pe= electrical power OUT
= speed(frequency) in p.u.
M = 2 H (H is Inertia const.)
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Load Frequency Control

17

Generator Model (2/3)

Majority of imbalances encountered in normal operation are
small ( as compared to a fault)
Customary to use small-signal linearized models
Pmo+ Pm- Peo - Pe = 2H d (o+ ) / dt
Pmo, Peo and o represent the initial operation point
where Pmo=Peo
Pm, Pe , (f) are (small) deviations from the operating
point. Therefore,
Pm- Pe = 2H d ( ) / dt
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Load Frequency Control

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Generator
Model (3/3)
Pm- Pe = 2H d ( ) / dt
Apply Laplace transform:

Pm(s)- Pe(s) = 2sH (s) =>

(s)= [ Pm(s) - Pe(s)]/ (2H s)

A sustained load generation imbalanced would lead to a continuous change in frequency!!!!!!!

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Load Frequency Control

19

Load Model
Generally, the P&Q absorbed by the load are functions of f&V.
Assume D as the load dependency on frequency, then
Pe = PL + D
Where PL is the incipient demand increase
D represents the response the additional load causes freq
to drop, all motors slow down=>load drops as D
D = 0 for resistive loads
D = -ve for static inductive loads
D = +ve for induction motors
The equivalent D of a system is often positive
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Load Frequency Control

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Generator + Load Model

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Load Frequency Control

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System Behavior
(gen+load)
Lets say Pm=0

PL= P u(t) or PL(s)

= P/s
(s) = - PL(s)/(Ms+D) = - P / s(MS+D)
tM/D
(t) = - (P/D)
(
1

e
)
P
e

Pm

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The offsetting load change arrests

frequency change frequency
PL
settles to
= -P/D

Load Frequency Control

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MATLAB Model:
Inertia+Load

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Load Frequency Control

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Governor Behavior
P
e

PL
Pm
Speed
Governor

Desired Generation

Measures speed(frequency) and adjusts valves to

change generation
Frequency drops => Raise generation
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Load Frequency Control

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Generator Turbine Governor

Behavior

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Load Frequency Control

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Generator Turbine Governor

Behavior
Detailed and complex models for Governors exist and are used
in long-term dynamic simulations
Simplest model

Droop
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Load Frequency Control

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MATLAB LFC Model

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Load Frequency Control

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freq. Deviation in p.u.

-0.02

With
Governor

-0.04
-0.06
-0.08
Without Governor
(Inertia + Load)

-0.1
-0.12
-0.14

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Load Frequency Control

t in sec

10
28

Generator Turbine Governor Behavior:

Steady State Response
Using energy balance
PL

- (1/R)

Load
Change

Load Generation Steady state error

Response Change from
Governor
= - PL /( D+1/R)
Typical R = 0.05 pu ( 5% factory set)
For P = 0.2 , D = 0.8, R=0.05
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Load Frequency Control

= -0.2/20.8 = - 0.0096 pu
29

Behavior
Steady state response Role of
Pref
Pm = Pref (1/R)
At nominal frequency (=0) unit
would generate Pref0+ Pref

Pref
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Load Frequency Control

Pref

Pm
30

Multiple Areas
Pe1

Pm1

Ptie
jX

PLl
Area 1 or Gen 1 Tie Line

Pe2

PL2
Area 2 or Gen 2

Pm2

Now look at two areas connected by a line or network

If load changes in any area how do frequencies and line power Ptie
change?
We will want to restore both to nominal value
A simple model for the line is just a series inductive reactance
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Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators and Areas

Ptie

Pe1

Pe2

jX

P1l

Pm2
Area 1 or Gen 1 Tie Line Area 2 or Gen 2
A simple model for the line is just a series inductive reactance.
Let us also assume voltage magnitudes are ~nominal ( 1pu)
Pm1

Pl2

From simplified transmission line models

Ptie~ (1/X) sin(1- 2)

We also know that

d 1 /dt =1

d 2 /dt = 2

Combine these with swing equations

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Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators and Areas

Ptie

Pe1

jX

P1l
Pm1

Area 1 or Gen 1

Pe2

Pm2
Pl2
Tie Line Area 2 or Gen 2

Pm1- Pl1 D1 1-Ptie = M1 d1/dt

Pm2- Pl2 D2 2+Ptie = M2 d2/dt
Ptie= (1/X) sin(1- 2)
d 1 /dt =1
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d 2 /dt = 2

Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators and Areas

Ptie

Pe1

jX

P1l
Pm1

Area 1 or Gen 1

Pe2
Pl2

Tie Line

Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2

Pm1- Pl1 D1 1- Ptie = M1d 1/dt

Pm2- Pl2 D2 2+ Ptie = M2d 2/dt

Ptie= Ps( 1- 2) ; sin x~x for small x

d 1 /dt = 1
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Load Frequency Control

d 2 /dt = 2
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Multiple Generators and Areas

Ptie

Pe1

jX

P1l
Pm1

Area 1 or Gen 1

Pe2
Pl2

Tie Line

Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2

In s domain with zero initial conditions

Pm1(s)- Pl1(s) D1 1(s)- Ptie(s) = M1 s 1(s)

Pm2(s)- Pl2(s) D2 2(s)+ Ptie(s) = M2 s 2(s

Ptie(s)= Ps ( 1(s)- 2(s))

1(s) = 1(s)/s

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Load Frequency Control

2 (s) = 2(s)/s

35

Multiple Generators and Areas

Ptie

Pe1

jX

P1l
Pm1

Area 1 or Gen 1

Pe2
Pl2
Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2
Governor

Tie Line

Pm1(s) +

1(s)
Pl1(s) -

Pm2(s) +

1/(M1s+D1)

2(s)

Pl2(s) -

1(s)

Ptie(s)

1/(M2s+D2)

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1/s
1/X

1/s
2(s)

Governor
Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators
and
Areas
Ptie
Pe1

jX

P1l
Pm1

Area 1 or Gen 1
Qualitative Response

Pe2
Pl2

Tie Line

Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2

Load increase in area 1

Area 1 frequency drops
Area 1 voltage phase angle fall behind area 2
Ptie decreases (stabilizes Area 1 frequency, drags down area 2)
Area 2 frequency drops
Both governors raise generation
Steady state achieved at a lower frequency and Ptie
Area 1 assists Area 2 in meeting the load increase; frequency drop is
lower
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Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators and Areas

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Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators and Areas

2
1

Frequency Error

Interchange Error
ptie decreases from 1 to 2

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Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators and Areas

Phase angle difference

ptie decreases from 1 to 2

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Load Frequency Control

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Combined effects:
Inertia+ Governor + AGC

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Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators
and
Areas
Ptie
Pe1

jX

P1l
Pm1

Area 1 or Gen 1

Pe2
Pl2

Tie Line

Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2

Steady state => return to synchronism at some frequency

= 1 = 2
Pl1

- (1/R1) + Ptie

Load
Change

Load GenerationInterchange
Response Change from
Governor
- D2
- (1/R2) - Ptie

Pl2

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D1

Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators
and
Areas
Ptie
Pe1

jX

P1l
Pm1

Area 1 or Gen 1

Pe2
Pl2

Tie Line

Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2

Steady state => return to synchronism at some frequency

= -( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
Ptie = - Pl1 + (D1+1/R1)( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
Pm1 = - (1/R1)( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
Pm2 = - (1/R2)( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
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Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators
and
Areas
Ptie
Pe1

jX

P1l
Pm1

Area 1 or Gen 1

Pe2
Pl2

Tie Line

Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2

Identical Areas R1=R2=0.05 D1=D2=1 Pl1 = 1 Pl2=0

= -( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2) = -0.0238 pu
Corrected!
Ptie = -0.5 pu
Pm1 = 0.5pu
Pm2 = .5 pu --------- Concept of Assist
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Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators and Areas

Coherent generators
The oscillation in frequency/angle represent synchronizing swings
As generators exchange Kinetic energy trying to synchronize or find a
common frequency
The swing is large and slow when systems are separated by long lines
Within an area generators synchronize quickly and swing as one large
unit against other areas.
An area can be modeled as one large unit.

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Load Frequency Control

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Multiple Generators and Areas

Regulation R cannot be made too small
-- System becomes oscillatory and/or unstable

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Load Frequency Control

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Governor-Turbine Generator Summary

Load-generation imbalance produces frequency

changes as well as power flow (interchange)

changes
Turbine generator dynamics is described by the
swing equation
Governors achieve load-generation balance by
changing generation based on frequency deviation
Regulation/droop permits proper load sharing
All generators(areas) assist in the load balancing
process
Governors do not restore frequency error to zero
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