CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview

For large-scale power systems, which normally consist of interconnected control area, Load
Frequency Control (LFC) is important to keep the system frequency and the inter-area tie
power as close as possible to the scheduled values. The mechanical input power to the
generators is used to control the frequency of output electrical power and to maintain the
power exchange between the areas as scheduled. In a different kinds of uncertainties and
various disturbances due to increased complexity, system modelling errors changes power
system structure. A well designed and operated power system should come up with changes
in the load and with system disturbances, and it should provide acceptable high level of power
quality while maintaining both voltage and frequency within tolerable Limit.The early
stability problems of ac systems were experienced in 1920 when insufficient damping caused
spontaneous oscillations or hunting. These problems were solved using generator damper
winding and the use of turbine-type prime movers. The stability of a system refers to the
ability of a system to return back to its steady state when subjected to a disturbance. As power
is generated by synchronous generators that operates in synchronism with rest of the system.
A generator is synchronized with a bus only when both of them have same frequency, voltage
and phase sequence.

1.2 Objectives

The quality of the power supply is determined by the constancy of frequency and voltage.
Minimum frequency deviation and good terminal voltage response are the characteristics of a
reliable power supply. LFC is vital for any interconnected power system in order to maintain
constant frequency and tie line power flow between areas at prescheduled limits. The
conventional controllers used for this problem have large settling time, overshoot and
oscillations. The proposed PID controller and PID-PSS provides a satisfactory stability
between frequency overshoot and transient oscillations with zero steady state error.

1
 CHAPTER-2

INTRODUCTION
3.1 Role Of Automatic Generation Control (AGC) in Energy Management System
(EMS)

In the modern Energy Management Systems (EMS) automatic load frequency control system
(ALFC) is part of Automatic Generation Control (AGC). In power systems, where automatic
control does not exist, manual control of set points is done on instructions from dispatch
centre. An EMS unit showing in fig.3.1, generally has a centralised digital computer system
connected to Remote Terminal Unit(RTU’s)via communication channels.Functions such as
contigency analysis ,optimal load flow ,security analysis expert systems,etc. are centrally
located.Data from various generating stations and substations is received by the central
computer.The software in the EMS analyses the off-circuit and the real time data and sends
appropriate instructions to various sub-station control room and generating station control
rooms. The EMS may also provide the interfaces with the Enterprise Business system with
the Business Process integration [21].

Figure 3.1: Power system control mechanism [21]

3.2 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
SCADA provides the basic data acquisition and remote control functions, including
High/Low limit check, Event/Alarm processing etc.
i). Data collection equipment.
ii). Data transmission telemetric equipment.

2
iii). Data monitoring equipment.
iv). Man/machine interface.
The data (information) regarding various power-system variables is necessary for
effectiveness supervision, operation and control [21, 35].Various components linked to
SCADA are showing in fig.3.2.
3.3 EMS Position in the Power Grid

Figure 3.2: EMS Position in the Power Grid [21]

3.3.1 Security Analysis
Primary purpose of power system security is to keep the power system operation continuing
such that failures do not lead to cascade tripping and overall blackout. Time available to
ensure, appropriate actions is limited. Control room operator must take advance actions such
that the system security is not lost during single failure [35].
It comprises of two stages,
i) System security
ii) Security control
3.3.1.1 System security
Power system security may be defined as ability of the power system to operate in the normal
state even with the occurrence of specified contingencies. The system shall remain in a
3
normal state by means of fast acting automatic control system following a contingency
without allowing the system to pass to emergency state. For steady-state security analysis the
following contingencies are generally considered.
i). Loss of one generating unit
ii). Sudden tripping of large load
iii). Sudden change in Tie-line power flow
iv). Sudden outage of a major transmission system.
3.3.1.2 Security control
The system state is continuously monitored by means of one-line computer system. The data
acquisition is through SCADA system. Fast computations of security status are made.
Command signals are sent to RTU’s regarding corrective actions to be taken. Continuous
monitoring of security and appropriate corrective actions for improving security is called
security control [21, 35].
3.3.2 State estimation
It’s based on system monitoring data produces best estimate of the latest power system
condition (state) which is based on statistical approach. The process involves acquiring data
about system variables based on imperfect measurements and estimating the system state
based on statistical criterion. In a power system, the state variables are;
i) the voltage magnitudes
ii) the reactive phase angles of the system nodes.
Measurements are required in order to estimate the power system performance and real time
for the following;
i) system security control
ii) constraints on economic dispatch
3.3.3 Optimal power flow
It refers to the load flow which gives maximum system security by minimizing the overloads.
The optimal load flow aims at minimum operating costs and minimum losses. It is based on
operational constraints. The load flow studies are carried out with the help of a model of
power system .The model is in the form of an admittance matrix built for the particular
network topology. While in AGC the input to the turbines of the generators get automatically
gets adjusted by primary load frequency control and the frequency is maintained [35].
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3.4 Power system stability
The need for power system dynamics and stability analysis has grown significantly in recent
years. This is mainly due to the desire to utilize transmission networks for more flexible
interchange transactions required for the current competitive environment therefore, the
application of advanced control technology to enhance the stability of power systems has
attracted wide attention [14].During the operation, fig.3.3 of the generators, there may be
some disturbances such as sustained oscillations in the speed or periodic variations in the
torque that is applied to the generator. These disturbances may result in voltage or frequency
fluctuation that may affect the other parts of the interconnected power system.

Figure 3.3: Power system showing fault and its effect on stability [15]
External factors, such as lightning, can also cause disturbances to the power system. All these
disturbances are termed as faults. When a fault occurs, it causes the motor to lose
synchronism if the natural frequency of oscillation coincides with the frequency of oscillation
of the generators. With these factors in mind, the basic condition for a power system with
stability is synchronism. An important problem in stability of power systems is the excitation
control of synchronous machines. It is one of the most effective and economic techniques for
enhancing the dynamic performance and transient stability of power systems [28].The
stability problem is concerned with the behavior of the synchronous machines after a

5
disturbance .Broadly stability is of three types as in fig.3.4, but for convenience of analysis,
stability is generally divided into two major categories steady-state stability and transient
stability.

Figure 3.4: Power system stability classification [15]

Steady state stability refers to the ability of the power system to regain synchronism after
small and slow disturbances, such as gradual power changes. The dynamic stability is
concerned with small disturbances lasting for a long time with the inclusion of automatic
control devices [19].Transient stability studies deals with the effects of large, sudden
disturbances such as the occurrence of a fault, the sudden outage of a line or the sudden
application or removal of loads [16].
3.5 Stability
The stability of a system is defined as the tendency and ability of the power system to
develop restoring forces equal to or greater than the disturbing forces to maintain the state of
equilibrium [16].The system is also considered to be stable if it converges to another
equilibrium position in the proximity of initial equilibrium point. If the physical state of the
system differs such that certain physical variable increases with respect to time, the system is
considered to be unstable.
3.5.1 Need of Stability
Power systems are becoming more complex as they become inter-connected the power
system industry is a field where there are constant changes. Power sectors are restructured to

6
cater to more users at lower prices and better power efficiency [19]. Load demand also
increases linearly with the increase in users. Since stability phenomena limits the transfer
capability of the system, there is a need to ensure stability and reliability of the power system
due to economic reasons [16].
3.5.2 Stability Types
3.5.2.1 Transient (angle) stability
Cause: Occurs due to large disturbance angle stability imbalance between accelerating torque
and load torque on (groups of) generators caused by outage of major generator, line,
transformer, bus-bar, and load.
Effects: It leads to loss of synchronism, frequency instability, system separation and/or
blackout.
3.5.2.2 Small signal (angle) stability or small disturbance angle stability
Cause: Occurs due to insufficient damping of electro-mechanical dynamics causes
oscillations with low or negative damping.
Effects: It leads to transient instability, loss of synchronism, system separation and/or
blackout.
3.5.2.3 Voltage stability or Load stability or Transient Voltage stability or Small signal
Voltage stability
Cause: Occurs due to insufficient reactive power supply due to system overload.
Effects: It leads to voltage collapse, excessive currents, system separation and/or blackout.
3.5.2.4 Frequency stability
Cause: Occurs due to turbine controllers do not manage to stabilize system frequency.
Effects: It leads to system separation or blackout.
3.6 Stability Theories
The main objective of stability studies is to determine whether the rotor of the machines
being disturbed return to the original constant speed operation [19].There are three
assumptions that are made in stability studies:
i). Consider the synchronous currents and voltages in the stator windings and the power
system. DC offsets and harmonic components are neglected.
ii). To represent unbalanced faults, symmetrical components are used.

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iii). The generated voltage is considered to be unaffected by the speed variations of the
Machine [18].
3.6.1 Swing Equation
The Swing Equation governs the rotational dynamics of the synchronous machine in stability
studies .Under normal operating conditions, the relative position of the rotor axis and the
resultant axis is fixed. The angle difference between the two axes is known as the power
angle [38]. During disturbance to the machine, the rotor accelerates or decelerates with
respect to the synchronous rotating air gap mmf. The “Swing” equation describes this relative
motion. If the rotor is able to resume its synchronous speed after this oscillation period, the
generator will maintain its stability. The rotor will return to its original position if the
disturbance is not created by any net changes in the power. However if the disturbance is
created by a change in generation, load or network conditions, the rotor will be in a new
operation power angle relative to the revolving field[20].
The Swing Equation (pu) is given as:

2 H d 2
 Pm ( pu )  Pe ( pu ) ……. (3.1)
s dt 2
Where,
H is pu inertia constant
ωs is electrical synchronous speed
δ is electrical power angle
Pm is shaft mechanical power input
Pe is electrical power
d2δ /dt2 is angular acceleration
The swing equation is a non-linear function of the power angle. However, for small
disturbances, the swing equation may be linearized with little loss of accuracy.
3.6.2 Equal Area Criterion
Equal Area Criterion is a stability method used for quick prediction of stability [16]. Based
on the assumptions that the system is a purely reactive, In fig.3.5, a constant Pm and constant
voltage behind transient reactance, it is found that if the transient stability limit is not
exceeded the electrical power angle δ oscillates around the equilibrium point with constant
8
amplitude. Equal Area Criterion is the method which determines stability under transient
conditions [21].

Figure 3.5: Electric power input to a motor as a function of torque angle δ [21]

Originally the motor of the machine is operating at the synchronous speed with a torque angle
of δ0. The mechanical power output Pm0 is equal to the electrical power input Pe. When the
mechanical load is suddenly increased so that the power output is P m1, it is greater than the
electrical power input at δ0. The difference in the power comes from the kinetic energy stored
in the rotating system. Thus, it results in a decrease in speed. When the speed decreases, it
will cause the torque angle δ to increase [14].As δ increases, the electrical power received
will increase to a point where Pe = Pm1. The fig.3.6 shows when the load is suddenly increased
from Pm0 to Pm1 , the motor will oscillate around δ1 and between δ0 and δ2 E. It can be named
as Point B. After passing through Point B the electrical power P e is greater than P m1. This
will result in an increase in kinetic energy and speed. Thus between Point B and C, the speed
will increase accordingly with δ , until the synchronous speed is again reached at Point C. At
Point C, the torque angle is δm. Pe is still greater than P m1 and the speed of the motor will
continue to increase [21].

9
 Figure 3.6: Electric power to a motor showing three points A,B,C [21]
However, δ will start to decrease as soon as the speed of the motor exceeds the synchronous
speed. Therefore the maximum value of δ is at Point C.As δ increases, Point B is reached
again with the speed above the synchronous speed. The torque angle δ will continue to
decrease until Point is achieved. This implies that the motor is again operating at synchronous
speed. The cycle is then repeated. When the accelerating area (AA) is equal to the
decelerating area (DA), the system is considered as stable [16].
3.7 Power system frequency control: Indian scenario
In India, the power system is divided into 5 regions. Load Dispatch Center in each region
monitors the frequency by interacting with State Load Dispatch Centers and generating
stations under the control of States and the generating companies like NTPC, NHPC. The
Regional Load Dispatch Centers (RLDC) functions under Power Grid Corporation of India.
So, for the purpose of frequency each region can be considered as one coherent unit. For
instance Southern RLDC comprises AP, TN, Karnataka, Kerala and Goa. SRLDC is located
in Bangalore [54].Frequency is controlled by balancing the load with generation. The
governors on every generator senses any change in the rotational speed and adjusts the
mechanical input power. This governor control is the primary control for maintaining
frequency. A secondary control to set the governor set-points is used to ensure that the steady
state always returns to 50Hz. The governor control is local at the generator and fast. The
secondary control is done over the whole system. This secondary control is done by the
central controller and is slow. This control is also known as Automatic Generation Control
(AGC) or Load Frequency Control (LFC) [17]. For the load frequency control the generating

10
units at Hydro power plant are normally adjusted as the response is faster to raise/lower the
power. Load–Generation imbalance causes frequency variation. Load is never constant.
Precise frequency control is possible only if there is a surplus generating capacity, which is
not the case in many states. Hence load shedding is resorted to for frequency management.
There is no automatic load frequency control in many regions as many utilities want to
generate to the maximum possible extent and would not like their generation levels adjusted
by ALFC [3]. Mostly manual control is only exercised to maintain frequency. In many cases,
generators are not allowed to participate in primary regulation also i.e., the natural tendency
of the governors to raise/ lower generation when frequency falls/rises is suppressed. With the
result, frequency is always less than the rated value of 50 Hz. When sudden disturbances
occur, system collapses causing blackouts [53].
3.8 Power System Stability

In power system both active and reactive power demands are never steady they continuously
changes with rising or falling trend. Steam input to turbo generators must therefore, be
continuously regulated to match the active power demand, failing which the machine speed
will vary with consequent change in frequency, which may be highly undesirable. In brief,
the changes in real power affects the system frequency, while reactive power is less sensitive
towards frequency and is mainly dependent on changes in voltage magnitude. The LFC [1]
(load frequency control) loop controls the real power and frequency and AVR [2] (automatic
voltage regulator) loop regulates the reactive power and voltage magnitude [36].

3.8.1 Power System with Primary Regulation

3.8.1.1 Frequency Control
Frequency is controlled by balancing the load with generation. The governors on every
generator senses any change in the rotational speed and adjusts the mechanical input power.
This governor control is the primary control for maintaining frequency. A secondary control
to set the governor set-points is used to ensure that the steady state always returns to 60Hz.
The governor control is local at the generator and fast. The secondary control is done over the
whole system. This secondary control is done by the central controller and is slow. This
control is also known as Automatic Generation Control (AGC) or Load Frequency Control
(LFC). In a real power system, the frequency cannot be allowed to drop the way it did in

11
regular system, since such a large deviation from the nominal 50 Hz can be harmful for
certain components in the power supply system. If the frequency continues to drop, one runs
the risk of a total system blackout. Because of this, all power stations are equipped with a
frequency meter that measures the system frequency. The frequency signal is fed-back to a
piece of equipment called the turbine governor [18]. It shows that sees to that the guide vanes
are further opened or closed, depending on the sign of the frequency deviation. An
adjustment of the guide vanes of the hydro station means that the discharge through the
station is changed. That is, the mechanical power input will be changed as a response to the
varying power consumption [15]. This type of control is called droop or direct control, since
the change in mechanical input power will be directly proportional to the frequency
deviation. With droop control, In fig.3.7, the new mechanical input power becomes
ΔPm = −RΔω ……. (3.2)
where R is referred as the gain of the power system. The droop control in real power systems
is an automatic action that is usually referred to as primary control. The system gain is
divided between hundreds of generating units, many of them hydro units.

Figure.3.7: Droop characteristic [35]

In power system with droop control works, it’s mandatory to expand the dynamic system
model with a model of the turbine and the governor. Fig.3.8 shows governor and the turbine
transfer functions. The time constants Tg1 and Tg2 are closely related to the time constant of
the main servomotor that moves the guide vanes, and that Tω is closely related to the energy
contents in the pen-stock of the hydropower station.
3.8.2 Power System with Primary and Secondary Regulation
In the primary control, it was droop regulation reduces the steady state frequency deviation
significantly, but cannot make it disappear completely. Secondary control or integrator action
refers to a control action that reduces the deviation from nominal frequency to zero.

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 Figure.3.8: Block diagram of a Hydro-Power system with Primary control [35]
In power systems, this is accomplished by starting up a new generating unit or by changing
the production set values of the units which are already in operation. In secondary control, it
changes the set value of the generating unit in order to push the system back to nominal
frequency [18].

Figure 3.9: Block diagram of a hydro-power system with primary and secondary control [35]
The secondary control is in fig.3.9, simply represents the opportunity to feedback a set value
for the mechanical input power other than zero to the turbine governor.
3.8.1.2 Voltage Control
To control node voltages is by varying the excitation of the rotating generators. This is done
by a feedback control loop that changes the excitation current in the generator to maintain a
particular node voltage. This control is very fast. Another way to control node voltage is to
change the tap setting of a transformer connected to the node. Other ways are to switch shunt
capacitors or reactors at the nodes. These changes can be made manually by the operator or
automatically by implementing a feedback control that senses the node voltage and activates
the control. Unlike the generator excitation control, Transformer taps and shunt reactance can
only be changed in discrete quantities. Often this type of control schemes has time delays

13
built into them to avoid excessive control actions. More recently power electronic control
devices have been introduced in the shunt reactance Voltage control schemes. This makes the
control much more continuous and often is done it a much faster time frame than the usual
shunt switching. These static var controllers (SVC) are becoming more common. As is
obvious, voltage control is always a local control. However, controlling the voltage at one
node affects the neighbouring nodes.

14
 CHAPTER-3

LOAD FRQUENCY CONTROL

4.1 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
AGC is a centralized operation that operates in real time and in closed-loop with a strong
interface to other functions oriented towards the economy and security of the power system.
Automatic control of generators involves two major control loops with which the large
generators in the power system are equipped. In fig.4.1, these two major loops are termed as
automatic loop frequency control (ALFC) and automatic voltage regulator (AVR). Automatic
Generation Control (AGC) is the name given to a control system having three major
objectives,
i). Hold system frequency at a specified value (50Hz in INDIA)
ii). To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control areas.
iii). To maintain each unit's generation at the most economic value
Automatic Generation Control has more advantages such as:
i). Increase Generation ability by connecting two or more areas together.
ii). Improve ability of load variation recovery.
iii). More efficient for detecting and fixing power faults.

Figure 4.1: Scheme of Automatic Generation Control [8]

AGC system is the control of power generation at the power stations during the secondary
control in order to maintain the balance between real power at the supply and load demand
including losses. AGC system is different from governor control system in that the governor
system controls the output of individual generators. AGC, on the other hand, control the total
generation of all power stations connected in the system to maintain the system frequency at

15
50 Hz or at specific value [38]. In an inter-connected power system, Load Frequency Control
(LFC) is an important to keep the system frequency and the inter-area tie-line power as close
as possible to the scheduled value. LFC constitutes an important function on power system
operation where the main objective is to regulate the output power of each generator at
prescribed levels while keeping the frequency fluctuations within pre-defined limits. LFC
problems are caused by small perturbations which continuously disturb the normal operation
of power system, hence generation rate of generators must be change until the frequency and
Tie-line power maintain close to specified values while it is desirable that the deviations of
frequency and tie-line power system become zero.
4.2 Levels of Automatic Generation Control and Their Performance
Power systems have usually many disturbances. These disturbances lead to bringing low
frequency oscillation in power system. The dynamic instability is caused if the torque in the
system is not sufficient. In any electrical system, the power production in one moment and
consumption in the same moment has to be the same otherwise a frequency deviation will
occur[15]. In fig.4.2 the turbine governing system with its load reference point is at the
lowest primary control level and all the commands from upper levels are executed at this
level. Primary control is decentralized because it is installed in power plants situated at
different geographical sites. Frequency control and tie-line control constitute secondary
control and force primary control to eliminate the frequency and net tie-line interchange
deviations.

Figure 4.2: Levels of Automatic Generation Control [8]

16
In isolated systems secondary control is limited to frequency control and could be
implemented locally without the need for coordination by the central regulator. In
interconnected systems secondary control of frequency and tie-line flows is implemented
using a central computer. Secondary control should be slower than primary control. The task
of tertiary control is to ensure an appropriate bandwidth of secondary control. Obviously
tertiary control must be slower than both primary and secondary control. Hence it may be
neglected when considering the dynamics of coordination between primary and secondary
control [10]. Frequency control is classified into 3 types based on time frame of response:
i). Primary control
ii). Secondary control
iii). Tertiary control
4.2.1 Primary Control
Primary control is the control of power balance in the single control area by using Governor
Control System of generators to control the change of frequency or turbine speed after the
incidents. The time frame of primary response is seconds. The final frequency of primary
control is not equal 50 Hz as the response is the initial response. The system requires
secondary control to compensate the power mismatch. Primary Control is initialized when the
frequency deviation is above 0.05 Hz.(Dead Band is 0.05 Hz) of nominal value. The amount
of Primary Reserve is used when Primary Control is activated [15]. The following are the
requirement:
i). Primary control reserve has to used up to 50% capacity within 15 seconds and
ii). It will be used up to 100% by 30 seconds.
4.2.2 Secondary Control
Secondary control system is the control of power balance between real power produced by
generator and combination of load demand and losses in the single control area. Secondary
control system is operated from Automatic Generation Control located at dispatching center
by changing generation outputs of the generators. Secondary Control System will start by 30
seconds after the incidents (after the primary control) in order to maintain the system
frequency at the nominal value (50 Hz). The response of Secondary Control will be finished
by 15 minutes after the incident. The change of generation output depends upon the
secondary control reserve at that time [15].
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4.2.3 Tertiary Control
Tertiary Control is any (automatic or) manual change in the network points of generators
(mainly by re-scheduling), in order to restore an adequate secondary control reserve at the
right time [15].Primary control is sufficient to stabilize the system where there is only a brief
power deficit or surplus. Primary control has been defined as an automated reestablishment of
the balance between generation and consumption within no less than 30 seconds following
such imbalance. If a longer disturbance occurs secondary control is activated after a defined
period (max 30 sec.) or simultaneously with the primary control, in order to relieve the
burden on the primary reserve and free it to perform the above function. In contrast to
primary control, which works at international level to maintain a stable frequency, secondary
control balances power deficits and surpluses within control areas. It can take several minutes
to restore frequency stability. If the power flow deviation lasts for an extended period (more
than 15 minutes) secondary gives way to tertiary control. The latter can also kick in during
secondary control already. Tertiary control is activated either automatically or manually. It
must be deployed in time to contribute to restoring balance no more than 15 minutes after the
start of the deviation in the control area. Restoration of the secondary control range can take
up to 15 minutes, whereas tertiary control may continue after this period. The available
tertiary control reserve must be at least as large as the capacity of the largest power station
unit in the control area [6]. In general Frequency control and tie-line control constitute
secondary control and force primary control to eliminate the frequency and net tie-line
interchange deviations. Hence this control may be neglected when considering the dynamics
of coordination between primary and secondary control. When there is a frequency change
primary control action is performed by the governors of prime movers. After few seconds
Secondary Control function by Automatic generation controller (AGC) is initiated.
4.3 Load Frequency Control Function (LFC)
The load frequency control (LFC) system monitors generation load, constantly looking for
imbalances. The LFC system needs to maintain frequency at the scheduled value, net power
interchanges with neighboring control areas at the scheduled values and power allocation
among generating units at economically desired values [38, 39]. Load frequency control in
power systems is very important in order to supply reliable electric power with good quality.
The goal of the LFC is to maintain zero steady state errors in a multi-area interconnected
18
power system. In addition, the power system should fulfil the proposed dispatch conditions.
Power systems are divided into control areas connected by tie lines. All generators are
supposed to constitute a coherent group in each control area. Complete block diagram of
ALFC is in fig.4.3.
LFC is classified into 2 systems:
i). Primary control system
ii). Secondary control system.

Figure 4.3: Complete block diagram of ALFC [38]

Objectives of AGC:
i). To maintain frequency of the system at 50 Hz or at specific value.
ii). To control interchange power among control areas.
iii). To optimize total operating cost of the system.
AGC system can be classified into 2 systems:
i). Load Frequency Control (LFC)
ii). Economic Dispatch (ED)
4.4 AGC Control system
In fig.4.4 entire AGC control system monitors the balance between generation and load. AGC
uses Area Control Error (ACE) as an indicator for power imbalance. Actually AGC compares
actual Frequency and normal Frequency (50 Hz) or Standard Frequency (specific value) and
uses error to change MW set points of generators. The error is power imbalance between
generation supply and load demand. The Positive error means over generation and the
negative means under generation [38].Monitoring system for AGC depend upon Area Control
Error Mode, which monitors the Different variables.
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 Figure 4.4: Implementation scheme of ALFC [38]
Modern power system network consists of a number of utilities interconnected together and
power is exchanged between utilities over tie-lines by which they are connected. Automatic
generation control (AGC) plays a very important role in power system; its main role is to
maintain the system frequency and tie line flow at their scheduled values during normal
period. During large transient disturbance and emergencies AGC is by passed and other
emergency control takes over.
4.5 Load Frequency Control Mechanism

Figure 4.5: Generator-Turbine Governor mechanism [4]

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If the load on the system is increased, the turbine in fig.4.5, speed drops before the governor
can adjust the input of the steam to the new load. As the change in the value of speed
diminishes, the error signal becomes smaller and the position of the governor fly balls gets
closer to the point required to maintain a constant speed. However, the constant speed will
not be the set point, and there will be an offset. One way to restore the speed or frequency to
its nominal value is to add an integrator. The integral unit monitors the average error over a
period of time and overcome the offset. Because of its ability to return a system to its set
point, integral action is also known as the rest action. Thus as the system load changes
continuously the generation is adjusted automatically to restore the frequency to the nominal
value. This scheme is known as the automatic generation control (AGC).In an interconnected
system [4] consisting of several pools, the role of the AGC is to divide the loads among
system stations and generators so as to achieve maximum economy and correctly control the
scheduled interchanges of tie-line power while maintaining a reasonably uniform frequency.
Its implicitly assuming that the system is stable, so the steady-state is achievable. During
large transient disturbances and emergencies, AGC is bypassed and other emergency controls
are applied.In a single area mechanical power is produced by a turbine connected to a
synchronous generator. The turbine steam flow determines the frequency of the current and
voltage waveforms at the output of the generator. An exact forecast of real power demand is
impossible due to random changes in the load and therefore an imbalance occurs between the
real power generation and the load demand (plus losses). This causes kinetic energy of
rotation to be either added to or taken from the generating units (generator shaft either speed
up or slow down) and the frequency of system varies as a result. Therefore, a control system
is required to detect the load changes and command the steam valve to open or close more so
that the turbine increase or decrease its mechanical power production and stabilize the shaft
speed and hence the system frequency. Modern real power systems [5] constitute
interconnected neighbouring areas. A multi-area LFC system [6] constitutes a number of
single areas connected by a tie line. This tie line allows the flow of power between the areas.
Consequently, a disturbance in one area influences the frequency output of other areas as well
as the tie line power. The objective of the LFC system is to minimize deviations of both
frequency of all areas and tie line power interchanges. The ALFC is to control the frequency

21
deviation by maintaining the real power balance in the system. The main functions of the
ALFC are to
i). to maintain the steady frequency,
ii). to control the tie-line flows,
iii). to distribute the load among the participating generating units.
The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ∆Ptie (measured from the tie-line flows),
and the frequency deviation ∆f (obtained by means If the load on the system is increased), the
turbine speed drops before the governor can adjust the input of the steam to the new load. As
the change in the value of speed diminishes, the error signal becomes smaller and the position
of the governor fly balls gets closer to the point required to maintain a constant speed.
However, the constant speed will not be the set point, and there will be an offset. One way to
restore the speed or frequency to its nominal value is to add an integrator. The integral unit
monitors the average error over a period of time and overcome the offset. Because of its
ability to return a system to its set point, integral action is also known as the rest action. Thus
as the system load changes continuously the generation is adjusted automatically to restore
the frequency to the nominal value,during the angle deviation these error signals ∆f and ∆Ptie
are amplified, mixed and transformed to a real power signal which then controls the valve
position. Depending on the valve position, the turbine (prime mover) changes its output
power to establish the real power balance.
4.6 Linearized model of an LFC system
The model of Generator, Load, prime mover and governor is obtained by transfer function
method and combined to form a complete block diagram of an isolated power system,
4.6.1 Generator Model
Applying swing equation of a synchronous machine to small perturbation, we have
2 Hd 2 
 Pm  Pe …….(4.1)
 s dt 2
Expressing the speed deviation in pu
d 1
 (Pm  Pe ) …….(4.2)
dt 2H
This relation can be represented as shown in Fig 4.6

22
 ,
Figure 4.6: The block diagram representation of the Generator [4]
4.6.2 Prime mover model
The model for the turbine relates changes in mechanical power output ΔP m to changes in
steam valve position ΔP v. The simplest prime mover model in fig.4.7, for the non-reheat

steam turbine can be approximated with a single time constant τT, resulting in the transfer
function under equation(5).
Pm ( s) 1
Gt ( s)   …….(4.3)
Pv ( s ) 1  sTt

Where, Gt (s) is the TF of the turbine

Pv (s) is the change in valve output (due to action)

Pm (s) is the change in the turbine output.

Figure 4.7: The block diagram representation of the turbine [4]

4.6.3 Governor Model
When the generator electrical load is suddenly increased, the electrical power exceeds the
mechanical power input. This power deficiency is supplied by the kinetic energy stored in the
rotating system. The reduction in kinetic energy causes the turbine speed and consequently,
the generator frequency to fall. The change in speed is sensed by the turbine governor, which
acts to adjust the turbine input valve to change the mechanical power output to bring the
speed to a new steady state. The earliest governors were the Watt governors which were
sensing the speed by means of rotating fly-balls and provide mechanical motion. However,
most modern governors use electronic means to sense speed changes.

23
4.6.3.1 Speed Changer
The speed changer consists of a servomotor which can be operated manually or automatically
for scheduling load at nominal frequency. By adjusting this set point, a desired load dispatch
can be scheduled at nominal frequency. For stable operation, in fig.4.8, the governors are
designed to permit the speed to drop as the load is increased. The speed governor mechanism
acts as a comparator whose output ΔPg is the difference between the references set power
ΔPref.

Figure 4.8: Block diagram for Speed Governing System of steam turbine.
4.6.4 Load Model
The load model on a power system consists of variety of electrical devices. For resistive
loads, such as lighting and heating loads, the electrical power is independent of frequency.
Motor loads are sensitive to changes in frequency. The speed-load characteristic of a
composite load is approximated by Pe  P0  Pf where ΔPL is the non-frequency sensitive

load change, and DΔω is the frequency sensitive load change, D is expressed as per cent
change in load divided by per cent change in frequency. The load model and the generator
model is combined as shown in Fig.4 The load model on a power system consists of variety
of electrical. The block diagram of a steam turbine in Fig.2. The load on the system is
composite consisting of a frequency independent component and a frequency dependent
component. The load can be written as Pe  P0  Pf where, Pe is the change in the load;

P0 is the frequency independent load component; Pf is the frequency dependent load

component. Pf  D where, D is called frequency characteristic of the load (also called

as damping constant) expressed in per cent change in load for 1% change in frequency. If
D=1.5%, then a 1% change in frequency causes 1.5% change in load. The combined

24
generator and the load (constituting the power system) can then be represented as shown in
Fig.4.9.

Figure 4.9: The block diagram representation of the Generator and load [4]
Eliminating the simple feedback loop in Fig. 4.9. Resultant simplified block diagram is
shown in Fig.4.10.

Figure 4.10: Reduced block diagram representation of the Generator and load [4]
Combining the block diagrams of Fig. 4.6, 4.7, 4.8 and 4.10 results in the complete block
diagram of the load frequency control of an isolated power station as shown in Fig.4.11.

Figure 4.11: Combined LFC block diagram of an isolated power [4]

Redrawing the block diagram of Fig. 4.11 with the load change as the input and the frequency
deviation as the output results in the block diagram in Fig.4.12.

25
 Figure 4.12: Combined block diagram representation of the ALFC [4]
4.7 Economic Dispatch Function (ED)
An important secondary function of the AGC is to allocate generation so that each generating
unit is loaded economically.ED system manages the generation of each power station to
minimize total operating cost of the system. AGC dispatches generation of participated
generators in Unit Control Automatic Economic Mode and Automatic Mode by computing
Economic Base Point and Participation Factors. The signal sent to adjust MW set point at
power stations.That is, each generating unit is to generate that amount to meet the present
demand in such a way that the operating cost gets minimized. This function is called
Economic Load Dispatch ELD [18].

4.8 Basic Concept behind AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop).

The ALFC loop shown in Fig 4.13 is called the primary ALFC loop. It achieves the primary
V goal of real power balance by adjusting the turbine output Pm to match the change in load

demand PD . All the participating generating units contribute to the change in generation. But
a change in load results in a steady state frequency deviation f . The restoration of the
frequency its nominal value requires an additional control loop called the supplementary loop
[55]. This objective is met by using integral controller which makes the frequency deviation
zero. The ALFC with the supplementary loop is generally called the AGC. The block
diagram of an AGC is shown in Fig. The main objectives of AGC are
i). To regulate the frequency (using both primary and supplementary controls).
ii). To maintain the scheduled tie-line flows. A secondary objective of the AGC is to
distribute the required change in generation among the connected generating units
economically (to obtain least operating costs).

26
 Figure 4.13: The block diagram representation of the AGC [55]

4.9 AGC in a Single-Area System

In a single area system fig.4.14, there is no tie-line schedule to be maintained. Thus the
function of the AGC is only to bring the frequency to the nominal value, which will be
achieved during the supplementary loop which uses the integral controller to change the
reference power setting so as to change the speed set point. The integral controller gain Ki
needs to be adjusted for satisfactory response (in terms of overshoot, settling time) of the
system.

Figure 4.14: The block diagram representation of single area power system [55]

Although each generator will be having a separate speed governor, all the generators in the
control area are replaced by a single equivalent generator, and the ALFC for the area
corresponds to this equivalent generator.With the primary LFC loop, a change in the system
load will result in a steady-state frequency deviation, depending on the governor speed
regulation. In order to reduce the frequency deviation to zero, there should be a reset action.

27
The reset action can be achieved by introducing an integral controller to act on the load
reference setting to change the speed set point. The integral controller increases the system
type by 1 which forces the final frequency deviation to zero. The integral controller gain K 1
must be adjusted for a satisfactory transient response. The close loop transfer function of the
control system with only PL as input becomes [4]

( s) s(1   g s)(1   T s)

 …….(4.4)
 PL ( s) s(2 Hs  D)(1   g s)(1   T s)  K I  s / R

4.10 AGC in a two-Area System

In an interconnected (multi area) system, there will be one ALFC loop for each control Area
(located at the ECC of that area). They are combined as shown in Fig.4.16 for the
interconnected system operation [4]. For a total change in load of PD , the steady state
deviation in frequency in the two areas is given by,
PD
f  1   2  
1   2
where 1  ( D1  1 / R1 );  2  ( D2  1 / R2 )

Figure 4.15: AGC for a multi-area (two-area) operation [4]

28
4.11 Expression for Tie-Line Flow in a Two-Area Interconnected System
Consider a change in load PD1 in area-1. The steady state frequency deviation f is the same

for both the areas. That is f  f1  f 2 .Thus, for area1, we have Pm1  PD1  P12  D1f

where, P12 is the tie line power flow from Area 1 to Area2 and for Area 2[38]

Pm 2  P12  D2 f …….(4.5)

The mechanical power depends on regulation. Hence,

f f
Pm1   and Pm 2  
R1 R2
Substituting these equations, yields
(1/ R1  D1 )f  P12  PD1 …….(4.6)
and
(1 / R2  D2 )f  P12 …….(4.7)

Figure 4.16: AGC for a multi-area operation [4]

29
Solving for f ,
get
 PD1  PD1
f   ……..(4.8)
(1 / R1  D1 )  (1 / R2  D2 ) 1   2
 PD1 2
And P1 2  ……..(4.9)
1   2
where, 1 and  2 are the composite frequency response characteristic of Area-1 and Area-2
respectively[19]. An increase of load in area1 by PD1 results in a frequency reduction in both
areas and a tie-line flow of P12 . A positive P12 is indicative of flow from Area-1 to Area-2
while a negative P12 means flow from Area-2 to Area-1. Similarly, for a change in Area-2
load by PD 2 , so we have
 PD 2  PD 2 1
f  And P12  P21 
1   2 1   2
4.12 Area Control Error (ACE)

This comes under the system when control is of more than one area .In the Tie-line basic
control each area controls its own generation to match its load and the required net tie-line
interchange. The power flow through each tie-line is adjusted to required scheduled level
with permissible departure limits. Tie-line deviation reflects the contribution of regulation
characteristic of one area to another.A change of power in Area-1 is met by the increase in
generation in all the areas associated with a change in the tie-line power, and a reduction in
frequency. In normal operating state, the power system is operated so that the demands of
areas are satisfied at the normal frequency [56].

Area Control Error (ACE)

ACE = Δ Net Interchange + β Δ f
Δ Net Interchange = Interchange error = Scheduled – Actual
Δ f = Δ ω = frequency deviation
β = frequency bias (pu MW/ pu frequency)
Basic Idea in AGC design is that when:
ACE> 0 generation decreased and

30
 ACE<0 generation is increased.
As long as one frequency bias β≠0, if all areas have ACE=0: then Δω = 0 and all Δ Net
Interchange =0, Conventional LFC is based upon tie-line bias control, where each area tends
to reduce the area control error (ACE) to zero. The control error for each area consists of a
linear combination of frequency and tie-line error [57].
n
ACEi   Pij  Ki  …….(4.10)
j 1

The area bias Ki determines the amount of interaction during a disturbance in the neighboring
areas. An overall satisfactory performance is achieved when K i is selected equal to the
frequency bias factor of that area, i.e. Bi = 1/ Ri+ Di. Thus, the ACEs for a two-area system
area

ACE1 = P12 + B1 1 …….(4.11)

ACE2 = P21 + B2 2 …….(4.12)

Where P12 and P21 are departures from scheduled interchanges. ACEs are used as actuating
signals to activate changes in the reference power set points and when steady-state is reached,
P12 and  will be zero [56].

4.13 Three-area inter-connected power system

An interconnected power system is considered as being divided into control areas which are
connected by tie-lines. In each control area, all generators are assumed to form a coherent
group. The detailed block diagram of the system with all the parameters are shown in fig,
4.18. Each area supplies its user pool, and tie-lines allow electric power to flow between
areas. Therefore load distribution in one of the areas affects the frequencies of the other areas
as well as power flows on tie-lines. Due to this, the control system of each area needs
information about the transient situation in all areas to bring the local frequency to its steady
state value [7].The schematic diagram of a three area interconnected load frequency control
system is shown in Fig.4.18 [57]. Each area supplies its user region, and tie-lines allow
electric power to flow between areas. Therefore, a load perturbation in one of the areas
affects the output frequencies of other areas as well as the power flows on tie- lines.

31
 Figure 4.17: Schematic diagram of Interconnection of Three areas [57]
In multi-area power system, a group of generators are closely coupled internally and swing in
unison. The LFC loop represents the whole system called as control area. The AGC of multi-
area is realized by studying first the AGC of a three area system. Consider the three areas
represented by an equivalent generating unit interconnected by a lossless tie line with
reactance X tie. During normal operation, the real power transferred over the tie line is given
by
E1 E 2
P12  Sin 12 …….(4.13)
X 12

Where X12 = Xtie + X2, & 12 = 1 - 2. Equation (4.13) can be linearized for a small deviation
in the tie-line flow  P12 from the nominal value.The tie-line power flow appears as a load
increase in one area and a load decrease in the other area, depending on the direction of flow.
The direction of flow is dictated by the phase angle difference.

Figure 4.17: Schematic diagram of power system with three areas

32
 CHAPTER – 4

AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

5.1 Reactive Power and Voltage Control

Voltage changes continuously according to the varying electrical demand, transmission lines
utilization, system control by the control centers, and emergency situations occurred in the
system. Controlling the voltage is regional problems [4].

Figure 5.1: A Schematic Diagram of Automatic Voltage Control System [4]

In other words, the voltage controlling problems are needed to be solved separately by each
control area. This can be achieved by providing sufficient reactive power sources for
controlling voltage level as specified by the agreement [58]. The voltage controlling problems
can be divided into two situations, which are normal situation, and emergency situation. The
reactive power sources are classified into two types, static and dynamic. The static type
consists of shunt capacitor, and shunt reactor. The control centers need to organize and
compile the constantly updated information concerning the availability of relevant equipment.
Also the control centers have to provide procedures, in writing, required for properly
controlling of the equipment in order to support normal situation, and emergency situation
that may lead to voltage collapse and cascade tripping both of which can cause a
blackout[47].
33
5.2 Linear Model of an AVR System
The role of an AVR is to keep constant the output voltage of the generator in a specified
range. A simple AVR consists of amplifier, exciter, generator and sensor. The block diagram
of AVR with PID controller is shown in fig.6.1. The linear models of the elements of the
AVR are given in Equations.
5.2.1 Amplifier model
The amplifier model is represented by a gain KA and a time constant τA, the transfer function
is
VR KA
 …….(5.1)
VE 1   A s
Typical values of KA are in the range of 10 to 400. The amplifier time constant τA is very
small ranging from 0.02 to 0.1 s.
5.2.2 Exciter model
The transfer function of a modern exciter may be represented by a gain KE and a single time
constant τE
VF KE
 .…….(5.2)
VR 1   E s
Typical values of KE are in the range of 10 to 400. The time constant τE is in the range of 0.5
to 1.0 s.
5.2.3 Generator model
In the linearized model, the transfer function relating the generator terminal voltage to its
field voltage can be represented by a gain KG and a time constant τG
Vt KG
 …….(5.3)
VF 1   G s
These constants are load dependent, KG may vary between 0.7 to 1.0, and τG between 1.0 and
2s from full load to no load.
5.2.4 Sensor model
The sensor is modelled by a simple first-order transfer function, given by
VS KR
 …….(5.4)
Vt 1 Rs

34
τR is very small, ranging from of 0.001 to 0.06 s.
5.3 Generator Voltage Control System
The voltage of the generator is proportional to the speed and excitation (flux) of the
generator, the speed being constant, the excitation is used to control the voltage. Therefore,
the voltage control system is also called as excitation control system or automatic voltage
regulator AVR. For the alternators, the excitation are provided by a device (another machine
or a static device) called exciter [59]. For a large alternator the exciter may be required to
supply a field current of as large as 6500A at 500V and hence the exciter is a fairly large
machine [16]. Depending on the way the dc supply is given to the field winding of the
alternator (which is on the rotor), the exciters are classified as:
i). DC Exciters
ii). AC Exciters
iii). Static Exciters.
A schematic of an excitation control system is shown in Fig.5.2.

Figure 5.2: A Schematic Diagram of Excitation (Voltage) Control System [4]

As its in fig.5.2,the generator terminal voltage V t is compared with a voltage reference Vref to
obtain a voltage error signal V .This signal is applied to the voltage regulator shown as a
block with transfer function KA /(1+ τA s). The output of the regulator is then applied to
exciter shown with a block of transfer function KE / (1+ τE s). The output of the exciter VF is
then applied to the field winding which adjusts the generator terminal voltage. The generator
field can be represented by a block with a transfer function KG /(1+s τG)[57].
35
The total transfer function is
V G( s)

Vref 1  G ( s )

Where,
K A K E KG
G( s)  …….(5.1)
(1   A s)(1   E s)(1   F s)
The stabilizing compensator shown in the diagram is used to improve the dynamic response
of the exciter. The input to this block is the exciter voltage and the output is a stabilizing
feedback signal to reduce the excessive overshoot.

Figure 5.3: A simplified block diagram of Voltage (Excitation) Control System [4]

The generator excitation system maintains generator voltage and controls the reactive power
flow. The generator excitation of older systems may be provided through slip rings and
brushes by means of dc generators mounted on the same shaft as the rotor of the synchronous
machine. However, modern excitation systems usually use AC a generator with rotating
rectifiers, and are known as brushless excitation [58].In fig.5.3, as a change in the real power
demand affects essentially the frequency, whereas a change in the reactive power affects
mainly the voltage magnitude. The interaction between voltage and frequency controls is
generally weak enough to justify their analysis separately. The sources of reactive power are
generators, capacitors, and reactors. The generator reactive powers are controlled by field
excitation. Other supplementary methods [20] of improving the voltage profile on electric
transmission systems are transformer load-tap changers, switched capacitors, step-voltage
regulators, and static VAR control equipment. The primary means of generator reactive
power control is the generator excitation control using automatic voltage regulator AVR. The
36
role of an AVR is to hold the terminal voltage magnitude of asynchronous generator at a
specified level. An increase in the reactive power load of the generator is accompanied by a
drop in the terminal voltage magnitude. The voltage magnitude is sensed through a potential
transformer on one phase. This voltage is rectified and compared to a DC set point signal.
The amplified error signal controls the exciter field and increases the exciter terminal voltage.
Thus, the generator field current is increased, which results in an increase in the generated
emf. The reactive power generation is increased to a new equilibrium, raising the terminal
voltage to the desired value [59].

37
 CHAPTER-5

EFFECT OF PID-CONTROLLER & POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER

6.1 Excitation System Stabilizer – PID controller
The automatic controller determines the value of controlled variable, compare the actual
value to the desired value (reference input), determines the deviation and produces a control
signal that will reduce the deviation to zero or to a smallest possible value [65].

Figure 6.1: The block diagram of an AVR system with a PID controller
The method by which the automatic controller produces the control signal is called mode of
control or control action. The controller consists of an error detector and amplifier shows in
fig.6.1.The measuring element is a device in which converts the output variable such as
displacement, pressure or electrical signals which can be used for comparing the output to the
reference input signal.
6.2 Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controllers
A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop
feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. A PID controller attempts to
correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired set point by calculating
and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly. The PID
controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters; the Proportional, the
Integral and Derivative values. The Proportional value determines the reaction to the current
error, the Integral determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors and the Derivative
determines the reaction to the rate at which the error has been changing. The weighted sum of
these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a
38
control valve or the power supply of a heating element. By "tuning" the three constants in the
PID controller algorithm the PID can provide control action designed for specific process
requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms of the responsiveness of
the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the setpoint and the
degree of system oscillation [4].
6.2.1 Proportional term
The proportional term makes a change to the output that is proportional to the current error
value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant K p,
called the proportional gain. The proportional term is given by:
Pout  K p et  …….(6.1)

Pout: Proportional output

Kp: Proportional Gain, a tuning parameter
e: Error
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the
error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable. In contrast, a
small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive (or
sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small
when responding to system disturbances. In the absence of disturbances pure proportional
control will not settle at its target value, but will retain a steady state error that is a function of
the proportional gain and the process gain. Despite the steady-state offset, both tuning theory
and industrial practice indicate that it is the proportional term that should contribute the bulk
of the output change.
6.2.2 Integral term
The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and
the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time (integrating the error)
gives the accumulated offset. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain
and added to the controller output. The magnitude of the contribution of the integral term to
the overall control action is determined by the integral gain, K i. The integral term is given by:

39
I out  Ki  t0 e d  …….(6.2)

Iout: Integral output

Ki: Integral Gain, a tuning parameter
e: Error
τ: Time in the past contributing to the integral response.
The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the movement of the
process towards set point and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a
proportional only controller. However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated
errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint value (cross over
the set point and then create a deviation in the other direction).
6.2.3 Derivative term
The rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over
time (i.e. its first derivative with respect to time) and multiplying this rate of change by the
derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term to the overall
control action is determined the derivative gain, Kd. The derivative term is given by:
d
Dout  K d e(t ) …….(6.3)
dt
D out: derivative output
Kd: Derivative Gain, a tuning parameter
e: Error
t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)

de(t )
D Kd
dt

Figure 6.2: Block diagram of PID-controller

40
The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this effect is most
noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence, derivative control is used to reduce the
magnitude of the overshoot produced by the integral component and improve the combined
controller-process stability. However, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise in the signal
and thus this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the error term, and can cause
a process to become unstable if the noise and the derivative gain are sufficiently large. The
output from the three terms, the proportional, the integral and the derivative terms are
summed to calculate the output of the PID controller. First estimation is the equivalent of the
proportional action of a PID controller. The integral action of a PID controller can be thought
of as gradually adjusting the output when it is almost right. The error is small is equivalent to a
high gain controller and will lead to overshoot. If the controller were to repeatedly make
changes. That were too large and repeatedly overshoot the target, this control loop would be
termed unstable and the output would oscillate around the setpoint in a either a constant a
growing or a decaying sinusoid. Selecting the correct gains for effective control is known as
tuning the controller.
6.3 PID Tuning
If the PID controller parameters (the gains of the proportional, integral and derivative terms)
are chosen incorrectly, the controlled process input can be unstable, i.e. its output diverges,
with or without oscillation, and is limited only by saturation or mechanical breakage. Tuning
a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters (gain/proportional band, integral
gain/reset, derivative gain/rate) to the optimum values for the desired control response.
Generally, stability of response (the reverse of instability) is required and the process must
not oscillate for any combination of process conditions and set points. The parameter settings
of a PID controller for optimal control of a plant (process) depend on the plant’s behaviour.
To design the PID controller the one must choose the tuning way of design parameters to
improve the transient response as well as the steady-state error. In the design of a PID
controller, the three gains of PID must be selected in such a way that the closed loop system
has to give the desired response. The desired response should have minimal settling time as
well as least steady-state error with a small or no overshoot in the step response of the closed
loop system.

41
6.3.1 Tuning method
Choosing a Tuning Method

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Ziegler Nichols Process good some trial-
Proven Method. Online method. and-error
Tune By tuning
No math required. Online method. Erratic, not repeatable
Feel

Software Tools Consistent tuning. Online or offline

method. May include valve and Some cost and training
sensor analysis. Allow simulation involved.
before downloading.

Cohen-Coon Some math. Offline method. Only good

Good process models. for first-order processes.
Table 6.1
The PID controller is used to improve the dynamic response as well as to reduce or eliminate
the steady-state error. The derivative controller adds a finite zero to the open loop plant
transfer function and improves the transient response. In the integral controller, if the integral
gain Ki is very high, undesirable and unacceptable large overshoots will be occurred [44].
However, adjusting the maximum and minimum values of proportional (K p) and integral
gains Ki respectively the outputs of the system (voltage, frequency) can be improved. The
integral controller adds a pole at origin and increases the system type by one and reduces the
steady-state error due to a step function to zero[43][44][45].
6.3.2 Parameter variation rule

Effects of increasing parameters

Parameter Rise Time Overshoot Settling Time S.S. Error

Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease

Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
Kd Small Change Decrease Decrease None
Table-6.2
Ziegler and Nichols conducted numerous experiments and proposed rules for determining
values of Kp, Ki and Kd based on the transient step response of a plant. It applies to plants
with neither integrators nor dominant complex-conjugate poles, whose unit-step response
42
resemble an S-shaped curve with no overshoot. This S-shaped curve is called the reaction
curve in fig. 6.3.

Figure.6.3 S-shaped reaction curve

The S-shaped reaction curve can be characterized by two constants, delay time L and time
constant T, which are determined by drawing a tangent line at the inflection point of the curve
and finding the intersections of the tangent line with the time axis and the steady-state level
line.The Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Rule Table Using the parameters L and T, we can set the
values of Kp,Ki and Kd according to the formula shown in the table 6.3 below.
CONTROLLER Kp Ki Kd

P 0 0

PI 0
0.27

PID 0.6T

Table 6.3
These parameters give a response with an overshoot about 25% and good settling time. Start
fine-tuning the controller using the basic rules that relate each parameter to the response
characteristics. This concludes two things about PID controllers.
Relationships between Kp, Ki and Kd and important response characteristics, of which these
three are most useful:
i). Use Kp to decrease the rise time.
ii). Use Kd to reduce the overshoot and settling time.
iii). Use Ki to eliminate the steady-state error.
43
The PID controller transfer function is,

Ki
G C ( s)  K P   K DS
s

Figure 6.4: Terminal voltage With Addition of stabilizer [44]

A PID controller is added in the forward path of AVR system in which proposal gain K P is
1.0 and KI and KD is adjusted until a step response with a minimum overshoot and a very
small settling time is obtained. An integral gain of KI is 0.25 and a derivative gain of KD is
0.28 is found to be satisfactory. The response settles in about 1.4 seconds with a negligibly
small overshoot. The controller reduces the steady-state error to zero. AVR is not robust to
variations of the power system parameters therefore, it is necessary to use PID controller To
increase the stability and performance of the AVR system. Fast tuning of optimum PID
controller parameter yield high quality solution.

6.4 Power System Stabilizer (PSS)

Power System Stabilizer (PSS) which is installed in the Automatic Voltage Regulator of the
Generator can improve the power system stability. A PSS detects the changing of generator
output power, controls the excitation value, and reduces the power swing rapidly. The
reducing speed of the power swing can be compared in case of PSS OFF condition and PSS
ON [60].

Figure 6.5: Signal output in presence and absence of PSS controller [60]
44
Small signal instability occurs when a system perturbation, even a small one, excites a natural
Oscillatory mode of the power system. As it is shown in fig.6.5, these oscillations are slow,
usually under 1Hz. The main method used today to guard against small signal instability is
the off-line tuning of power system stabilizers (PSS). These PSS are local controllers on the
generators. Thus local controllers are used to mitigate system oscillation modes, a procedure
that is recognized to have significant disadvantages. A new control concept is to adaptively
change the PSS set points according to the power system operating conditions. This would be
analogous to the AGC control by introducing a secondary control scheme that would
periodically adjust the set points of the local PSS controllers as the system changes. The
challenge here is that the calculation of PSS set points requires large analytical calculations,
which are today done off-line. The speed of calculation is not a major concern as changing
the set points can be done quite infrequently, probably in minutes. In the fig. 6.6, linearized
model single machine connected to a large system through a tie-line is introduced.

Figure 6.6: Linearized model without stabilizing loop (G(s) =0)

In this representation the dynamic characteristics of synchronous machine are expressed in
terms of so called K constant. The machine excitation control system includes an automatic
voltage regulator AVR and a speed based power system stabilizer PSS. The following are to
be investigated.
i). The effect of AVR stabilizing circuit GF(s) on system stability.
ii). The effect of PSS on the system
6.4.1 Purpose of PSS
A power system stabilizer (PSS) is a device which provides additional supplementary control
loops to the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) system and/or the turbine-governing system

45
of a generating unit. A PSS is also one of the most cost-effective methods of enhancing
power system stability. Power System Stabilizers (PSS) are designed to enhance damping of
power system oscillations in order to extend power transfer limits of the system and maintain
reliable operation of the grid. Power System Stabilizers (PSS) can modulate the Synchronous
machine's voltage to instantaneously take real power from the system or put real power into
the system by varying the angle between magnetic moment or the rotating field and the
rotating magnetic field of the three phase electric system reflected in the voltage on the
stationary part of the Synchronous machine. If the adjustments of the PSS are set correctly,
then power swings into or out of the Synchronous machine will act to dampen the system-
wide resonant power swings and improve system stability. If the adjustments are set
incorrectly, then the opposite is true.

Figure 6.7: Simple block diagram of an AVR compensated with a PSS controller [61]

The basic function of PSS is to add damping to the generator rotor oscillations by controlling
its excitation using auxiliary stabilizing signal. To provide damping, the stabilizer must
produce a component of electrical torque in phase it the rotor speed deviations. Damping can
be achieved by modulating the generator excitation so as to develop a component of electrical
torque in phase with rotor speed deviations [61]. Shaft speed, integral of power and terminal
frequency are among the commonly used as input signals to the PSS. Small signal instability
occurs when a system perturbation, even a small one, excites a natural Oscillatory mode of
the power system. These oscillations are slow, usually under 1Hz. The main method used
today to guard against small signal instability is the off-line tuning of power system
stabilizers (PSS). These PSS are local controllers on the generators. Thus local controllers are
used to mitigate system oscillation modes, a procedure that is recognized to have significant

46
disadvantages [62]. Power systems are usually equipped with power system stabilizers PSS to
damp out low frequency oscillations. These oscillations are mainly caused by disturbances in
the system. The power systems are usually nonlinear. In fig. 6.8,conventional block diagram
is shown, The conventional method of design involves linearizing the model of synchronous
machine around a suitable operation point and then linear control theory is used in designing
a fixed parameter conventional PSS [59]. Power system stabilizers (PSS) must be capable of
providing appropriate stabilization signals over a broad range of operating conditions and
disturbances.[63].

Figure 6.8: Conventional block diagram of an AVR compensated with a PSS controller [61]

These cause unstable or poorly damped oscillations that have been observed more often in
power systems around the world. The reason for the lack of stability analysis is due to the
complexity of the power systems. A major effort has to be made to improve of power system
stabilization. Due to the rapid development of computer technology, the use of optimization
tools becomes feasible to help in the implementation of control signals in power system [62].

6.4.2 Control Action and Controller Design

Control signal is given to sum point of AVR unit & will provide sufficient damping torque
for synchronous generator unit with extra enhanced in rise time & settling time & maximum
overshoot and finally robustness that makes it much suitable for interconnected nonlinear
synchronous generators.The action of a PSS is to extend the angular stability limits of a
power system by providing supplemental damping to the oscillation of synchronous machine
rotors through the generator excitation. This damping is provided by a electric torque applied

47
to the rotor that is in phase with the speed variation. Once the oscillations are damped, the
thermal limit of the tie-lines in the system may then be approached. This supplementary
control is very beneficial during line outages and large power transfers [63]. However, power
system instabilities can arise in certain circumstances due to negative damping effects of the
PSS on the rotor. The reason for this is that PSSs are tuned around a steady-state operating
point their damping effect is only valid for small excursions around this operating point.
During severe disturbances, a PSS may actually cause the generator under its control to lose
synchronism in an attempt to control its excitation field [59].

6.5 PSS Stabilizer Based On PID Controller

The PSS is provided to improve the power system oscillations. It provides the electrical
damping torque in phase with the speed deviation to improve power system damping. The
combination of pole placement and nonlinear programming techniques is considered to
design the PSS with PID configuration (PSS-PID)[44]. PID controller is used for stabilization
in this system. The input of this stabilizer is the speed changing being modeling from the
generator. The output of this controller is delivered to (stabilization voltage) the stimulation
block to stabilizer the power system. The aim is to control the angle between load and
generator speed. The nonlinear programming with the combination of pole placement is used
for PSS-PID design methodology[60]. Therefore, the open loop transfer function and
maximum peak responseparameter make the objective function which used to adjust PID
parameters[45].

48
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