Energy Vectors

Green Energy and Technology
For further volumes:

http://www.springer.com/series/8059
Fabio Orecchini Vincenzo Naso
•
Energy Systems in the Era

of Energy Vectors
A Key to Define, Analyze and Design Energy
Systems Beyond Fossil Fuels
123
Prof. Fabio Orecchini Prof. Vincenzo Naso
Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca
Per Sviluppo Sostenibile (CIRPS) Per Sviluppo Sostenibile (CIRPS)
Sapienza Università di Roma Sapienza Università di Roma
Piazza San Pietro in Vincoli 10 Piazza San Pietro in Vincoli 10
00184 Rome 00184 Rome
Italy Italy
e-mail: fabio.orecchini@uniroma1.it e-mail: vincenzo.naso@uniroma1.it
ISSN 1865-3529 e-ISSN 1865-3537

ISBN 978-0-85729-243-8 e-ISBN 978-0-85729-244-5
DOI 10.1007/978-0-85729-244-5
Springer London Dordrecht Heidelberg New York
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Contents
1 Energy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 The Energy Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Energy and Power: Natural Forms of Energy . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Units of Measurement in Energy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Energy Availability in Nature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.5 Classification of Energy Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Closed Cycles of Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.1 The ‘‘Measurable’’ Definition of Sustainability . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.2 The Earth, as an ‘‘Open’’ Energy System, Allows
the Realisation of Closed Cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 19
1.3 Energy Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 23
2 Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Definition of Energy Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 The Earth’s Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Renewable Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1 Solar Energy (Direct) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.2 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.3 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.4 Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.5 Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.6 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.3.7 Current Renewable Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.4 Non-renewable Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.4.1 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.4.2 Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
v
vi Contents
2.4.3 Tar Sands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

2.4.4 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.4.5 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
References ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3 Energy Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 97

3.1 The Need for Energy Transportation and Storage . . . . . . . . ... 97
3.2 Attitude to Energy Transportation in Space and Time
and Range of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 99
3.3 Duration and Range of Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 100
3.4 Characteristics of Energy Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 102
3.4.1 Ways and Means of Storage, Transportation
and Distribution of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.5 Analysis of the Main Energy Vectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.5.1 Oil as Energy Vector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.5.2 Coal as Energy Vector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.5.3 Natural Gas as Energy Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.5.4 Electricity as Energy Vector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.5.5 Hydrogen as Energy Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.5.6 Synthetic Fuels as Energy Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.5.7 Heat-Transfer Fluids as Energy Vectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.5.8 Mechanic Energy as Energy Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.5.9 Radiant Energy as Energy Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.6 The Era of Energy Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.6.1 Possible Production from Different Primary Sources . . . . 175
3.6.2 Environmental Compatibility During Use. . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.6.3 Conversion Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4 Energy Conversion and Transformation Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 179

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 179
4.2 Energy Conversion Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 179
4.2.1 Mechanical Energy-to-Electric Power
Conversion Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 181
4.2.2 Radiant Energy-to-Electric Power Conversion Plants. ... 197
4.2.3 Chemical Energy-to-Electric Power
4.2.4 Chemical Energy-to-Mechanical Energy
4.2.5 Radiant Energy-to-Thermal Energy
4.2.6 Thermal Energy-to-Chemical Energy
Contents vii
4.2.7 Electric Power-to-Chemical Energy

Conversion Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 253
4.2.8 Radiant Energy-to-Chemical Energy
4.2.9 Electric Energy-to-Thermal Energy
4.2.10 Electric Power-to-Radiant (Luminous) Energy
Conversion Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.3 Energy Transformation Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.3.1 Chemical Energy Transformation Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.3.2 Thermal Energy Transformation Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5 Distributed Generation and Cogeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

5.1 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.1.1 General Features of Conversion Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.1.2 Scale Economies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.1.3 Energy Sources and Distributed
Generation Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 293
5.1.4 From Concentrated Production to
Distributed Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 294
5.1.5 Type One and Two Distributed Generation .......... 297
5.2 Combined Production of Electric Power and Heat:
Cogeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
5.2.1 Cogeneration Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
5.2.2 Typical Indexes of Cogeneration Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
5.2.3 District Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
6 Energy Useful Effect and End Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
6.2 Thermal End Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.2.2 Thermal End Use with Heat Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
6.3 Luminous End Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
6.3.1 Interior Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
6.3.2 Elements of Photometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.3.3 Natural Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6.3.4 Artificial Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
6.4 Mechanic End Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6.5 Electric/Electronic End Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Chapter 1
Energy Systems
1.1 The Energy Cycle
1.1.1 Introduction
The energy cycle concerns energy evolution in its passage from natural availability
to the most suitable form for end use, meaning the form that allows the desired
useful effect and entails the disposal of its unexploited portion.
Energetics is the branch of learning that studies the forms and quantities
through which nature provides energy to human beings, and the sources (called
primary sources) through which this availability is carried out. Energy systems are
those devices in which, through transformation and conversion processes and
flows, energy is processed until reaching end uses and thence the useful effect.
Obviously, as shown in Fig. 1.1, the energy cycle—in its form commonly used
nowadays—entails an interaction with the environment as well as the production
of waste and pollutants.
This cycle is shown in detail in Fig. 1.1, with the general reference scheme. It
shows the so-called primary (or natural) forms of energy, the energy flows,
which include the transformation from primary energy into secondary forms
of energy, through their processing and physical or chemical transformation, that
is to say the transformation into electric energy and the energy of end use, until
achieving the useful effect.
By following the indications of the arrows shown in the figure, the possible
pathways of the energy cycle can be identified. It is therefore shown how some sources
of primary energy are directly employable for end use (line (a); for instance: the
natural gas or coal used for domestic heating, the wind energy or hydropower directly
used in mills since ancient times, or the wind energy used for sailing purposes).
More often, the forms of energy available in nature must be adapted to the
demand coming from end users that is, to say transformed and/or converted. In this
F. Orecchini and V. Naso, Energy Systems in the Era of Energy Vectors, 1

Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-85729-244-5_1,
Springer-Verlag London Limited 2012
2 1 Energy System
Fig. 1.1 General reference

diagram of the energy cycle
way, a passage occurs from primary forms (i.e., the potential chemical energy
contained in liquid hydrocarbons) to secondary forms (line (b); i.e.: oil refining
products) and they are directly employed for end use (line (c)).
In other cases, some primary sources (line (d)), such as natural gas and coal, or
secondary sources, can supply the thermoelectric plants that generate electric
power (line (e)). In turn, the latter is employed by end users (line (f)); in this final
process of the cycle, energy allows the achievement of the desired useful effect,
whereas the portion not used is generally released into the environment.
In this chart, particular attention is paid to electric power, due to its peculiarity
and the priority it is gaining in the entire energy framework, compared to the other
forms of energy used.
It is appropriate to underline that the definitions herein introduced differ from
those that several authors adopted on the basis of other nomenclatures. For
instance, some prefer to define ‘‘secondary energies’’ those types of energy that
allow to transfer energy in space or in time, with a view to make it available
wherever and whenever needed. In this framework, the name energy vector is
ascribed to this type of function.
For instance, when hydrogen production is finally obtained—having considered
that it is a very good fuel not directly available for use in nature—by using the
waste heat of thermoelectric power plants, a sort of energy recovery through heat
‘‘accumulation’’ in hydrogen is carried out. In fact, the hydrogen energy vector
will collect the waste thermal energy that would otherwise be lost. The availability
of hydrogen so produced, in fact, will make energy available wherever and
1.1 The Energy Cycle 3
whenever needed. As a matter of fact, through this process, the waste thermal
energy will be transferred over time by means of the hydrogen energy vector.
In the next few paragraphs, an analysis is made of the main usable natural forms
of energy. Subsequently, the units of measurement used in the energy sector will
be dealt with, since some of them—although commonly used among operators—
are not the ones adopted by the International System. As a matter of fact, as we
will see more in detail afterwards, these particular units were selected for their
characteristics and size, which make their use handy in the analysis of energy
flows.
Finally, an analysis of natural energy sources will be made, preceded by general
considerations on global energy flows on the Earth, seen as an energy system
interacting with the surrounding space.
1.1.2 Energy and Power: Natural Forms of Energy
Energy, according to the most widespread definition, is the capacity of a system to do

work. As regards the unit of time, power is similarly defined. The ‘‘energy problem’’
consists in making energy available at the place, time and conditions requested by
users; and this for the entire time needed. It is therefore even more difficult to find a
solution to the ‘‘power problem’’, having considered that the quantity of energy
demanded may vary minute after minute. Solving the energy problem from the
quantity view point and in a given period of time may not be sufficient.1
The energy available in nature—and which human beings avail themselves
of—can be distinguished into different heterogeneous forms. The forms of energy
presently used are the following:
• Chemical
• Electrical
• Electromagnetic
• Mechanical
– Kinetic
– Potential and pressure
• Nuclear
• Thermal
This classification is important since it provides the choice of the form of
energy to be employed, according to its intended use.
1
This concept can be more easily understood by means of an example. Let’s consider the case of
electric utilities: since it is known that electric power is stored with difficulty and expensively, it
is not easy for Utilities to avail themselves of all the necessary energy. Supplying the electric
power demanded by users will entail the ability of providing, moment by moment, the exact
quantity of energy requested that is, to say supplying the power demanded second after second.
4 1 Energy System
In fact, according to the characteristics and the attitude of each form of energy
that is converted into useful work to be destined to a particular end use, it is
possible to adopt each time the most convenient energy source, that is to say the
conversion process that is most suitable to pursue the objectives set.
For instance, in all the applications in environments with no free oxygen—as
space and submarine applications—it is little convenient, if not impossible, to
use the chemical energy developed from conventional combustion reactions,
namely those that develop heat through exothermic oxidation reactions,
entailing the availability of oxygen. In these cases, other conversion processes
are privileged or, alternatively, other forms of energy: a technically interesting
solution may be represented by nuclear power, supported by closed-cycle
thermodynamic plants, or by the resort to special systems for energy conver-
sion, such as some so-called direct conversion devices that will be described
below.
Here it follows a brief description of the characteristics and properties of the
different forms of energy available in nature.
1.1.2.1 Chemical Energy
It is inborn in the bond strengths existing at a molecular and atomic level in some
particular substances. It can be defined either as potential, underlining the intrinsic
character that can be expressed through suitable reactions in the form of thermal
energy, or electric. In the former case, exothermic reactions (in general, oxidation)
occur, and the quantity of heat provided, called reaction energy or reaction heat,
corresponds, in an absolute terms, to the enthalpy variation pertaining to each
reaction. Conversely, the generation of electric power is due to the variation of free
energy relating to oxidation–reduction reactions or to the concentration gradient of
different substances in given solutions (in this case, reference is made to free
energy of mixing). The chemical energy that is mainly used is the one contained in
fossil fuels.
1.1.2.2 Electric Power
This form of energy, utterly linked to the development of the human society,
is produced by the movement of free electrons in conductors. Although it is
incorrect to refer to ‘‘electric power’’—since, in addition to the electric field, a
magnetic field is always involved and therefore the definition of ‘‘electromag-
netic energy’’ should apply—this distinction is however suitable to define the
type of energy used for its electric features only. The electric power available in
nature (for example through the phenomenon of thunderbolts) is not directly
exploitable at the present state of technology; it is therefore necessary to pro-
duce electricity artificially, converting other forms of energy available in nature
into electric power.
Fig. 1.2 Water stored in a

mountain basin with potential
energy proportional to the
level h of difference in height
of turbine T
1.1.2.3 Electromagnetic Energy
Linked to the interaction between electric and magnetic fields, it is a kind of

energy conveyed without the support of any physical means, and therefore also in
vacuo, where it is practically free from dissipation phenomena. In nature it is
mainly present in solar radiation, which predominantly provides for the energy
supply of our planet.
1.1.2.4 Mechanical Energy
It is available in nature in two different forms: potential and pressure, and kinetic.
Potential and Pressure Mechanical Energy
It derives from the gravitational pull acting on the Earth; it is owned by bodies at
rest and depends on the position (‘‘height’’) that they have in that pull, in relation
to a conventional position which is ascribed the reference potential energy content.
The water stored in a basin, for instance, has a potential energy proportional to hits
height, h, compared to a reference point (i.e., the discharge of a turbine down-
stream) (Fig. 1.2).
A potential energy is also pressure energy, strictly linked to the homologous
status variable. Also in this case, the reference to a hydraulic example can be
useful, in the sense that there is always a component of this form of energy in a
moving fluid.
Kinetic Mechanic Energy
It is linked to the movement of bodies (solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies); it is

owned, for instance, by the wind (in this case, wind energy), by the water of rivers
(hydropower) and by the sea (energy of wave motion, tides), etc.
6 1 Energy System
1.1.2.5 Nuclear Energy
Also (incorrectly) called atomic energy, it is due to the cohesive strengths present
in the nucleus of atoms. In nature it is spontaneously released by elements, gen-
erally of a large atomic mass, called radioisotopes,2 which emit radiations and/or
particles (natural radioactivity).
Furthermore, as with chemical energy, also for nuclear power a potential form
exists, which can be released through the fission of nuclei of heavy atoms (such as
some isotopes of uranium) or the fusion of nuclei of light atoms (such as, for
instance, hydrogen and its isotopes); this is the case of artificial radioactivity.
1.1.2.6 Thermal Energy
It is the energy contained in any body depending on the fact that their temperature
is higher than absolute zero and is due, from the microscopic viewpoint, to the
energy (kinetic and potential) linked to the state of motion present in the matter at
a molecular, atomic or subatomic level.
In the thermodynamic approach, thermal energy is considered as the less
‘‘noble’’ form of energy, since all the other forms tend to almost entirely transform
themselves into it, whereas the opposite phenomenon is not so spontaneous. As
stated in the Second Law of Thermodynamics, in fact, a free thermodynamic
transformation whose only result is to transform heat into another form of energy
is not possible.
An example of thermal energy available in nature is geothermal energy.
1.1.3 Units of Measurement in Energy Systems
On the basis of the nature itself of energy and the use that human beings make of
it, energetics and any of its related subjects range among fields that are even too far
from the merely engineering framework, adopting each time economic, political
and social values.
The principles of the International System (SI) of units of measurement in the
energy sector are shown in
Table 1.1, Whereas
Table 1.2 sums up the main units derived from it.
2
Radioisotopes are the radioactive isotopes of some chemical elements. The word ‘‘isotopes’’
indicates the atoms of chemical species that have the same atomic number, namely that own the
same number of protons; for this reason—and this is the etymological explanation—they are
positioned at the same level in the scale of elements. However, they have a different number of
neutrons in the nucleus, therefore a different atomic weight. Most of elements are available in
nature in the form of mixtures of isotopes with constant composition.
Table 1.1 Main units of Magnitude Unit of measurement

measurement referred to
energetics in the international Name Symbol
system (S.I.) Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Intensity of electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Quantity of mass Mole Mol
Light intensity Candela Cd
Owing to its marked interdisciplinary character, as well as to the huge range of

values encountered among the energy values involved, the general procedure in the
world of trade and information is, however, to contravene the S.I. principles by using
units of measurement originally adopted in other sectors (economic, commercial,
etc.), or in any case not formally accepted in official standardised systems.
The most important unit in the energy sector, besides the units of general use
(J, cal, erg), is the ton of oil equivalent (TOE), used to quantify energy con-
sumption at a microscopic level, in industrial, transportation, civil and residential
use. It is based on the characteristic of petroleum of having a nearly constant
calorific value3 and is conventionally adopted as amounting to 10,000 kcal/kg. The
energy content ascribed to the TOE is then 107 kcal.
Another unit of measurement sometimes used is the ton of coal equivalent
(TCE). After its spreading in the 70s’, however, the TOE was preferred over it due
to the higher commercial spreading of oil in the present energy market. A practical
limitation to the use of TCE derives from the fact that, differently from petroleum,
pit coal has a variable calorific value, as well as its carbon content varies according
to the place of origin and to the composition of the fossil fuel.
Besides these units of measurement, the oil barrel4 is often used to develop energy
balances based on which the price of crude oil is indicated, as well as the barrel of oil
equivalent (BOE), a unit of measurement similar to those described above.
Among the most widely used energy units there is also the kWh (kilowatt-
hour), a tipical electric unit of measurement (corresponding to the energy devel-
oped by a machine providing 1 kW of power per hour) and the BTU (British
Thermal Unit),5 mainly used in the field of thermotechnics.
3
This is the lower heating value: it is obtained by deducting from the higher heating value the
heat deriving from water condensation that is formed during combustion, as well as the latent heat
of the humidity contained in the fuel. The higher heating value is the quantity of heat, expressed
in kilocalories, generated by 1 kg of fuel by burning entirely, at a constant pressure, when the
products of combustion are brought to 0C and 760 mmHg. Frequently, in case of gaseous fuels,
instead of referring to kg, reference is made to the normal cubic meter (Nm3).
4
A barrel of oil corresponds to 158.98 l.
5
A BTU corresponds to the quantity of heat necessary to increase the temperature of a pound of
water (1 lb % 4.44 kg) by 1 degree Fahrenheit (1 F % 0.55C).
8 1 Energy System
Table 1.2 Main energy-related units of measurement ‘‘derived’’ from the S.I.
Magnitude Unit of measurement
Name Symbol
Frequency Hertz Hz
Force Newton N
Pressure Pascal Pa
Energy, work, quantity of heat Joule J
Power, energy flow Watt W
Quantity of electricity, electric charge Coulomb C
Electric voltage, electric potential, electromotive force Volt V
Electric resistance Ohm X
Electric conductance Siemens S
Electric capacitance Farad F
Magnetic induction flux Weber Wb
Magnetic induction Tesla T
Electric inductance Henry H
Flux of light Lumen lm
Illumination Lux lx
Activity Becquerel Bq
Absorbed dose/Radiation dose Gray Gy
Equivalent dose Sievert Sv
The use of so many units of measurement is due to the variety of energy

applications characterised by very different orders of magnitude Table 1.3 shows
that, in order to represent on the scale of Joule the entity of all energy phenomena
concerning the ‘‘Earth system’’, over 50 orders of magnitude are needed [1].
Table 1.4 shows the conversion factors relating to the units introduced. Finally,
Table 1.5 shows the conversion factors of the main units of measurement used for
the measurement of calorific values
1.1.4 Energy Availability in Nature
The analysis of energy availability in nature starts from the global energy cycle of
the system in which human beings operate the Earth system.
Table 1.3 Comparative Energy phenomenon Energy (J)

scales of some energy-related
measurements (from [1]) Fission energy of a U-235 atom 1.6 9 10-12
Energy of one ton of coal 2.9 9 1010
Energy of one ton of oil 4.5 9 109
Energy equivalent of one gram of matter 9 9 1013
Energy consumption all over the world (2004) 5.04 9 1020
Daily solar energy received by the Earth 1.49 9 1022
Daily emission of solar energy 3 9 1032
Table 1.4 Conversion factors of the main energy units of measurement

J Cal toe tce bop Wh BTU Erg eV
J 1 2.3910-4 0.02310-9 0.03410-9 0.1610-9 2.7810-4 0.9410-3 107 6.241018
Cal 4.1861010 1 0.09210-6 0.14210-6 0.6810-6 1.16 3.95 4.1861010 2.611022
toe 4.5371010 107 1 1.55 7.37 1.26107 4.28107 4.5371016 2.831029
tce 2.931010 7106 0.645 1 4.74 8.14106 2.76107 2.931017 1.831029
bop 6.17109 1.47106 0.135 0.21 1 1.71106 5.8106 6.171016 3.851028
Wh 3.6103 0.86 0.07910-6 0.1210-6 0.5810-6 1 3.4 3.61010 2.241022
BTU 1.06103 0.25 0.02310-6 0.03610-6 0.171106 0.29 1 1.061010 6.611021
erg 10-7 2.3810-11 0.02210-16 0.03410-16 0.1610-16 2.7710-1 0.9410-10 1 6.241011
eV 1.610-19 3.8310-23 3.6810-30 5.4410-30 2.5610-29 4.4510-23 1.510-22 1.610-12 1
Table 1.5 Conversion of the units of measurement relating to calorific values

J/kg kcal/kg BTU/lb
J/kg 1 2.39 9 10-4 4.29 9 10-4
kcal/kg 4.19 9 103 1 1.82
BTU/lb 2.33 9 103 5.5 9 10-1 1
Table 1.6 Classification of primary energy sources according to the criterion of renewability
Energy flows of the earth system Non-renewable energy sources Renewable energy sources
Solar radiation Petroleum Human and animal energy
Coal Wood/biomass
Natural gas Energy crops
Bituminous schist Solar energy
Oil sands Wind energy
Sea waves
OTEC
Saline gradient of the sea
Hydropower
Gravitational energy Tides
Internal energy of the earth Natural radioisotopes Geothermal energy
uranium, thorium, lithium
hydrogen isotopes
The figures and energy flows making up the Earth’s energy balance are shown
in Sankey diagram (Fig. 1.3), in which these flows are represented through arrows
whose width indicates the total contribution of each single item [1].
It is therefore evident that the energy balance of our planet is mainly based on
the energy flow coming from the Sun, accounting for 99.98% of the total.
The mean energy flow coming from the Sun is called solar constant and cor-
responds to the energy that, outside of the atmosphere (namely without atmo-
spheric absorption) and at the average distance of the Earth from the Sun, passes
through a surface of 1 m2, placed perpendicularly to the direction of the flow, in
the interval of 1 s. Measurements made through artificial satellites have indicated
for the solar constant a value of 1.353 kW/m2, with a ± 3% variability due to the
10 1 Energy System
Fig. 1.3 Global energy balance of the earth [1]
ellipticity of the Earth orbit.6 Conversely, on the average, the value of incident
radiation on the terrestrial surface, considering the effect of absorption of the
atmosphere, amounts to nearly 1 kW/m2. In any case, the amount of total mean
power intercepted by the Earth is estimated at nearly 173,000 1012 W.
Besides the direct solar energy, the other sources contributing to the Earth’s
energy balance include the energy coming from the gravitational interaction
(involving the triad Earth, Sun and Moon, with a prevalence of the Earth-Moon
interaction), as well as the thermal energy present inside of the Earth, conveyed to
the surface through conduction and convection. A further contribution finally
comes from natural radioisotopes (radioactive elements), mainly responsible for
the phenomenon of geothermics.
The Sankey Diagram in Fig. 1.3 shows how a remarkable portion of the inci-
dent solar energy (52,000 1012 W) is directly returned to the external space,
whereas the remaining portion proceeds towards the Earth’s surface, passing
through the atmosphere.
6
As a matter of fact, the causes of the variability of solar flow are manifold: the irregularity of
the solar surface, the different emissions by the star, the rotation of the Sun and of the Earth
around their axis, the variability of the Sun-Earth distance, etc.
Please note that the energy flows referred to are intended in a time unit,
therefore ‘‘power’’ will more precisely be referred to (See Sect. 1.1.2). In this
connection, it is suitable to underline the critical aspect of the energy issue:
although, at any moment, the power available in nature is, as described more in
detail afterwards, at least four orders of magnitude higher than the present needs
of the entire world population, it is technically and/or economically impossible to
meet energy demands, at any moment and for each user, with the only power
that is directly and instantaneously available in nature from the Sun or from the
other renewable sources mentioned above.
Meeting energy needs is, therefore, a problem relating to the availability in
space and time rather than being a problem of quantity. The issue to be solved is
that of making available to individual users the suitable quantity of energy (and
in the suitable form) they instantly need.
The Earth’s energy balance will be analysed in detail in the next chapters.
1.1.5 Classification of Energy Sources
After considering in which forms energy is available in nature and what are the
sources that ensure the total energy supply of the Earth system, an ‘‘operational’’
classification of the energy utilisation cycle is needed, indicating which energy
sources allow to meet the energy needs of the human society, and which is the
contribution that each of them can offer. To do so, it is necessary to refer back to
the diagram of Fig. 1.1, which will represent the starting point for the more
detailed classifications hereunder.
In fact, if from a global viewpoint the Sun represents the most substantial
energy source for the Earth system, different ways are in place for its processing,
storage and availability throughout our planet. This storage allows the availability
of new forms of energy that, together with those already seen in the global balance,
are defined as primary energy sources. They originate, either directly or indirectly,
the energy continuously provided to users for the so-called end use.
However, in order to contribute to end use, primary energy sources cannot be
directly used in the forms and quantities available in nature, but rather they have to
be modified and adjusted to the demand. In addition, the problems of transpor-
tation and cost-effectiveness of exploitation have to be solved, as well as meeting
technological and environmental needs, supplying the type, the nature and the
quantity of instant energy demanded by users.
1.1.5.1 Primary Energy Sources
In the field of energetics, different subdivisions of primary sources have been

proposed, which have had several evolutions over time. In order to highlight the
results achieved by the energy market through technical and commercial
12 1 Energy System
Fig. 1.4 Classification of primary energy sources
evolutions, and to underline the incidence of use of the different forms of energy, it
is suitable to know the usual subdivision of the various primary energy sources
into conventional, nuclear, new and renewable energy sources (Fig. 1.4).
Conventional Energy Sources (CES) are characterised by the most extensive
use and by a well-established structure in the energy market. Therefore, these
sources are commonly defined as commercial sources.
Nuclear energy is considered separately since, although its role in the energy
market is largely well-established and has major possibilities of use, it shows
problems that need to be analysed separately. Furthermore, its use as primary
source is practically destined to the production of electric power alone (electro-

nuclear plants) and propulsion—naval in particular, both surface and submarine—
or, eventually destined to space use.
Finally, the New and Renewable Energy Sources NRES have to be considered:
new, due to their new (or renewed) introduction in the technical practice; renew-
able7 since they are characterised by relatively short regeneration time (Table 1.6).
NRES are available in nature with a higher variety of forms compared to
commercial sources.
A direct availability of thermal energy comes from the sun, from the Earth’s
endogenous fluid, and from the marine thermal gradient. Wood, biomass, energy
crops, the saline gradient of the sea, bituminous schists and oil sands provide
potential chemical energy. The remaining sources mainly concern mechanic energy.
Particular attention must be paid to the rational use of energy and energy
saving, which in modern terminology fall within the most correct definition of
energy efficiency. Obviously, these are not actual forms of energy, but their
adoption is seen as a virtual energy source, since it allows to reduce the con-
sumption of other forms of energy that have to be employed to achieve the useful
effect. This concept is underlined by ‘‘measuring’’ the energy saved – given the
same result obtained – in ‘‘negawatt’’ (energy that was not consumed).
A further classification of some primary energy sources that in a sense repre-
sents a variant of the previous one, is shown in Fig. 1.4, which highlights the
renewable character of these sources and their position in the energy balance of the
Earth System (Table 1.6).
1.2 Closed Cycles of Energy Resources
The reference scheme for reaching the sustainability of Energy Systems is referred
to as ‘‘Closed Cycles of resources’’. What yesterday seemed impossible, today is
the clear and declared objective: to realise energy systems that do not consume
resources and do not produce waste. Energy systems based on what we call
‘‘Closed cycles of energy resources’’ can be set-up and run by human technical
skills in the twenty first century.
Zero-consumption, zero-waste: this is the objective, together with high effi-
ciency conversion technologies and flexibility of energy end uses.
7
Renewable sources are those sources with a relatively short recovery period, and in any case
comparable to the duration of the utilisation cycle (which guarantees their practically unlimited
availability over time). Non-renewable sources, on the contrary, are those sources in which the
recovery cycle has a duration largely higher than the utilisation cycle. Usually, non-renewable
sources include fossil fuels, since the fossilisation cycle necessary for the formation of fossil fuels
has a duration amounting to millions of years (which makes these primary energy sources
exhaustible or non-renewable from a practical viewpoint). Even nuclear fuels, deriving from
natural raw materials which cannot be regenerated with the present technological processes, have
to be considered as non-renewable sources.
14 1 Energy System
1.2.1 The ‘‘Measurable’’ Definition of Sustainability
For ages the human society has been consuming resources that it is not able to
reproduce. Its activity can be considered as still based on ‘‘open cycles’’, starting
from a condition of natural environmental balance that brings to environmental
imbalance. The general challenging purpose of scientific and technological
research towards sustainability appears extremely clear if based on this assump-
tion: to identify and implement new social and economic systems based on ‘‘closed
cycles’’ of resources.
The challenge of closed cycles allows to propose a new definition of sustain-
ability, able to indicate the way leading to—as well as stating the general prin-
ciples of—sustainable development.
In the energy sector, the implementation of the sustainability scheme of closed
cycles shows its real feasibility, together with its theoretical inspiring role. Energy
vectors—some of which are well-known and established like heat-transfer fluids,
electricity, or others that are not yet as used and widespread as hydrogen—allow to
close the energy resource cycle in this field by effectively meeting the zero-
consumption and zero-waste objectives through viable technological solutions.
1.2.1.1 Open Cycles, Closed Cycles and a New Definition

of Sustainable Development
Any technological cycle that brings either a product or a service to our everyday
life presently consists of a sequence of activities. From a wider perspective, these
activities include:
• extraction of resources
• storage
• transportation
• processing/transformation
• production
• storage and distribution
• use
• waste formation
• partial recycling of materials and product reuse
• waste disposal into water, air and ground.
This cycle, commonly used and apparently normal, implies all the limits that
the sustainability concept has brought to evidence in our current development
model. It might represent, in a close future, the main element leading to the end of
our civilisation.
By only considering the first and the last rings of the chain, it is immediately
evident how human beings take any matter—which is in a condition of natural
equilibrium with the environment—and transform it into useless waste—which
1.2 Closed Cycles of Energy Resources 15
unfortunately, in most of cases, is even dangerous for the mankind, the wildlife,
and the environment as a whole [2, 3]. Human activities consume resources that
they are not able to reproduce. This is an open cycle: a cycle that starts from a
status of environmental balance and ends with a condition of environmental
imbalance. This cycle ‘‘consumes’’ resources, and ‘‘produces’’ waste.
The human society as seemed to accept this flow as inevitable, mainly because
till now human economic development was almost entirely based on such an
apparently simple and convenient solution. During the last two centuries,
humankind has built its industrial evolution on the exploitation of raw materials
which, through production processes, end products and waste disposal, imposed
open cycles on the environment. It is usually known where these cycles begin
(usually in a mine shaft, or in a well), but most of times it is not exactly known
where they end – water, air, ground (in a specific natural reservoir, such as a
landfill, or randomly all over the planet, as uncontrolled waste).
The era of open cycles must come to an end. It has been an era of rapid
development, but only for a portion of the human population. Consequently, the
possibility of finding resources to be consumed and land destined to waste disposal
was huge if compared to the percentage of world population that was undergoing
development. In the last decades this system evolved towards more and more
complex cycles, and now includes recycling and reuse practices. In this way, the
main cycle has been enlarged by adding secondary cycles, able to extend the useful
life of materials and products. Such extension in useful life is obtained by spending
energy and by progressively deteriorating the quality of original materials and
products. This can be considered as an excellent practice, but not a final solution: it
still brings from consumption to waste.
Thinking ahead, cycle corrections of this type cannot be enough. The challenge
lays in the realisation of entirely closed cycles. Anything but closed cycles, which
start from useful resources, and return to useful resources after their use, are unable
to realise truly sustainable development: diffused, shared, and ideally endless for
the entire human society.
The lesson learned from nature is simple and clear: only those organisms that
succeeded in being part of closed cycles are able to survive, whereas those that are
imprisoned in an open cycle disappear.
A New Definition of Sustainable Development
Several statements are commonly quoted for defining sustainable development.

Two among the most well-known are:
• ‘‘We do not inherit the Earth from our ancestors, we borrow it from our
descendants’’.
• ‘‘Sustainable development is realised when the current society does not com-
promise with its development the possibility of development for future
generations’’.
16 1 Energy System
Many other statements apply, and most of them express similar concepts. What
is missing to achieve a scientific theory of sustainability is a definition that goes
beyond principles, indicating the pathway to follow and not just the objective to
achieve. We have to give the Earth ‘‘back’’ to future generations in an appropriate
manner—but how? How can we measure and evaluate whether a behaviour cor-
rectly leads towards sustainable development?
The proposal of closed cycles of resources provides enough elements to make a
definition of sustainable development, together with stating the following principle:
‘‘Sustainable development does not consume resources.
It uses and re-uses them, endlessly and without environmental consequences’’
The trinomial ‘‘resource, use, re-generation’’, as opposed to the current model

of ‘‘resource, consumption, waste’’ can achieve a type of development that, by
definition, preserves the planet for future generations. The model of closed
cycles, being a logical evolution of the current model based on open cycles,
continuously provides the tools to measure the sustainability of human activities.
Everything that consumes resources is, by definition, unsustainable. The more a
process preserves resources, the less it produces waste, the closer it is to
sustainability.
The challenge of sustainable development lays in stopping exploitation and
using cycles with the re-formation of resources and with the elimination of waste
generation. The closer our world gets to the ideal model of closed cycles, the
closer it will be to sustainable development. The progress resides in the man-
agement of resources and waste, with the only exception of entropy increase:
entropy increase is the only ‘‘waste’’ that it is possible to accept, and only its
increase has to be considered as the thermodyanamic ‘‘limit towards infinity’’ of
human development on Earth.
The Application to Energy Systems

The cycle of coal, oil and natural gas began several millions of years ago with
organisms that fixed atmospheric carbon in their structures. They reached us
through chemical-physical reactions that lasted millions of years and caused the
formation of the most suitable natural energy resources that today’s fast-growing
and power-intensive society has found in nature ready to use.
The period of new formation of fossil carbons is several millions of years, and it is
much greater than the use and consumption period, which is compressed by human
activities into a number of years or decades. For this reason, the cycle of fossil fuels
has to be considered as completely open from the human point of view. By using
fossil fuels, our society quickly consumes incredible amounts of energy resources
that the environment is absolutely unable to reproduce at the same pace [4–6].
Additionally, the consumption of energy resources entails chemical reactions that
release substances harmful for the human health and for the environment: signifi-
cant amounts of carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons,
particulate and traces of thousands of other compounds. Carbon dioxide represents a
separate issue: it is released into the air through the combustion of fossil fuels in the
form of ‘‘natural’’ re-coupling between carbon and oxygen. CO2 is not a directly
dangerous pollutant for human health, but its massive re-loading in terrestrial
atmosphere in the time of a ‘‘geological instant’’ is a real threat to the climate.
The open cycle of fossil energy resources takes billions of tons of ‘‘potential’’
CO2 securely stored underground in deep oil, coal and natural gas deposits, and
releases them in the atmosphere. The scientific community is nearly unanimous in
indicating an unsustainable increase in the Earth’s temperature if this open cycle is
not remarkably changed from its present trend:
Hydrocarbons ! Carbon dioxide
Paying attention to the small number of technicians and scientists who
express doubts and scepticism about the projected temperature increase as a
result of CO2 and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, it is evident that their
scepticism is focused on the indicated effects of the GHG content variation in the
atmosphere, and not on the presence of a tangible risk for the natural balance.
Almost all of them oppose the calculations and projections on the effects of the
change, and not the change itself. And most of them do not deny the presence of
a risk.
Therefore, the vast majority of the scientific community identifies the cause and
the effect as follows:
CO2 increase ! Climate instability
and a small minority does not agree on the effects, while agreeing on the cause.
They state that anthropic carbon dioxide emissions only lead to a risk, and not to
the certainty of a climate change:
CO2 increase ! Unidentified Risk:
The common element is at least the presence of a ‘‘risk’’, such as the risk of
losing the environmental balance.
Even the chain of nuclear power is characterised by an open cycle:
Radioactive materials ! Enriched materials ! Nuclear power production

! Radioactive waste disposal:
Furthermore, in this case the key is the presence of a ‘‘risk’’ (during and) after
the useful power production period:
Radioactive waste ! Risk:
Consequently, the risk of losing the environmental balance can only be
avoided by the energy sector only if it abandons the scheme of open cycles of
resources.
18 1 Energy System
Closed Cycles of Energy Resources

Obtaining useful energy from closed cycles of resources is possible according to
the Laws of Physics, although on a first analysis the integration of an energy vector
in the energy system could be seen as an energy-wasting loop. The First Law states
that to obtain an energy vector, at least the same amount of energy that it will
return has to be spent. The Second Law states that to obtain an energy vector the
amount of energy to be spent is always higher than stated by the First Law, and the
energy it will return is always lower than the energy spent.
Therefore, the simple analysis of efficiencies would lead to conclude that the
use of energy vectors has to be generally avoided and that it always brings to a loss
in terms of use of primary resources. The energy spent has to be higher than the
energy obtained.
The analysis is correct, as much as it is incomplete.
It is necessary to add to this well-known analysis framework that the ‘‘use’’ of a
given amount of primary energy has a completely different meaning when the
source of this energy is renewable, if compared to the ‘‘consumption’’ of a non-
renewable one. In this case the concepts of ‘‘use’’ and ‘‘consumption’’ show a great
difference in their meaning. And the difference between energy spent and energy
obtained when passing through an energy vector has to be considered as an
acceptable energy cost to be paid – when realising energy systems that do not
‘‘consume’’ resources that cannot be re-formed on Earth in the due time, and
follow cycles that can theoretically reduce to zero their impact on the environment,
both in terms of resource consumption and waste formation. So although the
definitions of the term efficiency are correct, their consideration has to be recon-
sidered in the new ‘‘closed cycles’’ approach to energy systems for sustainable
development.
The definition of sustainable development, based on the basic scheme of closed
cycles, allows to objectively compare, for the first time, different development
solutions from the point of view of sustainability. In fact, if development cannot be
defined as sustainable until it consumes resources, the discrimination between
sustainable and non-sustainable solutions becomes evident.
The application to the energy sector shows that developing human society
without depleting the Earth’s resources is possible by the use of incident solar
energy. In this case, a closed cycle of resources can be acheived that respects the
principle of ‘‘zero consumption and zero waste’’, also showing that it already has
the potential for being technologically realised.
The practical implementation of closed cycles of energy resources can be
achieved by exploiting renewable resources and structurally integrating energy
vectors in the system. The inclusion of energy vectors (to be produced from
appropriate primary resources) in the chain of energy systems becomes the key
concept for the development model and, in a large-scale application, it would
allow to meet all the energy end uses that human society needs for its social and
economic development.
1.2.2 The Earth, as an ‘‘Open’’ Energy System, Allows

the Realisation of Closed Cycles
The practical implementation of closed cycles of resources has long been deemed
as impossible in the energy sector, since it was considered as non complying with
the First and Second Law of Thermodynamics. Some confusion was generated
between the concept of closed cycles of resources and the concept of closed energy
cycles. The latter is evidently and clearly impossible to achieve, due to the
qualitative degradation of the energy resource in any conversion, revealed by the
increase of entropy, or related to the decrease of the energy content.
Fortunately, however, the particular conditions of the Earth characterise its
energy status as this of an open system rather than a closed one; in this way, the
real scenario in which actions are made in relation to the theoretical energy
analysis changes completely.
The Earth constantly receives energy from the Sun. The planet-system, there-
fore, does not have an equalised situation in terms of energy balance, but rather,
conversely, a situation of own energy balance largely positive that allows to
hypothesise what would be considered as impossible without taking into account
this simple but peculiar starting point. The constant and distributed inflow of
additional energy in the Earth system allows it to be practically defined in energy
terms in conditions of constant energy surplus.
This daily available – and thence usable – surplus is at the basis of the
incredibly charming possibility of developing on Earth energy systems based on
closed cycles of resources and on renewable forms of energy. What is renewable,
in fact, is not the energy detected and exploited by a suitable energy system, but
rather its cyclical and repeatable natural availability, largely linked to the new
quantities of energy that from the Sun reach the surface of the Earth.
The continuous availability of an energy source, assimilable in human activities
and practically inexhaustible, allows to face the energy spending necessary for the
production of energy vectors, their exploitation, and the replenishment of the
primary resources available.
1.3 Energy Systems
What is an energy system?

An unequivocal and standardised definition of energy system is necessary to
perform any activity involving the development, analysis, planning and
improvement in the energy sector as well as in the technologies suited for its
exploitation and targeting to the carrying out of human activities.
Very often the definition of energy system coincides with the definition of
energy conversion system, and in turn this is easily mistaken with the definition of
energy conversion technology, which is traditionally considered as a technical
20 1 Energy System
ENERGY
ENERGY FLOW FINAL USE USEFUL EFFECT
RESOURCES
Fig. 1.5 Elementary (or simple) energy system/theoretical
INTERACTION WITH NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
ENERGY
ENERGY FLOW FINAL USE USEFUL EFFECT
RESOURCES
WASTE
Fig. 1.6 Simple energy system/real
solution aimed at leading a fluid to perform a thermodynamic cycle. It is possible

to see how in these definitions the field of analysis is excessively limited and even
targeted to specialists.
The modern needs for elasticity, flexibility, modularity and cross-sector solu-
tions expressed by the human society are inappropriate for such sectorialisation.
Energy systems, therefore, have to be defined in a way that allows to exploit the
choice, the comparison and the competition among different solutions in a scenario
that takes their efficiency into consideration by referring to the entire energy cycle,
from the primary resource exploited to the useful effect produced and with a clear
indication of the impact caused on the environment in the different components of
the energy chain that leads from the source to the useful effect.
An energy system is therefore a system that avails itself of energy resources to
produce a useful effect (Fig. 1.5). The useful effect is obtained through an energy
flow, and it may involve mechanic energy, lighting energy, thermal energy and
electric/electronic energy.
The energy system must be therefore able to extract energy from the original
resource (energy resources), to make it flow in the most appropriate form (energy
flow) and to use it through suitable technologies able to make energy available in
the form and with the appropriate characteristics for end use, in order to allow the
realisation of the desired useful effect.
All this inevitably happens within a process of continuous interaction with the
natural environment and also—at present in all the cases involved—through waste
generation.
The scheme of a simple energy system/real is therefore more complex, and
shown in Fig. 1.6.
According to this general definition, it is evident that an energy system can be
more or less complex: in fact, it may encompass the entire world’s energy system,
or a single plant, or even a single household appliance (where a single equipment
1.3 Energy Systems 21
Fig. 1.7 Complete energy system/real
includes the energy resource available in that case, the end use, and the
achievement of the useful effect) passing through any possible intermediate
‘‘dimension’’. A complex energy system represents in this way the set of several
simple energy systems interacting among themselves.
In its widest meaning, an energy system is made up of the set of primary energy
resources, the processes and the relevant technologies for energy transformation,
conversion, transportation, storage and end use, as well as the waste produced and
the interactions with the environment generated in all the phases and processes
mentioned above.
The basic structure of a complete energy system is therefore shown in Fig. 1.7.
In its most detailed representation, an energy system is made up of the set of
primary energy resources, processes and technologies for conversion, transporta-
tion, storage and end use of energy, waste production and interactions with the
environment in all the different phases.
The concepts implied in the definition of energy system (resources, processes
and technologies for energy transformation, transportation, storage and end use)
will be tackled more extensively afterwards; it looks however suitable and useful
to immediately make a brief reference to them.
The ‘‘pathway’’ from the primary source to energy use, generally entails dif-
ferent needs.
First of all, a primary energy source is usually available in places other than the
points of utilisation, which are also called end users. This poses – practically in the
22 1 Energy System
majority of cases – the problem of transportation. Furthermore, in order to meet at

any time a variable energy demand, without always having at one’s disposal a system
for its production, transportation and continuous distribution, and with unlimited load
adjustment capacities, storage becomes necessary. A means that allows energy
transportation and/or storage is defined energy vector (or energy career).
Another need is that of having at one’s disposal a form of energy with adequate
characteristics at any step of the pathway going from the extraction-production to
end users, which we define ‘‘well-to-use’’. In the last section of transportation and
distribution, and for end use, the forms of energy that are extensively used now-
adays include fuels deriving from oil refining and electric power. These energy
sources are defined as secondary sources (or resources), as they are resources that
in order to be available and usable by end users have undergone conversion and
transformation processes compared to the primary resources from which they are
obtained.
Further attention is paid to concepts as resource and useful effect. Both of them,
in fact – which were mentioned in the entire energy system – are also normally
considered for each subset of the energy system taken into consideration. In case
of a thermoelectric plant, the original resource is fuel (already representing a
secondary source compared to the crude oil available in nature) and the flow of
electric power is the useful effect. Conversely, in case of an electric water heater,
electric power is the initial resource and the hot water produced is the useful effect.
It is now suitable to provide a general definition – in case of a complete energy
system (well to use) – of the beginning and the end of the process: in this case
energy resources indicates the primary energy sources (namely, those available in
nature) whereas useful effect means the effect desired and obtained by end users. In
the case of room heating, the useful effect is the achievement and the keeping of
the desired temperature in the room, and not the quantity of heat with given
characteristics (that is to say a given flow of heat at a given temperature) necessary
to air-condition the room under consideration. Similarly, the useful effect in case
of mobility and transportation is the movement of people or goods from one point
to another, and not the energy employed to perform such movement.
The energy necessary to obtain the useful effect, in fact, varies (both in terms of
form and quantity) according to the technology used (air heating, thermal radia-
tors; car, train, ship, and aircraft) and the modes carried out (central heating,
individual heating; collective transportation, private transportation).
As concerns the definitions of primary and secondary source, and energy form
for end use and energy vector, the following consideration is due: definitions are
not necessarily alternative. A primary energy resource may also be a vector, as it
can be the case of a secondary source, etc. Oil exists in nature, therefore it is a
primary energy source, and has such characteristics that allow it to be transported
and stored, therefore it is also an absolutely complete energy vector. The same
goes for its derivatives (gasoil, petrol, fuel oil, LPG, etc.): they are the result of a
process of transformation of a primary source; they can be transported and stored,
and therefore they are secondary sources and energy vectors. Finally, electric
energy is a form of energy that can be transported and not easily and economically
1.3 Energy Systems 23
stored, and it is as well a secondary resource and energy vector (however not
‘‘complete’’, meaning that it only owns one of the two characteristics applying for
the definition of vectors: yes for the transportation capacity, no for the storage
capacity).
References
1. Ippolito F (1976) L’energia: fonti e produzione. Ed. Le Scienze, Milan

2. Dunn PD (1986) Renewable energies: sources, conversion and application. Peter Peregrinus
Ltd., London
3. Makhijani A (1997) Economic and political weekly. Bombay
4. UN (2011) Energy Statistics Yearbook and Energy Statistics Newsletter, United Nations,
New York, USA
5. BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2010) London
6. Key World Energy Statistics (KWES 2010) International Energy Agency, Paris
Chapter 2
Energy Resources
2.1 Definition of Energy Potential
A general assessment of the availability of energy resources1 is essential for

whichever long-term energy policy. As concerns renewable energy sources (RES), the
difference vis-à-vis the most widespread fossil sources (RES are regularly-renewed
energy flows), whereas fossils can be considered as ‘‘fixed’’ resources) induces to
make some preliminary remarks about the definition of RES potential (Fig. 2.1).
The theoretical potential of a renewable energy source (like sun, wind, bio-
mass, water, geothermal, etc.) is the annual energy flow without technical–eco-
nomic references, estimated through a direct analysis. This analysis is made
through the maps that take into consideration, respectively, the solar radiation
equivalent (annual based), wind speed and distribution, biomass index, water
capacity (difference between precipitations and evaporation), hydraulic heads (like
differences of geodetic heights), geothermal fields, etc. Some authors add physical
and social-economic considerations (slope of the land, eventual road access,
presence of electrical grid, gas pipeline and aqueduct proximity to the power plant,
etc.) and therefore determine the theoretical available potential. For fossil fuels
alike, global occurrences take into account all the types of resources, either
identified or not identified, both economic and not economic (also in this case, the
resource available is considered without technical–economic limitations).
The technical potential of renewable energy sources is the fraction of the
theoretical potential that current technologies allow to exploit. The equivalent for
fossil resources is represented by resources (being economic and not economic,
identified and not identified, excluding the resources that current technologies do
not allow to exploit).
1
World Energy Council (WEC) in 1998 defined energy resource a primary energy source with a
demand and conversion and use technology.

26 2 Energy Resources
Fig. 2.1 Potential of

renewable and fossil
resources
The economic potential is the fraction of the technical potential that is also
cost-efficient to exploit. The equivalent for fossils resources is represented by the
reserves (verifiable, possible and feasible). Finally, the effective potential of
the RES is the fraction of economic potential exploited, taking into account the
demand and the energy policies adopted in each country. As far as fossils
are concerned, considering an existing demand and a ‘‘favourable’’ policy, the
effective potential is analogous to the verifiable reserves, being the resources
effectively measured, whose production is possible according to the economic and
technological conditions.
Obviously potentials are influenced by several factors (environmental, techni-
cal, economic and social), therefore each numerical value changes dynamically
according to environmental changes, technological development, market condi-
tions and the relevant political situations.
2.2 The Earth’s Energy Balance
The analysis of energy availability in nature starts from the global energy cycle of
the system in which human beings operate: the Earth system. The Earth is not
exchanging matter but only energy with the outside, mainly electromagnetic
energy from the Sun and releases it in the space (so keeping its average temper-
ature constant). Besides the direct solarpower (accounting for around 99.98% of
the entire energy available on Earth) the other sources contributing to the energy
balance of the Earth for the remaining 0.02% include the energy coming from
gravitational interaction (practically reduced to the triad Earth, Moon and Sun), as
well as the thermal energy present inside of the Earth, conveyed to surface through
conduction and convection. A further contribution finally comes from natural
radioisotopes (radioactive elements).
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the Sun from a nuclear fusion
reaction that generates electromagnetic energy. The spectrum of solar radiation is
close to that of a black body with a temperature of about 5,800 K (according to
Wien’s Law, derived from Plank’s Law, the Sun emits radiations with a peak
wavelength of 500 nm). About half of the radiation is in the visible shortwave part
2.2 The Earth’s Energy Balance 27
Fig. 2.2 Instant energy balance of the Earth [3]
of the electromagnetic spectrum. The other half is mostly in the near-infrared part,
with some in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum.
The average energy flow coming from the Sun is called solar constant and
corresponds to the energy that, outside of the atmosphere (that is to say, without
atmospheric absorption phenomena) and at the average distance of the Earth from
the Sun, passes through a surface of 1 m2, perpendicular to the direction of the flow,
in the interval of 1 s. Measurements made through artificial satellites calculated for
the solar constant a value of 1,353 kW/m2, with a ±3% variability due to the
ellipticity of the Earth’s orbit. Considering the solar constant and the average Earth
surface irradiated by the Sun, the estimated amount of the total average power
intercepted by the Earth is nearly 173 9 1015 W, to which corresponds an annual
incident quantity of 5,404 9 1021 J/year (that is to 1.3 9 108 MTOE/year).
As shown in Fig. 2.2, nearly 30% of the solar incident radiation is reflected at
its arrival and dispersed in the external space under the form of short wavelength
radiation (nearly 52,00012 W), whereas the remaining part proceeds towards the
surface of the earth, through the atmosphere.
The atmosphere, the surface of the Earth, and oceans absorb nearly 47% of the
total (nearly 81,00012 W). Considering that the average insulation at ground level
over an entire year (including nights and periods of cloudy weather) is much
lower—for example, in North America it ranges between 125 and 375 W/m2
(3–9 kWh/m2/day)—and the utilisation of 1% of lands above sea level (for
instance through the direct photovoltaic and thermal solar conversion mentioned
below), the theoretical potential corresponds to nearly 80 9 1012 W corresponding
to an annual energy availability of 5.9 9 104 MTOE/year (values similar to those
reported by IEA [1] and Nakícenovíc et al. [2]).
Twenty three percent (nearly 40,00012 W) is used in the water cycle that is, to
say in the evaporation, precipitation and runoff characterising the hydrologic
cycle. The water vapour formed, while raising as a consequence of thermal
gradients and of pressure effects, cools beyond the saturation point, and subse-
quently condenses around ions or dust particles, originating the formation of
clouds. When the size of drops reaches at least 1 mm of diameter, atmospheric
precipitations (rain, snow and hail) take place in suitable temperature and
pressure conditions. The amount of inland precipitations slightly varies according
to the different continents by 740–800 mm per year. The two exceptions are
South America (1,600 mm per year) and Antarctica (165 mm). Not all the water
returns on Earth at the same rate at which it evaporated; a portion of it remains
in the upper air, thence allowing its accumulation in the form of potential
mechanic energy. Out of the 577,000 km3 of water evaporating from oceans and
land surfaces, 119,000 km3 precipitate on the soil. About two-thirds are absorbed
in almost equal parts by vegetation and soil; the remaining one-third becomes
runoff water. Most of the quantity absorbed by vegetation and soil evaporates
again, and this percentage amounts to 72,000 km3. The difference of 47,000 km3
is, in principle, available for energy purposes. The convolution of runoff water
allows to take into consideration the theoretical hydropower potential, whose
amount (theoretical potential) is estimated as 5 9 1012 W, with an annual energy
amounting to 3.6 9 103 MTOE [13]. The largely prevailing energy use of this
resource is electricity production in hydroelectric power plants; this is the reason
for the word hydroelectricity.
A small fraction of the sun energy, amounting to 0.2% (nearly
370 9 1012 W), is destined to winds, ocean circulation, and sea state, and is
partly dispersed in the form of frictional heat. Wind is caused by heterogeneous
air warming: the air above ground is warmer than air above the sea, and as a
consequence of density variation, the warmest air rises and triggers the
movement of air masses (AM). A region’s mean wind speed and its frequency
distribution have to be taken into account to calculate the amount of electricity
that could be produced by wind turbines. Wind resources can be exploited in
areas where wind power density is at least 400 W/m2 at 30 m above the ground.
If we consider the exploitable part of wind, then the technical potential is
estimated around 15 9 1012 W, to which corresponds an annual energy
amounting to nearly 10 9 103 MTOE.
2.2 The Earth’s Energy Balance 29
An even lower quantity of the sun energy, nearly 40 9 1012 W (0.02%), is

transformed from the chlorophyll contained in plants that fixes carbon in leaves
and stores energy under the form of carbohydrates. Furthermore, this process
releases oxygen and, through the decomposition processes, dissipates energy.
However, a large quantity of organic matter is stored and accumulated in peat bogs
or, in any case, in environments poor in oxygen that do not allow the return to
balance conditions. The storage below the crust of the Earth of animal and veg-
etable remains is at the basis of the complex phenomenon relating to the formation
of fossil fuels, which in this way end up storing the solar energy absorbed for
millions of years by the Earth. According to estimates, the conversion from bio-
masses might provide 27 9 1012 W (2 9 104 MTOE per year).
The gravitational systems Earth–Moon and Earth–Sun are at the basis of the
phenomenon of tides. The actions of the two systems, however, are combined in an
extremely variable way. The movements of the Moon vis-à-vis the Earth take
place, in fact, on an orbital level different from the Earth’s equatorial plane and, on
the other side, because of orbit eccentricity, the periods of the two celestial bodies
differ, as well as the mutual distance and the distance to the Sun. Out of the two
systems, the Earth–Moon system influences the phenomenon to a higher extend,
due to the relative closeness of the Earth from its Satellite (mean distance
384.4 9 106 m), although the mass of the latter is 81.3 times smaller than the
Earth’s and over 2,500,000 times smaller than the Sun’s. As regards the Earth–Sun
system, given the higher distance between the two bodies (circa 149 9 109 m), it
generates minor tidal forces, although not negligible, in consideration—this
time—of the huge mass of the Sun (nearly 333,000 times as much as larger than
the Earth’s). The other celestial bodies, including those of the solar system, on the
contrary, do not have any appreciable influence. Overall, the main gravitational
action is the one that the Earth exchanges with the Moon, whereas the Sun only
modifies the magnitude of tides. The tidal force peaks when the three celestial
bodies are aligned and the lunar attraction adds up to the solar one, whereas it is at
minimum levels when the Moon is at its first and last quarter (quadrature), namely
when the line connecting the centre of the Earth and the centre of the Moon is
perpendicular to the line connecting the centre of the Earth and the centre of the
Sun. The level of springtides and of quadrature tides has a deviation of nearly
20%, compared to mean values. The power made instantly available by tides is
evaluated as amounting to 3 9 1012 W (2 9 103 MTOE).
Geothermal power is a so-called energy source ‘‘of formation’’: in fact this
Energy derives from star formation processes that originated the Earth itself. The
heat flow coming from the internal part of the Earth was evaluated through geo-
thermal gradient measurements as well as through the thermal conductivity of
rocks. Vertically proceeding towards the interior, in the first kilometres a tem-
perature mean increase of 3C every 100 m is recorded; however, this increase is
not constant, since the maximum temperature of the nucleus of the Earth amounts
to nearly 4,500C. By means of these measurements, a mean value of the energy
flow was determined, amounting to 0.063 W/m2; having considered that the
Earth’s surface amounts to nearly 510 9 1012 m2, an overall power of about
32 9 1012 W is obtained, that is 2,4 9 104 MTOE per year. Thermal sources and
volcanoes, however, emit only 1% of total heat, thence the power actually
available is reduced to nearly 0.3 9 1012 W. Heat migrates from the hot nucleus
of the planet towards the Earth’s crust through two main processes: conduction,
which contributes to a minor extent since rocks are poor conductors of heat, and
convection, which conversely rapidly spreads thermal energy in fluid materials.
Although heat propagation takes place towards the surface of the Earth, and from
here towards the space, the temperature inside of the nucleus is rather constant
thanks to the contribution of radiations and of the particles released by the
radioisotopes present inside of the Earth’s crust. Therefore, geothermal energy
mainly derives from the decay of radioactive substances inside of the Earth and,
having considered the quantities involved, it represents a practically inexhaustible
source of energy.
The energy flows and figures making up the energy balance of the Earth are
shown in Sankey diagram, where these flows are represented through bands whose
width are propotional to the total contribution given by each item. In this
framework, another interesting representation is shown, which highlights the water
cycle (at the basis of the life on our planet and that, also from the energy view-
point, has huge proportions and plays a major role).
It is important to consider the critical aspect of the energy issue: although, at
any moment, the power available in nature is—as described afterwards—at least
four times as much as higher than the needs of the entire world population, it is
technically and/or economically impossible to meet energy needs at any time and
for each user, through the only power that is directly made available in nature by
the Sun or by the other sources mentioned above.
Meeting energy needs, therefore, is not a problem in terms of quantity but rather
of availability of quantity in quality (suitable form), in the space, and at the time
needed by users.
2.3 Renewable Sources
2.3.1 Solar Energy (Direct)
If, on the one hand, solar energy has several advantages (such as the absence of
polluting agents, the possibility of direct conversion into electric power, a prac-
tically unlimited duration as well as a global quantity available far higher than
human kind’s energy needs), on the other hand several problems must be over-
come for its widespread use, including technical and economic ones, linked to the
low energy density, and to its discontinuity (night/day alternation, seasons cycle,
variation in weather conditions). It is clear, then, how big is the gap between
potential availability and practical possibilities of use.
2.3 Renewable Sources 31
2.3.1.1 Overview
As already mentioned in Sect. 2.2, outside of the Earth’s atmosphere the incident
power on an area perpendicular to the direction of Sun rays slightly exceeds
1,300 W/m2 and this value is named solar constant. In its passage through the
atmosphere, however, the spectrum of solar radiation changes both quantitatively
and qualitatively. More in detail, the interaction of solar radiation with the earth’s
atmosphere and surface is mainly determined by 3 groups of factors:
1. The Earth’s geometry, revolution and rotation (declination, latitude, solar
angle);
2. Terrain (elevation, surface inclination and orientation, shadows).
3. Atmospheric attenuation (scattering, absorption) by:
a Gases (air molecules, ozone, CO2 and O2).
b Solid and liquid particles (aerosols, including non-condensed water).
c Clouds (condensed water).
The first group of factors determines the extraterrestrial radiation available
according to the solar position above the horizon, and it can be precisely calculated
through astronomic formulas.
The radiation input to the Earth’s surface is then modified by the topography of
its terrain—namely slope, inclination and aspect—as well as by the shadowing
effects of neighbouring terrains. This group of factors can also be modelled at a
high degree of accuracy. The elevation above the sea level determines the atten-
uation of radiation by the thickness of the atmosphere.
The intensity of the extraterrestrial solar radiation passing through the earth’s
atmosphere is attenuated by various atmospheric constituents, namely gases, liquid
and solid particles and clouds. The path length through the atmosphere is also
critical. Because of its dynamic nature and complex interactions, the atmospheric
attenuation can be modelled only at a certain level of accuracy.
The quality of radiation, that is to say the distribution of wavelengths in the
solar spectrum, undergoes a variation due to the scattering phenomenon, based on
which the photons of different wavelengths are spread according to different
angles. The radiation that reaches the ground has then a different composition from
the radiation originally released by the sun.
To quantify the spectrum of ground radiation, reference is often made to the
concept of AM: it is defined as the ratio between the length of the real path of Sun
rays and the length of their shortest possible path, that is to say with the Sun at the
zenith. By convention, it is agreed that outside of the atmosphere the solar spec-
trum has an AM equal to 0. At the sea level, on a clear summer day, the radiation
coming from the Sun at the zenith corresponds to AM1, whereas other positions
correspond to an AM of 1/sin h, where h is the zenith angle (Fig. 2.3). As a
reference magnitude for the measurement of cells and of photovoltaic modules, an
AM of 1.5 is used.
Fig. 2.3 Air mass (AM) and schematization of the solar radiation incidence angle
Fig. 2.4 Comparison

between the extra-
atmospheric solar spectrum
(AM0) and a ground solar
spectrum at ground level
(AM1)
An interesting comparison concerns (Fig. 2.4) the extra-atmospheric solar

spectrum (AM0) and an atmospheric solar spectrum (AM1), where the already
mentioned qualitative and quantitative differences between the two radiations are
highlighted.
The radiation impacting on a given surface, called global solar radiation, is the
sum of three components (Fig. 2.5). The component that is neither absorbed nor
spread by atmospheric particles, and that directly reaches the surface in question
with a single and well-defined angle, is called direct radiation. The component
Fig. 2.5 The components of

solar radiation
that, through the atmosphere, is deflected in random directions (scattering), mainly

due to the particles of water vapour in the air, but that in any case succeeds in
impacting the surface, is named diffuse radiation. The grey areas, that is to say the
areas of surfaces not reached by direct radiation due to the presence of hindrances,
are not completely darkened, also thanks to the contribution of diffuse radiation.
The radiation that reaches the surface after being reflected by the ground or by
other surfaces is called reflected radiation. As concerns the tendency to reflect
incident energy, the major contribution is given by light surfaces (for instance,
areas covered with snow in winter) whereas dark surfaces (as ploughed fields or
grasslands) are characterised by a high absorption coefficient.
The relative importance of these three components varies depending on:
• Weather conditions In a cloudy day, the diffuse component prevails over the
direct one.
• Inclination of the collector surface During summer months, a surface with a
minor inclination on the horizontal plane shows a higher contribution of direct
radiation, and the opposite happens in winter months.
• Period of the year In a collector surface placed vertically, the contribution of
direct radiation will be lower in summer months, and the opposite applies in
surfaces with a minor inclination.
• The global value of the radiation reaching the ground is subject to:
• Regular variations (daily and annual) due to the apparent motion of the Sun in
the sky.
• Irregular variations due to weather conditions (cloudiness, humidity, etc.).
The position of a surface that allows to maximise the quantity of solar radiation
collected is the one in which this surface is oriented southward,2 with a tilt angle
2
This condition is true for the regions of the Northern Hemisphere placed north of the Tropic of
Cancer (lat. 2327’N); in the regions of the Southern Hemisphere placed south of the Tropic of
Capricorn (lat. 2327’S) the suitable orientation is northward; finally, in case of the regions of the
tropical zone, it depends on the period of the year.
Fig. 2.6 Radiation variations

depending on the annual
oscillation of the earth’s axis
equalling the latitude of the site. Orientation optimises reception during the entire
day, whereas inclination minimises the radiation variations due to the annual
oscillation of the earth’s axis that determines a variation in the direction of Sun
rays compared to the vertical axis (Fig. 2.6).
2.3.1.2 Resource Evaluation
Let us turn now to the calculation of global solar incident radiation on a surface
placed in any position. Clearly, this is the most interesting calculation for the
evaluation of electric power production potential by a photovoltaic system
installed in a given site.
The main sources to estimate the incident solar radiation in a given period on a
surface are the Solar Radiation Atlas. They collect data mostly provided by
national meteorological institutes or, in exceptional cases, by universities. This set
of data is collected in maps and tables, and usually derives from 10-yearly mea-
surements. In the case of Europe, the European Solar Radiation Atlas is divided
into two volumes: the first one relates to horizontal surfaces; the second volume
concerns tilt surfaces. In the first volume of the Atlas tables show the values of
mean daily radiation for each place considered, expressed in Wh/m2 (o kWh/m2),
that is to say in energy density.
Each place is characterised by its coordinates (latitude and longitude), and by
its altitude above the sea level. The most important value is the one appearing in
the first row of each table, indicated with letter G. It expresses the mean daily
radiation and is shown for each month and then as annual mean value.
The values of incident global radiation on a horizontal surface; however, have a
limited interest for the design and development of photovoltaic systems, since, in
order to optimise their electric output, these systems are always arranged with a certain
Fig. 2.7 Angles

characterising the position of
a surface
inclination on the horizontal plane. Therefore, the determination of the incident solar
energy on a tilt surface with a given angle becomes of paramount importance.
This problem can be solved through two different approaches: the consultation
of the second volume of the European Solar Radiation Atlas, or the mathematical
calculations of the radiation on a tilt surface starting from the corresponding data
for a horizontal surface.
The first approach resorts to the second volume of the Atlas, which refers to tilt
surfaces. For each place, tables show the mean daily radiation (both global and
diffuse) per each month and on an annual basis, corresponding to different positions
of the collector surface. This position is characterised by two angles (Fig. 2.7):
• The tilt angle (shown in the figure with letter b) that measures the tilt of the
surface considered, as compared to a horizontal plane.
• The orientation angle (or azimuth, shown in the figure with letter c), which
indicates the orientation of the surface vis-à-vis the cardinal points (the orien-
tation southward corresponds to a null azimuth); more precisely, it is the angle
that the projection on the horizontal plane of the normal surface forms with the
southward direction in the northern hemisphere (or northward in the southern
hemisphere).
In order to know the values of solar radiation according to the reference geo-
graphical site, suitable maps, called iso-radiation maps, are used. Radiation values
mainly depend on orographic characteristics and, to a lower extent, on latitude
variations.
It is necessary to specify that, in most of data available, no distinction can be
made between the component of direct radiation of diffuse radiation.
Maps show the distribution of daily mean radiation for the different months and
on an annual basis (Fig. 2.8). The black lines in the maps are the isoradiative
Fig. 2.8 Solar geographical

information system
Fig. 2.9 Procedure for the calculation of the global solar radiation on a tilt surface
curves that is, to say lines indicating the constant value of the mean daily radiation,
measured in kWh/m2.
Note that the values shown in the second volume of the European Atlas were
calculated by hypothesizing a fixed value for ground reflectivity, amounting to 0.2
(meaning that the ground reflects 20% of incident radiation; a value corresponding
to a grassland). If the site in question shows a different reflectivity, corrective
formulas shall be used to determine the exact value of the reflected component.
However usually the reflected component provides global radiation with a rather
limited contribution, amounting to a few percentage points.
The second approach for the determination of solar radiation on a tilt surface is
the calculation starting from the data on a horizontal surface, which in turn can be
derived from the Solar Radiation Atlas.
Without lingering on the detail of the calculation procedure, here it follows a
short description of the fundamental steps at the basis of this approach (Fig. 2.9).
The first step consists in determining the extra-atmospheric radiation starting
from the evaluation of a few astronomic parameters as the eccentricity of the earth’s
orbit. The comparison between the global values of extraterrestrial radiation and the
incident radiation on a horizontal surface shows the so-called ‘‘clearness index’’.
The diffuse component of radiation (always on a horizontal surface) is then
calculated as a complex function of this newly-determined index. The direct
component is found as a difference between the global and the diffuse radiation. At
this point of the procedure, the three components of solar radiation on a horizontal
surface are taken into consideration. It is then possible to calculate, through rather
complex formulas, the values of these three components for a given surface
arranged in space. Different input parameters are necessary in this calculation
phase, and in particular surface tilt, ground reflectivity (for the determination of
the levels of the reflected component) and the latitude of the installation site.
2.3.2 Hydropower
The rain and the snow give origin to the water flowing on our planet’s lands. The
quantity of precipitations, the configuration of the territory and its type of rock or
ground, are the factors that determine the characteristics of a watercourse. It is
therefore important to know ‘‘how much water falls’’ on a territory to imagine and
plan the use of this resource that is so important for all the human kind. The
measurement of precipitations is indicated in millimeters of water, and is carried
out in the ‘‘Precipitation Stations’’ suitably installed throughout the territory.
As mentioned in Sect. 2.2, hydropower directly depends on the portion of solar
radiation that originates the water cycle on Earth. This resource is, to all intents
and purposes, a renewable source; but, due to its intensive use in electricity
production, it is traditionally included among conventional energy sources.
In the last few years, a renewed interest was expressed vis-à-vis the use of water
basins that can fuel small plants with a maximum power of 3,000 kW. Mini-
hydraulic energy (or minihydro is the name of the branch dealing with these
plants) can, in fact, remarkably contribute to the electrification of developing
countries, where small-sized isolated users are present, although almost lacking in
a distribution grid linking them to large plants. Finally, particular importance is
ascribed to water basins or watercourses that can fuel very small plants of tens of
kW, micro-hydraulic plants.
2.3.2.1 Overview
Drainage Basins
River courses always develop at valley bottoms, having considered that water
flows due to the effect of gravitational forces; the valley where the river flows, and
the mountains surrounding it, up to the watershed peak, is called catchment area.
Through the analysis of the basin ground and the measurement of precipitations
in that given area, it is possible to define the behaviour of the river and the quantity
of water that can be used.
A watercourse can be named in different ways: river, torrent, brook etc.; each of
these names indicates its different characteristics dealing with the continuity of the
flow rate, its volume and the size of the watercourse itself.
The study of water resources is fundamental, and involves the science of hydrology,
the study of rainfall and stream flows, the measurement of drainage basins,
catchments, evapotranspiration and surface geology. While flowing from point A to
point B of a watercourse, water looses potential energy according to (2.1). This
available power can be converted, by limiting friction, into useful kinetic energy.
P¼QqgH ð2:1Þ
In (2.1), P is the power [W], Q the flow in [m /s], q the water density (1,000 kg/m3),
3
g the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2) and H the gross head [m] (the vertical
useful difference in level). Therefore, to estimate the water potential, it is necessary to
know the variation of the discharge throughout the year as well as level of the gross
available head. A United Nations Organisation was established—the World
Meteorological Organisation—providing hydrologic information service besides
National Hydrological Services, River Basin Authorities and other institutions, but it
is unusual to make regular gauging in the stretch of river where the development of a
small hydro scheme is proposed. Thus, normally, through the models of local data in
terms of precipitation (monthly rainfall), evaporation discharge (linked to tempera-
ture values, etc.), stage (water level), sediment and water quality and groundwater of
the areas, it is possible to calculate the variation of the discharge throughout the year
and the available head. Generally, an area with mountains and high precipitation has
several good hydropower sites (Fig. 2.10).
To estimate the hydroelectric potential of a site, the annual variation of the flow
rate during the year must be known, as well as the gross head available. In the best
Fig. 2.10 World hydrological cycle observing system
of cases, the drainage services have installed a measurement station, and the
historical series of effluent flow rates will be collected. In case of unknown
hydrological data, the flow rate for at least one year will have to be measured.
Equation 2.1 clearly shows the power (and thence the energy) obtainable as
determined by the head (H) and by the flow rate (Q) of the watercourse considered.
The head is the difference in level between the point of water inlet and the point
of water outlet [m].
Hydroelectric power plants are divided according to the value of this size into:
• High head over 100 m
• Medium head 30–100 m
• Low head 2–30 m
The flow rate taken from a hydroelectric plant is the water volume taken in a
time unit [m3/s]. According to the flow rate, reference is made to
• Small flow rate up to 10 m3/s
• Medium flow rate from 10 to 100 m3/s
Fig. 2.11 The net head
• Large flow rate from 100 to 1.000 m3/s

• Very large flow rate over 1000 m3/s
Various methods can be used for flow rate measurement:
• Area–velocity method, used for medium and large rivers, it consists in the mea-
surement of the cross-section of the river and the medium velocity of water. The
section is detected through topographic methods, whereas the mean speed can be
measured through different tools: float, swivel and electromagnetic meters.
• Direct measurement of flow rates through dilution of a solute in the current.
Suitable for small watercourses characterised by turbulent flow; the simplest
method consists in the dilution of common salt in water and in the subsequent
measurement downstream of the electrical conductivity of the solution formed;
• Measurement through overflow, if the river is small enough, it is possible to
make a provisional weir and allow the water to flow through a known section
(the overflow); through measurements on the geometry of the system, it is
possible to trace back the flow rate;
• Slope–area measurement, this method is suitable for high flow rate values and is
based on the principles of hydraulics.
2.3.2.3 Net Head
The net head of a hydraulic turbine is the difference of hydraulic loads, namely of
fluid mechanic energy, between two conventional sections taken before and after
the machine.
In relation to Fig. 2.11, the net head is obtained as follows:
Vi2 pi V 2 po
þ þ zi ¼ o þ þ zo
2g c 2g c
2.3.3 Wind
The power owned by the wind, so called wind energy, has been used by men since
ancient times for purposes ranging from sailing (Egyptian images of 2,500 BC.) to
the winnowing of cereals, to the drying of farming and fishery products.
Windmills in Europe first appeared in the middle ages, at the time of crusades.
Completely different from the conceptual viewpoint, with horizontal-axis wheels,
these windmills were larger in size, technologically more complex, with a higher
yield. They were used for the grinding of cereals, olive pressing, water pumping,
setting in motion and operation of sawmills, paper mills, dye-works and tobacco
industries.
In the last century, multi-blade rotor ram-air turbines became widespread,
subsequently used in large numbers in the farms of newly colonized territories.
A further step forward in the transition from windmills to modern aero-gen-
erators was made in Denmark by Paul La Cour, between 1891 and 1907. His rotor
had four rectangular warped blades, typical of a European wind mill.
During World War II, some studies were launched in the USA, in the Neth-
erlands and in Denmark that—boosted by the problems of a war economy—led to
the design and development of machines (at that point aerogenerators) with two-
bladed and three-bladed rotors.
In 1924, the Finnish engineer Savonius tested a new and innovative type of
vertical-axis aerogenerator.
Another type of rotor, Darrieus, derives from an original plan dating back to the
beginning of the ‘30 s by Darrieus. At the moment, it represents the only vertical-
axis machine able to really counter the supremacy of the HAWT (Horizontal Axe
Wind Turbine).
The possibility of exploiting the wind source with directly competitive costs, or
at least costs comparable to conventional sources, is heavily limited by its low
energy density (in the windiest areas, it is possible to reach the maximum3 value of
400–600 W/m2), as well as by its marked changeableness and uncertainty, also
while considering seasonal and annual mean values. Furthermore, there is also the
problem of windblasts that is, to say winds whose high and suddenly variable
intensity generate—in wind power plants—mechanical resistance problems and
may also cause breakings.
3
These are annual mean values of power per surface unit affected by the blades of a wind
machine.
Fig. 2.12 Wind circulation linked to phenomena operating at the Earth level (Source: ENEL
SpA)
From a merely operational viewpoint, a fundamental step to usefully exploit the

wind source is the choice of the suitable place where installing conversion plants,
that is to say the determination of a suitable choice of the site.
2.3.3.1 Overview
Wind energy means the kinetic energy owned by AM moving in the Earth’s
atmosphere. In general, their movement is linked to the action of atmospheric
pressure, or better, pressure gradient, and therefore of temperature, in the sense
that air tends to move from high-pressure areas to low-pressure adjacent areas,
with a speed related to such gradient.
The wind and its main characteristics, namely intensity and direction, depend
upon several factors acting at a local and global scale.
The most important factor is solar radiation and its different intensity, higher in
the equatorial zone and lower in the areas close to the poles. The Earth’s surface
releases to the atmosphere part of the heat received from the Sun; the equatorial
air, warmer thus with a lower density, tends in any case to rise, generating a
depression that attracts other AM from the poles, and triggering—at the planet
level—a circulation of cold air from polar zones to the equator.
Among the other factors influencing the circulation of winds, from a global
viewpoint, there are the inclination of the Earth axis and the movement of revo-
lution around the Sun, which seasonally move the most insulated areas inside of
the tropical zone. On the contrary, the movement of rotation of the Earth deter-
mines a daily alternation of solar radiation, and induces the Corioliscomplemen-
tary acceleration on the moving AM, producing the typical spiral movement of
wind currents; the lack of uniformity and homogeneity of the earth’s surface is
finally responsible for the different absorption capacity and for the exchange of
solar heat between the Earth and the atmosphere above it.
Fig. 2.13 Wind speed

variation according to the
distance from the ground
Fig. 2.14 Anemometers
Figure 2.12 shows a global representation of wind circulation due to high and
low pressure flows,4 which develop at a regional level as a consequence of the
phenomena mentioned above.
4
As regards Fig. 2.12, there are in particular one zone of low pressure at the equator; two
tropical areas of high pressure; two areas of low pressure in sub-polar zones; two high pressure
zones on the polar caps.
Table 2.1 Beaufort scale
44
Force Equivalent speed Description Specifications for use on land Specifications for use at sea
10 m above ground
miles/hour knots
0 0–1 0–1 Calm Calm; smoke rises vertically Sea like a mirror
1 1–3 1–3 Light air Direction of wind shown by smoke drift, but not Ripples with the appearance of scales are
by wind vanes. formed, but without foam crests.
2 4–7 4–6 Light breeze Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; ordinary vanes Small wavelets, still short, but more
moved by wind. pronounced. Crests have a glassy
appearance and do not break.
3 8–12 7–10 Gentle breeze Leaves and small twigs in constant motion; wind Large wavelets. Crests begin to break. Foam
extends light flag. of glassy appearance. Perhaps scattered
white horses.
4 13–18 11–16 Moderate breeze Raises dust and loose paper; small branches are Small waves, becoming larger; fairly
moved. frequent white horses.
5 19–24 17–21 Fresh breeze Small trees in leaf begin to sway; crested Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced
wavelets form on inland waters. long form; many white horses are formed.
Chance of some spray.
6 25–31 22–27 Strong breeze Large branches in motion; whistling heard in Large waves begin to form; the white foam
telegraph wires; umbrellas used with crests are more extensive everywhere.
difficulty. Probably some spray.
7 32–38 28–33 Near gale Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt when Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking
walking against the wind. waves begins to be blown in streaks along
the direction of the wind.
8 39–46 34–40 Gale Breaks twigs off trees; generally impedes Moderately high waves of greater length;
progress. edges of crests begin to break into
spindrift. The foam is blown in well-
marked streaks along the direction of the
wind.
(continued)
2 Energy Resources
Table 2.1 (continued)
Force Equivalent speed Description Specifications for use on land Specifications for use at sea
10 m above ground
miles/hour knots
9 47–54 41–47 Severe gale Slight structural damage occurs (chimney-pots High waves. Dense streaks of foam along the
and slates removed). direction of the wind. Crests of waves
begin to topple, tumble and roll over.
2.3 Renewable Sources
Spray may affect visibility.

10 55–63 48–55 Storm Seldom experienced inland; trees uprooted; Very high waves with long over-hanging
considerable structural damage occurs. crests. The resulting foam, in great
patches, is blown in dense white streaks
along the direction of the wind. On the
whole the surface of the sea takes on a
white appearance. The ‘tumbling’ of the
sea becomes heavy and shock-like.
Visibility affected.
11 64–72 56–63 Violent storm Very rarely experienced; accompanied by wide- Exceptionally high waves (small and
spread damage. medium-size ships might be for a time
lost to view behind the waves). The sea is
completely covered with long white
patches of foam lying along the direction
of the wind. Everywhere the edges of the
wave crests are blown into froth.
Visibility affected.
12 73–83 64–71 Hurricane -- The air is filled with foam and spray. Sea
completely white with driving spray;
visibility very seriously affected.
45
Fig. 2.15 Example of a wind map
The last factor recalled that is, to say the varied and uneven type of the Earth’s
crust (oceans, lands above sea level with mountain chains, valleys, plains and
depressions, glaciers, etc.) also acts on a local scale, together with other elements
as frictional force and orography. The frictional force, due to the roughness of the
earth’s surface, determines a dissipation of the energy of wind currents, as well as
the development of a border layer of the atmosphere (1–1.5 km of thickness),
inside of which wind speed increases with height and its trend can be represented
through a logarithmic function (Fig. 2.13).
The most immediate way to quantify the wind consists in measuring its speed.
To this end, devices called anemometers were developed, the most common types
of which are shown in Fig. 2.14.
Approximate expeditious measurements of wind speed can be made through the
Beaufort scale (Table 2.1).
Wind up to 5 m/s (breeze) is a low wind (scarcely perceivable: thus class 1
areas are unsuitable for wind energy development); from 5 to 15 m/s (around
54 km/h) is a ‘‘normal’’ wind (but only areas designated as class 4 or greater are
suitable with the actual wind turbine technology; class 2 and 3 areas may be
suitable for future technologies, and over is the storm range (35 m/s, i.e., 126 km/h
is normal speed of a hurricane; these values are very rare).
On the basis of the measurements made through anemometers, the isovelocity
curves are defined. The measurements made in a place are extended to the
neighbouring areas under suitable hypotheses and through the use of suitable
models (Fig. 2.15).
To evaluate the energy provided by the wind, some quantitative analyses have
to be made, starting from the physical and geographical values involved. In this
connection, the two following theorems are referred to:
Fig. 2.16 Stream tube,

velocity and pressures in an
aerogenerator
• Froude’s theorem: the speed of fluid vein at the level of the propeller disk equals
the arithmetic mean of the speed that the fluid vein has upstream and down-
stream the blade itself.
• Betz theory: the maximum possible energy derived from the wind for a windmill
is 0.59 of the power available.
Froude’s theorem can be demonstrated by assuming the following hypotheses:
• Fluid density, due to the limited velocity variations, is considered as constant.
• The flow rate inside of the stream tube is constant.
• Energy exchanges are only axial that is, to say the variations in momentum are
only axial.
• The propeller has infinite blades.
• There are no rotational motions.
The analysis of pressure distribution shows that:
• The fluid vein stresses the windmill with a strength amounting to F
• The windmill stresses the fluid vein with a strength amounting to -F
• The fluid vein holds back both upstream and downstream.
All this determines that:
• The stream tube takes the shape of a bottleneck (for continuity).
• Velocity variation is continuous along the stream tube.
As regards Fig. 2.16 the pulse theory is applied to the windmill. According to
the law of continuity, it follows that:
A1 V1 ¼ A2 V2 ¼ A V ¼ cos t ð2:2Þ
By applying the pulse theory between sections 1 and 2 and sections I and II
Fig. 2.17 Power available

according to the loss of
velocity e
q A V ðV2 V1 Þ ¼ F ð2:3Þ
q A V ðV V Þ ¼ 0 ¼ A p0 A p00 F ð2:4Þ
From (2.4) it can be easily derived that:
F ¼ A ðp0 p00 Þ ð2:5Þ

By applying the Bernouilli’s theorem between a section upstream the blade
(undisturbed flow) and section s’, and between section s’’ and a section down-
stream the blade (undisturbed flow), it follows:
1 1
p1 þ qV12 ¼ p0 þ qV 2 ð2:6Þ
2 2
1 1
p2 þ qV22 ¼ p00 þ qV 2 ð2:7Þ
2 2
Subtracting (2.7) from (2.6), therefore:
1
q V12 V22 ¼ p0 p00 ð2:8Þ
2
By replacing (2.8) in (2.5) it is obtained:
1
F ¼ q A V ðV1 V2 Þ ¼ q A V12 V22 ð2:9Þ
2
From which it is possible to easily derive the V expression, amounting to the
mean of the velocity that the fluid vein owns upstream and downstream the blade:
1
V¼ ðV1 þ V2 Þ ð2:10Þ
2
To demonstrate the Betz theory, please consider, while recalling (2.9), the
expression of the power available to the blade:
1
P ¼ F V ¼ q A V V12 V22 ð2:11Þ
2
The velocity of the fluid vein decreases along the stream tube. Indicating the
percentage of loss (as compared to the value of the velocity of the undisturbed flow
upstream the blade V1) with e, it is possible to express V and V2 according to V1:
V ¼ V1 V1 e ¼ V1 ð1 eÞ ð2:12Þ
V2 ¼ V V1 e ¼ V1 ð1 2eÞ ð2:13Þ
By replacing (2.12) and (2.13) in (2.11) it follows:
P ¼ 2 q A V13 e ð1 eÞ2 ð2:14Þ

The trend of power available according to the loss of velocity e is shown in
Fig. 2.17. Deriving (2.14) compared to e and equating to zero, the values of e are
obtained to which correspond the minimum and the maximum of the power
available.
oP
¼ 2 q A V13 ð1 eÞ ð1 3eÞ ð2:15Þ
oe
This derivative is null for
1e¼0)e¼1 ð2:16Þ
1
1 3e ¼ 0 ) e ¼ ð2:17Þ
3
As shown in the chart of Fig. 2.17, the value e = 1, corresponds to a minimum
value of the power available (P = 0), whereas for e = 1/3, there is a maximum of
the power that can be supplied. It is evident that (2.14) is null for e = 1 and for
e = 0. By recalling (2.12) and (2.13), for e = 0 it follows:
V ¼ V1 ¼ V2 ð2:18Þ
The velocity and therefore the kinetic energy of the air remains constant: in this
case the power is null since there is no energy exchange between the AM and the
blade. For e = 1, on the contrary:
V2 ¼ 0 ð2:19Þ
This means that in this case the power is null since the flow rate is null.
Assuming e = 1/3 in (2.14) the maximum value of the power available is
obtained. This value represents the limit of Betz.

1 3 16 1 3
P ¼ q A V1 ¼ 0; 59 q A V1 ð2:20Þ
2 27 2
This shows that the maximum power that a windmill can take from the wind
accounts for 59% of wind power.
Equation 2.20 shows that power increases by a factor of three as wind speed
increases, and it is proportional to air density and to the swept area (for a HAWT the
area through which the rotor blades pass by the rotors). Because of the low air
density (1.25 kg/m3), wind power density is much lower than water power
(1.000 kg/m3). If the diameter of the rotor blades is doubled, the power increases by
a factor of four. If the wind speed then doubles, power increases by a factor of eight.
The wind source is an intermittent energy source, with characteristics of space–
time uncertainty, and therefore characterised by its own availability in time that
can be very much variable although within the statistical limits of the phenome-
nological. Therefore, the following definitions apply:
• Maximum resource available: fifty nine percent of the energy actually contained
in the incident flow.
• Resource actually available: the resource that, following the meteorological
phenomena related to local and global climate, is present on the site.
• Accessible resource: the resource obtained by applying to the maximum
resource the maximum efficiency of present machines.
• Actual accessible resource: the one obtained by applying to the resource actu-
ally available the maximum efficiency of present machines.
2.3.4 Biomass
The word biomass indicates each and every organic matter, either vegetal or
animal, in a non-fossil form. Biomass represents the most ancient energy form ever
known by human beings. By storing solar energy in chemical bonds, it also rep-
resents the most sophisticated form of energy storage in nature. In fact, through
photosynthesis, plants containing chlorophyll convert water and CO2 into organic
matter during their growth, that is to say they use solar energy to create long chains
mainly made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. However, only one part of the
solar spectrum (45%) intervenes in photosynthesis and a further 20% is lost due to
reflection or poor absorption phenomena. Therefore, the yield of this process is
low (between 0.1% (world average) and 1% (crops)); however, due to the large
spreading of biomasses, energy values are considerable. In this way, in fact, nearly
2 9 1011 tons of carbon are ‘‘fixed’’ overall every year, and 120 Gt of biomass are
produced with an energy content of 70 9 109 TOE distributed as follows:
• 50% in water
• 35% in forests
• 10% in savannahs and grasslands
• 5% in farmlands.
In consideration on its distribution in the planet, biomass is the most common

form of renewable energy, and the main reservoir of solar energy. Although the
real ratio of compounds varies from species to species, on average biomass is
made up 75% by carbohydrates or sugars and 25% by lignin.
Since ancient times, the residues of organic matters derived from the photo-
synthesis activity—either direct (plants) or indirect (animals)—have been used for
heat generation and for the production of derived solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
They represent the most sophisticated form of storage of solar energy and,
therefore, renewable primary energy sources.
Also wood, considered as an energy source, falls within the most general cat-
egory of biomass. As it happens with the other non-commercial sources, even in
case of wood it is difficult to determine its market value and include it in official
energy statistics. One of the main reasons shall be sought in its energy charac-
teristics and, most of all, in its limited calorific value,5 which among other things
varies a lot according to humidity, to wood species and to its origin. Furthermore,
its large-scale trade is hindered by the high incidence in the transportation cost.6
The level of energy dependency of a Country from this type of fuel varies on
average from below 3%, in industrialised Countries, to over 40% in developing
Countries (with peaks of 70%).
In evaluating the utilisation opportunities and the energy purposes, it is nec-
essary to carefully consider, on a case-by-case basis, the time needed to restore the
timber taken from woodlands. In fact, everyone is aware of the deforestation and
of subsequent desertification problems, which are reaching alarming levels glob-
ally; however, they are rarely ascribable to energy needs, although they are fre-
quently linked or ascribed to them. It is sufficient to think that the thinning out of
plants and the removal of coppices from a wood, provided that it is not excessive,
is even beneficial for the wood, since it represents a form a ‘‘maintenance’’ able to
favour the renewal of plants and their growth.
Also for biomass in general it is very difficult to exactly quantify their avail-
ability and consumption for energy purposes. For instance, it is not possible to
estimate precisely and in detail the direct consumption in rural areas (especially in
developing Countries) and industrial waste destined to combustion.
Biomass can also originate from the residues of crops expressly destined to the
food sector, or from farming activities destined, either totally or partly, to energy
production (sugar cane plants, plants rich in starch, etc.), which for this reason are
called energy crops. High quantities of organic matter can also be derived from
self-sown vegetation (wooden material) and from the zootechnical waste of the
farms.
Within the European framework of energy use of biomasses, Italy is in a
condition of scarce development, despite the high potential at its disposal. In fact,
5
Nearly 19,000 kJ/kg for high-quality wood, with 15% in weight of humidity.
6
Generally, for distances exceeding 80–100 km the cost of wood becomes higher, given the
same energy content, than other conventional sources.
the availability of residual biomasses (wood, farming and agri-food industry res-
idues, urban waste and zootechnical industry) in Italy amounts to nearly 66 million
tons of dry matter every year, equivalent to 27 MTOE.
Through a suitable reforestation and forest maintenance programmes, in fact,
new biomasses could be available for an annual amount of nearly 2 MTOE.
Besides the existing forests, new conventional wood surfaces could be obtained by
exploiting part of the over 2,000,000 ha that are not destined to farming due to
their low productivity. Furthermore, coppice stands and ground crops mainly
destined to energy use could be planted, hence reconverting part of the 250,000 ha
that are presently left uncultivated, in compliance with the EU directives enacted
in relation to the problem of farm surpluses: the present surface destined to energy
crops—extremely limited indeed—should be extended to 3,500–5,000 ha of short-
cycle cultivations, but the potential surface amounts to nearly one million ha.
The use of this resource varies according to the origin, the chemical compo-
sition (in particular the C/N ratio) and the humidity content. Biomass can be
burned directly to obtain thermal energy, or transformed into various types of fuels
(biogas or bio-fuels), which improve their quality and usability but lower the level
of energy content. In particular, transformation processes aim at producing
methane gas compounds with a low or medium calorific value, or other fuel
substances (methanol, ethanol, carbon substances, etc.).
As regards the possibility of producing fuels from human waste, it is necessary
to consider the potential interest of energy enhancement from municipal solid
waste (MSW), a percentage of which is made up of organic matter and which can
therefore also be considered as biomass.
2.3.4.1 Overview
Being every renewable organic matter biomass is integral to life. This means that
biomass is the ‘‘fuel’’ of life, a source of energy and materials.
In practice, organic materials (carbon compounds) can be used either ‘‘directly’’
by organisms as their own source of energy and nutrients (in this case, reference is
made to food) or ‘‘indirectly’’ as a source of external energy or materials (clothing,
furniture, building, chemicals, etc.).
Thus food, biomass and renewable materials are strictly connected. From these
preliminary definitions, it is possible to understand the usefulness of energy-farm
and bio-refinery: they propose, respectively, the integrated production of power-
food and power-chemicals from biomass.
Biomass has been (and in many cases, in Africa in particular, remains) the first
‘‘fuel’’ of mankind. Today about 11% (around 1,200 MTOE) of total world pri-
mary energy supply (nearly 13,200 MTOE) comes from biomass [4].
Biomass is the fourth primary energy resource worldwide (following oil, coal
and natural gas) although in industrialised Countries it only accounts for 3% of the
total, whereas in developing Countries it accounts for 35%, being in many cases
the main energy resource. As a matter of fact, a change is occurring in the use of
Fig. 2.18 Biomass

typologies
biomass energy from traditional and non-commercial to modern use (high effi-
ciency, high-value energy vectors produced, such as electricity and bio-fuels, and
integration with industries operating in the food sector or in the field of renewable
materials). The transformation as well as the increase in the use of biomass energy
are due to the trends explained in the previous chapter on renewable energy
sources, and to the potential of energy biomass which is not fully exploited.
Therefore, not only the theoretical potential but also the technical and economic
ones (that take into account actual technologies and costs) are sometimes higher
than actual energy consumption [5].
In brief, biomass is one of the main energy sources available: the challenge,
therefore, resides in its sustainable use and not in its availability.
As it happens with other energy sources, the use of biomass depends on the
global analysis of the production-use system. Different from the other renewable
energy sources, biomass—being a fuel (and not a directly convertible energy
source, like solar, wind, hydropower and geothermal energy)—is subject to the
traditional energy chain (and relevant impacts) that provides a ‘‘natural’’ resource
to our daily life.
Current energy chains deplete non-renewable resources and release harmful
substances, producing waste as well as local and global pollution.
Given that long-lasting development can only exist through the realisation of
energy cycles by using renewable energy sources; in this way, the main aim of the
energy sector shifts to the so called closed-cycles, and aimed at achieving a ‘‘zero-
impact’’ on the environment.
In the case of biomass, the first part of the entire energy chain (extraction and
processing) is replaced by growing, harvesting and treatment. Therefore, the entire
energy chain encompasses the following steps:
1. Production (growing, harvesting and treatment)
2. Transportation
3. Conversion (and relevant initial and final treatment)
4. Distribution
5. End use.
Different from the other renewable energy sources, biomass (owing to the large
variety of renewable multi-carbon compounds) can be converted through several
Table 2.2 Biomass properties

Property Range
Proximate analysis
Humidity content (moisture) (%) 10–70
Calorific valuea 2–40 MJ/kg (from very wet biomass to very dense
oil)
Volatile matter (%) 30–80
Fixed carbon (%) 15–30
Ash (%) 1–10
Ultimate analysis (by weight)
Cellulose (%) 30–50
Hemi-cellulose (polysaccharides) (%) 20–40
Lignin (%) 5–30
Carbon (%) 40–50
Oxygen (%) 38–43
Hydrogen (%) 5–7
Alkali metal and inorganic element (%) 1–15
Bulk volume (density) 1–50 m3/t (daf)
Times of cultivation 6–24 months
Yield (potential annual production 1–100 (dmtb/ha)/yr
capacity)
Characteristics of cultivation Depends on climates, land, water, pesticides and
fertilisers demand
Production cost Negative (for waste) to 1 (DC)–5 (IC) €/GJ
Transportation cost Function of the distance travelled and the energy
density (from 0 to 1 MJ/km)
Conditions of suppliers Depends on local conditions
a
NCV on daf (dry ash-free) basis
b
dmt Dry matter tons
processes in order to obtain various products and by-products. From a chain

perspective, biomass can be divided, as showed in Fig. 2.18, into:
• Energy crops: biomass especially planted for energy purposes in marginal or
productive land or water.
• Organic residues: from woodlands, public parks and gardens, human or animal
cultivations, industry (food, wood, textile, …) or Municipal Solid Waste (MSW).
The former type is subject to the entire chain of biomass, whereas the latter only
includes the last three processes (conversion, distribution and end use), if is used in
situ.
From a quality point of view, biomass can be divided into
• Lignocelluloses herbaceous and arboreal plants, like Miscanthus, poplar, etc.
• Sugar, like sugarcane, beetroot, etc.
• Starch, such as corn, wheat, etc.
• Oil from sunflower, rape, palm, soya, etc.
• Moisture: manures, aquatic plants, etc.

• Others.
Biomass is characterised by many properties which vary within a wide range (from
countries to countries, land, season, management, etc.). In order to use biomass for
energy production purposes, all the properties shown in Table 2.2 must be taken
into account [5, 6]. Obviously, owing to the very large range of biomass typolo-
gies, the value range has to be considered as example (Table 2.2 mainly refers to
crops and vegetable residues, the most frequently used biomass).
The first two categories (proximate and ultimate analysis) and the bulk volume
show the main chemical and physical biomass proprieties. The moisture content
and the cellulose/lignin ratio are of primary concern in the biochemical conversion
processes while the moisture, fixed carbon, ash, alkali content and the calorific
value are of prime concern in the thermo-chemical conversion processes. The bulk
volume is relevant in the transportation and feeding systems (together with the
friction and others particular properties).
Times and requirements of cultivation and yield are general characteristics of
crops. The energy yield (yield and CV multiplied) is the main quantity to consider.
Production and transportation costs are the main economic characteristics to
take into account. Owing to the large amount needed (the biomass, as shown, has a
low energy density) and to the great variability, the supply conditions are
paramount.
After all, since biomass is a fuel with a large property variety, the possible
variation of all the related parameters must be analysed. Thus, the biomass energy
use implies a careful study of:
• the territory and biomass properties and characteristics
• the place where the power plant is setup (not in distant from the biomasses to be
used)
• the reliability of supplies, conversion technologies, etc.
2.3.5 Geothermal
Geothermal energy (from the Greek ‘‘gê’’ and ‘‘thermòs’’, ‘‘heat of the Earth’’) is
the energy contained inside of the Earth in the form of ‘‘heat’’.
The origin of this heat relates to the inner nature of our planet and to the
physical processes taking place in it.
This heat, although available in huge and practically inexhaustible quantity, is
very much dispersed and only rarely concentrated.
Fig. 2.19 Outline of a

hydrothermal system
The internal heat regularly dissipates towards the surface of the Earth; its
existence can be perceived through the progressive increase of rock temperature as
depth increases; the geothermal gradient is, on average, 3C every 100 m of depth,
namely 30C every km.
Geothermal energy here indicates the exploitable part of natural heat present
inside of the Earth’s crust. The subsoil of our planet, in fact, shows a thermal
gradient linked to the hot nucleus at the core of the Earth according to which
temperature increases as depth increases, but mostly to spontaneous radioactivity
phenomena, which develop thermal energy locally. The main radioactive elements
include Uranium 235U and 238U, Thorium 232Th and Potassium 40K.
Most of the endogenous heat is available at too high depths or in conditions that
make it technically impossible to allow its exploitation as energy source. However,
there are zones on the surface of our planet whose thermal energy concentration is
very high locally (high thermality areas). Heat concentration in less deep layers of
the Earth’s crust, as volcanoes, geysers and hot-water springs, originates the so-
called geothermal systems; they are effects of natural radioactivity, and not of the
gradient.
2.3.5.1 Overview
The only systems presently used on an industrial scale are the so-called hydro-
thermal systems. They are made up of permeable rocks containing hot fluid (water
or steam); named aquifers, they are delimited by layers of impermeable rock
(Fig. 2.19).
The feeding of aquifers, which can be considered as natural reservoirs, is due to
the introduction of meteoric water—that is to say coming from atmospheric pre-
cipitations—through the recharging surfaces, formed by zones where the reservoir
itself comes to surface. The heat that warms the fluid is provided by the natural
decay of isotopes within the Earth; the particles emitted by the basins of radio-
active material are, in fact, slackened by the surrounding masses, converting their
kinetic energy into heat.
Some necessary conditions (although not sufficient) must be assessed for the
existence of hydrothermal systems. They include the presence of a heat source at a
suitable temperature (at least 600C) at a not too high depth; the presence of
permeable rocks, making up the aquifer, and impermeable rocks; and the suitable
renewal, in the subsoil, of meteoric water. In general, the renewal is guaranteed by
the fact that meteoric waters, while warming up, undergo a pressure increase and
often turn into vapour, hence tending to raise through either natural or artificial
shafts. The hollow deriving from this process is filled with other meteoric water
that, through its infiltration in the ground, feeds the cycle. The upper impermeable
layer guarantees a suitable pressure and reduces the thermal flow towards the
surface.
According to geological and thermodynamic conditions, the endogenous fluid
can appear at the shaft outlet in three different ways: in liquid phase, as saturated
vapour (low enthalpy), or superheated vapour (high enthalpy). In case of presence
of high quantity of vapour, the hydrothermal system is defined as vapour-domi-
nated; in case of presence of liquid and low quantity of vapour, a water-dominated
system takes place.
All the reservoirs contain, in variable percentages, incondensable minerals and
gases, mainly formed by carbon dioxide.
Presently, most of the electric energy produced from geothermal energy is
based upon high-enthalpy sources, although there are already several applications
using saturated vapour and even hot water.
Non-hydrothermal systems are represented by the so-called hot dry rocks and by
magmatic systems.
The former are highly-thermal zones of the Earth’s crust, although free from
aquifers, therefore lacking in a vector transporting heat to the surface. In order to
exploit this energy source, it is possible to cause, through artificial fracturing, a
forced circulation of endogenous fluid.
Magmatic systems are made up of high-temperature fused rocks (magma) and
entail huge difficulties in terms of energy extraction; the possibility of their
exploitation is remote even if recently innovative energy systems have been
proposed.
The disadvantages relating to the use of geothermal energy are mostly linked to
the uncertainty of its finding and of the consistency of the source, as well as the
high extraction costs. Huge investments are needed for the more and more difficult
determination of exploitable zones and for shaft drilling. Before its use, the fluid
coming from the subsoil always has to be processed since it contains, as already
said, gases, minerals and dissolved water (in case of vapour-dominated systems),
which are harmful both for the conversion plants and for human health.
The world distribution of geothermal sources sees a concentration in the zones of

contact between tectonic plates, where the earth’s thermal gradient is higher due to
Fig. 2.20 Earth layers and relevant temperatures
Fig. 2.21 Plate boundaries and geothermal power plants
Fig. 2.22 Geothermal

phenomena
the fractures of superficial layers; some of these zones are traditionally called
‘‘volcanic zones’’ (Fig. 2.21).
Globally, the first experiments entailing the industrial exploitation of geother-
mics were performed in Larderello (Tuscany, Italy) in 1904, whereas the first
geothermal power station (with a power of 250 kW) was established in the same
area in 1913.
Having considered that the word geothermal comes from the Greek gea (Earth)
and thermos (heat), geothermal energy is usually defined as the heat stored within
the Earth. Heat originates from the Earth’s molten interior and from the decay of
radioactive materials. Its quantity is larger than the solar energy theoretical
potential (the annual solar radiation). In fact, not only the total geothermal
theoretical potential is more than 100,000 times higher than the world’s energy
consumption, but also its smaller total technical potential (about 5 9 1012 GJ) is
higher than the world’s energy consumption (about 45 9 109 GJ), despite an
actual use of about 2 9 109 GJ. However, like other renewable sources (solar
energy, wind energy), geothermal energy is widely dispersed. Consequently, the
technological ability to use geothermal energy will determine its future spreading.
The Earth has four main layers, and each layer has different compositions,
functions and temperatures, as is shown in Fig. 2.20.
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth, the land that forms continents and
ocean floors. It can be from 3 to 8 km thick under the oceans and from 25 to 55 km
thick on the continents.
As a matter of fact, the heat of the Earth dissipates towards its surface in a way
that leads the Earth’s temperature to increase by nearly 3C every 100 m of depth,
being therefore a difference in temperature too low to generate a great local power.
However, the Earth’s crust is broken into pieces called plates; magma therefore
comes close to the Earth’s surface, near the edges of these plates. Consequently,
geothermal energy is generally greater in areas where tectonic plates collide and
generate volcanic activity, as it can be seen in Fig. 2.21, which shows where plate
boundaries and geothermal power plants are located. For example the Pacific ring
(ring of fire) is a prime spot for the harnessing of geothermal activity because it is
an area where tectonic processes are always taking place.
Even if most geothermal reservoirs are deep underground with no visible clues
showing above ground, the geothermal energy can sometimes find its way to the
surface in the form of volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases and
vapour are released), hot springs and geysers as shown in Fig. 2.22.
When magma comes close to the surface, it heats the ground water trapped in
porous rock or water running along fractured rock surfaces, and faults. These
features are called hydrothermal and have two common ingredients: water (hydro)
and heat (thermal). Thus, water at high temperatures (300C) can also be available
for many applications. Large areas with hydrothermal resources are called geo-
thermal reservoirs. Therefore, four types of geothermal energy are usually
identified:
• Hydrothermal hot water or steam at moderate depths (0.1–4.5 km).
• Geopressed hot-water aquifers containing dissolved methane under high pres-
sure, 3–6 km depth.
• Hot dry rock abnormally hot geologic formations with little or no water.
• Magma molten rock at temperatures of 700–1,200C.
Today only hydrothermal resources are used on a commercial scale for elec-
tricity generation and as a direct heat source. These four types of geothermal
energy located in particular areas have to be added to the use of Earth’s stable
ground or water temperatures near the Earth’s surface; therefore, it is possible to
take advantage of the relatively constant temperature of the core of the Earth,
using it for both heating and cooling purposes. Moreover this source of energy is
available everywhere.
Fig. 2.23 Total power

provided by different living
beings according to their
weight
Since some renewable energy sources can only operate under favourable
weather conditions, they are often considered as limited in their ability to meet the
looming large-scale power needs of the 21st century. However, geothermal energy,
has the potential to provide reliable electricity sources while still offering signifi-
cantly lower emission levels than fossil fuels, as well as avoiding problems in terms
of radioactive waste disposal. Geothermal relies on a readily available, constant
source of heat for generation, and is therefore considered a base-load resource. A
base-load resource operates most efficiently at a relatively constant level of gen-
eration, and is not limited by changes in weather conditions or other factors. The
availability factor is measured as the number of hours that a power plant is
available to produce power divided by the total hours in a given period of time,
usually 1 year. Geothermal energy availability factor is about 95%. This means that
geothermal power plants are available for generation 95 % of any given time, based
on decades of observations by plant operators. While availability factor measures a
plant potential for use, the capacity factor measures the amount of real time during
which a facility is used. A Geothermal plant also has a great capacity ranging from
89 to 97%, depending upon the type of geothermal system in place.
2.3.6 Other
2.3.6.1 Human and Animal Power
Since the prehistory, human beings learned how to use animal energy, besides
human energy, for the individual and social needs of their community. Still
nowadays, in many developing countries, this energy resource is among the most
common and widespread energy sources, also because very often it is the only one
easily and conveniently available.
The size of this source varies according to the animal providing energy and,
different from almost all the other sources, from the duration of the period in which
the effort is provided; in this case, then, it is more suitable to refer to the available
power. Figure 2.23 shows some power values according to the weight of the
animal involved.
The analysis of human and animal energy lies outside of the purposes of this
research; however, it has to be taken into consideration, not only in relation to the
situation of some Countries that largely use it still nowadays, but also as a basis of
comparison of any energy system.
2.3.6.2 OTEC
The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is the technology that exploits the
heat stored in oceans to generate electricity. In order to allow an OTEC plant to
produce a suitable quantity of energy, it has to be installed where the difference in
temperature between hot surface waters and cold deep waters amounts to nearly
20C. These conditions are identified in the coastal areas of the tropical seas
between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer.
2.3.6.3 Tidal Power
Cyclic phenomenon extended to the entire hydrosphere and generated by the pull
of the moon and of the Sun on bodies of water. Tidal excursion is the tidal range
between the two limits of high and low water (intertidal height).
Depending on the positions of the moon and of the sun, the higher high water
occurs after the phases of full moon and new moon, and is named springtide,
whereas the lower low water occurs after moon quarters and is called neap tide.
According to the size and the geometry of the sea and ocean basins involved in the
passage of the tide, the tidal stream can reach remarkable levels of flow and
velocity. A tide gauge is installed in water for the measurement and recording of
tidal range.
Energy can be derived from the regular lowering and increasing of water bodies.
To build a tidal plant, an estuary must be dammed towards the sea with an artificial
dam. The energy technique exploits tidal excursion (the high-water and low-water
range). A sufficient tidal excursion, as it happens in Northern France, at St. Mâlo,
where the difference between the lower and higher water is around 12–13 m.
Tidal power plants; however, have the disadvantage that their maximum yield
daily shifts by nearly 50 min with the rhythm of the tides. The optimal conditions
for tidal power plants are rarely met. Besides St. Mâlo, small devices are operating
on the banks of the White Sea in Russia, in Scotland and in China.
2.3.6.4 Wave Energy
Wave energy can be exploited in different ways for the production of electric
energy. The main ones are the following:
Table 2.3 Summary of the RES potential in EJ/y [7]

Resource Current Share Technical Share Theoretical Share
(%) Potential (%) potential (%)
Biomass 48.3 79.3103 276 3.6600 2,900 0.0002
Hydro 10.0 16.4204 50 0.6630 147 0.0001
Solar power 0.2 0.3284 1,575 20.8858 3,900,000 2.7100
Wind power 0.3 0.4926 640 8.4869 6,000 0.0042
Geothermal 2.1 3.4483 5,000 66.3042 140,000,000 97.2837
power
Total 60.9 100.0000 7,541 100.0000 143,909,047 100.0000
• Waves are directed towards a concrete chamber the increase in water level
compresses the air inside of the chamber that activates a turbine. Also the
depression during wave return is exploited to activate the turbine.
• The vertical motion of waves moves a piston designed as a floating body.
• A collection tunnel lifts waves for several metres and lets them fall on a turbine.
2.3.6.5 Sea Currents
The kinetic energy of sea currents can be successfully exploited. Indicating with
Q the volume flow rate (m3/s), with q seawater density (kg/m3), with A the passage
section of sea current (m2) and with V current velocity (m/s) the power available
(W) is:
1 1
P ¼ q Q V2 ¼ A q V3 ð2:21Þ
2 2
Considering a unit section (A = 1 m2) and assuming q = 1.000 kg/m3, (2.21)
becomes:
P ¼ 500 V 3 ð2:22Þ
From the economic point of view, this resource is exploitable if the power
available is not lower than 500 W/m2. Equation 2.22 shows therefore a minimum
current velocity of 1 m/s.
2.3.7 Current Renewable Energy Use
The current use of RES is about 10% of world energy consumption, but the
theoretical and technical potential of renewable energy is huge and it is mainly due
to solar and geothermal energy (Table 2.3). In fact, only about 0.02% of global
contribution to the Earth energy balance7 does not come from solar energy, but
rather from geothermal, gravitational and nuclear energy. Moreover, the technical
potential of solar indirect power (wind, hydro, biomass, wave) are about half or
one-third (depending on individual evaluations) of solar direct technical potential.
Geothermal energy theoretical potential originates from the Earth’s molten interior
and from the decay of radioactive materials; its quantity is larger than the solar
energy theoretical potential (the annual solar radiation). In short, not only the total
theoretical potential is 100,000 times higher than world energy consumption
(geothermal 100,000, solar 10,000, and the rest about 10),8 but also the total
technical potential of RES is 20 times higher. Therefore, its implementation
mainly depends on technological capacity and costs, not on availability. Therefore,
in consideration of the huge unexploited potential, perspectives are very inter-
esting; it is necessary to take into account the expected capacity, efficiency, as well
as economic, social and environmental impacts.
If for large hydropower and geothermal plants it is difficult to foresee techno-
logical improvements, thermal solar power plants can only be considered in a
future perspective (in fact, exception made for some pilot plants and projects, there
are no commercial power plant). For mini-hydropower, wind and photovoltaic
power, an efficiency increase can be foreseen (and a cost decrease of 10 and 50%,
respectively). The same considerations apply for bio-energy systems, but in this
case improvements are linked to an increase in annual hours of operation (i.e.,
from 5,000 to 7,000).
2.4 Non-renewable Energy Sources
Energy sources with a well-established position in world trade, and underlying

economic relations and balances, as well as energy trade between different
Countries, are generally referred to as conventional (or commercial) energy
sources: these are mainly non-renewable sources. Their real availability, the long-
term predictability of price levels and the impact on the environment produced by
the operating cycle (finding, transportation, utilisation and disposal of residues or
waste) evidently are critical problems for the political, socio-economic and
environmental sustainability of the use of these sources.
Availability depends on several factors of physical, technological, economic-
financial and geopolitical nature. Once a deposit—or a primary energy source—is
7
The Earth is a physical open system (exchange only energy no matter) so, normally, receives
energy from the Sun and returns almost the same energy quantity to maintain its average temperature.
8
From the mean average value of annual solar constant (1.37 kW/m2) and the mean radiate
terrestrial surface, it is possible to calculate a terrestrial annual solar irradiation of about
5.44 9 1024 J (1.370 W/m2 9 1.27 9 1014 m2 9 3.600 J/W 9 24 9 365) against an annual
primary energy consumption of about 550 9 1018 J = 550 EJ (1 oil kg has 10,000 kcal =
4.1868 9 107 J; thus 1 Gtoe = 4.1868 9 1019 J = 41.868 EJ).
Table 2.4 Main features of the different types of coal

Humidity (%) Ashes (%) HCV (kcal/kg)a Volatile substances (%)
Peat – – 5,500 –
Lignite 20–35 15–30 7,200 –
Bituminous coal 5–15 10–20 7,200 12
Anthracite 5–8 10–35 7,700 12
a
The calorific value is referred to pure fuel, free from ashes and humidity
identified, the suitable technological devices to stock up at the minimum possible

costs are needed; subsequently, the primary energy obtained has to be eventually
processed by transforming or converting it into an adequate energy vector, which
finally has to be transported to end users. All this requires know-how, investments
and organisation.
The ‘‘energy issue’’ overwhelmingly came to the fore at the beginning of the
1970s, mainly as an international political issue: it became evident, in fact, that the
business chain had a weak link in the relations between oil consuming Countries
(mainly industrialised Countries), and oil exporting Countries (mainly developing
Countries, mostly in the Arab Middle East).
However, there are also objective physical factors that influence the availability
of conventional energy and, in particular, fossil energy. Being ‘‘non-renewable’’,
these sources are destined to deplete, although in the medium-long term, since the
time needed for their replenishment is largely higher (even millions of years) than
the time of their consumption, amounting to tens or hundreds of years.
Additionally, availability also depends on the good value for money relating to the
exploitation of each deposit. Very often, the so-called ‘‘available resources’’ are not
used since their marketing and trade is not cost-effective: many deposits, although
localised long time ago, are still unexploited since their extraction costs and trans-
portation charges are too high. Therefore, depending on market prices and available
technologies, a distinction is made between economically extractable reserves and
potentially extractable reserves, being clear what these definitions refer to.
Among the causes for additional costs in the exploitation of energy sources, it is
also necessary to consider the presence of technological and environmental con-
straints. The environmental impact, in fact, is the other critical factor for the use of
conventional sources.
The case of coal is emblematic: in its entire cycle—from its production to its
energy use—it is responsible for various forms of pollution. Thereby, mining
activities, either underground or open-cast, cause different types of environmental
problems with complex solutions, also linked—among other things—to the safe-
guard of workers’ health and of the environment in general. On the other hand, open-
cast mines—that are much more productive—very often have a non-sustainable
environmental impact on the areas involved, causing the disruption of the social,
agricultural, hydrological and economic fabric. Additionally, the problems related to
transportation, combustion and, last but not least, ash disposal, must be considered.
In general, each commercial energy source is indissolubly linked to an envi-
ronmental impact cycle, more or less critical and dangerous.
2.4 Non-renewable Energy Sources 65
2.4.1 Coal
2.4.1.1 Definition and Structure
Coal, or better, hard coals are solid mineral substances and, from the energy
viewpoint, represent the most important and abundant class of natural solid fuels.
Traditionally, coal is divided into four categories:
• Peat
• Lignite
• Bituminous coal
• Anthracite
Out of them, only bituminous coal and anthracite represent proper coal.
Table 2.4 shows some pieces of data on the main features of coal according to this
subdivision.
These values shall be considered as indicative of different categories that are
not however strictly differentiated.
As to its structural features, coal is made up of a large variety of macromole-
cules,9 very much different in terms of weight, although; however, sharing a
common lamellar morphology.
In each macromolecule two areas can be identified; the condensation nucleus of
aromatic rings, whose size characterises the carbonisation degree,10 and one
peripheral area, made up of different types of functional groups, which charac-
terise the molecule itself.
The total percentage of carbon depends on the degree of transformation
achieved, and ranges from 55 to 95% (on the dry substance); the uncombined
portion (aromatic nuclei) ranges from 20 to 90%.
2.4.1.2 Genesis of Coal
The processes that led to the formation of fossil fuels are still analysed nowadays,
although it is considered as clearly determined that the different types of coal share
a sedimentary and phytogenic origin. In fact, it is certain that, starting from the
paleozoic age,11 huge quantities of organic matter, mainly of vegetable origin,
9
These are mainly high-molecular mass carbon compounds with hydrogen and oxygen,
containing, in minor percentages, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur.
10
From the chemical viewpoint, carbonisation consists of a process that increases the size of the
aromatic nucleus and increases its condensation; the latter inversely depends from the quantity of
non-aromatic bridges that connect aromatic rings.
11
More precisely, one of the periods of the Paleozoic era, which goes from 570 to 225 million
years ago. It is the Carboniferous period, which began nearly 350 million years ago and takes its
name from this important phenomenon.
were accumulated in wet environments, originating a process of carbon enrich-

ment (carbonisation). This circumstance is also demonstrated, among other things,
by the finds of vegetable organic remains12 in less evolved coal-beds.
To clarify the topic of coal genesis, it is necessary to take into consideration at
least the main factors that, more or less directly, have caused it; among them, the
types of vegetables transformed, the geological and environmental conditions and
chemical–physical phenomena.
The paleobotanic studies carried out on hard coals demonstrated how the bio-
logical nature of vegetable combinations, which underwent fossilisation in the
carboniferous Age is rather similar to the nature of the plants that nowadays grow
in marshes and in the lagoons of equatorial regions with hot-wet climate. The
reason why the main coal basins are, on the contrary, almost all included in the
temperate climate area has to be ascribed to the fact that the territories in the
intertropical area underwent, in the areas following the Paleozoic Age, a series of
slips on the Earth surface,13 that determined its present position.
Coal deposits typically have a configuration with repeated layers or seams,14 each
one with a constant or gradually variable thickness, whereas the rocks associated and
alternate to coal-beds are generally sedimentary (calcareous, sandstone, etc.),
sometimes of sea origin. Furthermore, it is possible to observe that the different
layers have a marked parallelism: it is possible to infer that the arboreal organisms
growing in marshy areas, or in any case in flat lands, were periodically flooded and
covered by the sea, due to local bradyseisms, originated in this way vegetable
organic sedimentations. Each time they were covered by inorganic sedimentations,
originated in this way the stratigrafic alternation between hard coal and sedimentary
rock. This also explains the existence of thick coal-beds,15 which probably represent
the result of the deposit of vegetable substances in subsequent stages, each time on
pre-existing material of the same nature but already partly transformed.
Apart from the indications suggested by the growing percentage of carbon, the
fact that neither peat-beds were ever found below lignite deposits, nor layers of
lignite below bituminous coal and anthracite beds, shows that the process occurred
in this sequence: peat, lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite.
As to the chemical-physical processes involved in coal formation, two phases
can be identified, although there is no sharp separation between them.
At the beginning, biochemical factors are involved. Fermentative and putre-
factive changes of the organic matter take place in an acid environment (pH \ 7);
they are caused by aerobic bacteria and fungi, which consume oxygen and are
12
Mainly leaves, stems, seeds and, sometimes, carbonised trunks that perpendicularly cross coal
layers and that still have roots in the ground underlying the bank.
13
This is in line with the hypothesis made by Alfred Wegener, in his continental drift theory
(1915), and confirmed by more recent studies that led to the formulation of the plate tectonics
theory.
14
In northern French–Belgian basin there are up to 400 coal-beds of a thickness of 2,000 m.
15
The thickest bank known is the one of the Kommentry basin, in central France that in some
points exceeds 24 m of thickness.
only available at depths lower than 40 cm. Vegetable materials decompose

quickly, and the main chemical reactions include oxidation and hydrolysis; a part
of carbon is disposed from the vegetable matter (in the form of carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide), but most of it is kept, and its percentage compared to the other
elements increases.
Subsequently, at higher depths, in the absence of oxygen and with pH close to
neutral, anaerobic bacteria intervene. They survive in the absence of oxygen, and
determine a further decomposition of materials—much slower than the previous
one—as well as the formation of humic acid or humus16 through chemical reac-
tions, mainly involving reduction and hydrolysis.
With the gradual sinking of humic deposits, the conditions allowing the lives of
fungi and bacteria disappear; in this way, the second phase of transformation
begins; it is a merely inorganic phase, involving factors as time, pressure and
temperature.
Time only partly influences the entire process; this is highlighted, for
instance, by the limited degree of transformation achieved by the coal of a basin
identified near Moscow, whose age dates back to the Carboniferous period, that
is to say the same period to which date back coals with the highest degree of
transformation. In this deposit, a concomitance of other conditions unfavourable
to carbonisation occurred. However, in general the most ancient carboniferous
formations, given the same other conditions, are more evolved and richer in
carbon than recent ones.
Also the pressure due to the load exercised by the overburden is not a partic-
ularly relevant cause of the carbonisation process; at the most, this compression
may impact on coal porosity. Not even more powerful pressures due to tectonic
movements can be considered as directly influencing metamorphosis processes;
according to a widespread opinion, the carbonisation of the main basins on the
Earth was already completed when, in the Mesozoic Age, the drift of plate tec-
tonics on the earth surface began.
Temperature is therefore the key factor in the carbonisation process. In con-
sideration of the thermal gradient of the earth, amounting on average to nearly 3C
every 100 m of depth, and of powerful magmatic intrusions contiguous to the beds
of humic deposits, it is believed that the latter—that in the carboniferous period
were covered by large layers of sedimentary rocks—might have reached tem-
peratures close to 200C, sufficient to guarantee the conditions for the carrying out
of the metamorphosis process.
2.4.1.3 Physical Characteristics and Technological Merits
The relationship between the chemical composition and the technological features
of coal is rather complex; for this reason, it is preferable to directly take into
16
Complex material, of vegetable origin, mainly made up of carbon.
consideration the parameters characterising fuels according to the different usages

they are destined to.
The most frequent evaluations, then, include the measurement of the calorific
value,the immediate analysis, fuel behaviour after heating, and sulphur analysis.
The measurement of the calorific value is made experimentally, mainly
through the use of calorimeters. The calculation is obviously referred to the
lower heating value, since all fuels contain a given quantity of water,17 called
fuel humidity; when fuels burn, water vapourises at the expense of part of the
heat generated.
The value of the moisture degree is one of the determinations of the immediate
analysis. The other tests of this analysis consist in the evaluation of ashes, for
which it is important to know the quantity produced during combustion, and the
melting point; in this case as well, it is necessary to resort to experimental
determinations. The determination of volatilesubstances and of coke18 follow, as
they are useful to trace back the type of coal examined and the energy use that can
be done of it. In this connection, a few distinctions are made among fossil fuels in
relation to the result of these tests. For instance, a coal characterised by a high
content in volatile substances will be defined as cannel coal, in relation to the
particular combustion developed; otherwise, the coal in question will be blind
coal.
The analysis of burning coal behaviour is important to make a distinction
between coals that burn completely, remaining in an incoherent state, and those
that, if warmed, inflate and hinder the passage of air. The latter phenomenon is
quantified through a suitable swelling index. As regards sulphur, finally, it can be
found in coal under the form of organic compounds, or of sulphides and sulphates.
2.4.1.4 Composition and Classification
The subdivision introduced in Sect. 2.4.1.1, according to which coals are divided
into peat, lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite is not sufficient to rigorously
identify the possible energy use.
The classifications adopted for commercial purposes, in fact, were drafted
without any reference to univocal and rigorous criteria. This also for the evident
purpose by each producing country to use parameters that better highlight and
enhance the characteristics of the coals extracted in their own basins. In any case,
these classifications are based on the content of volatile matter and, secondarily, on
calorific value.
17
Part of water is also formed during combustion.
18
Coke is the solid residue left after coal warming at 1,000–1,100C without air, once it lost its
volatile substances—either pre-existing or which formed during warming. This material is hard,
porous, grayish, with metallic nuances, and is endowed with a high calorific value (up to
7,400 kcal/kg).
In 1949 the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe established an

ad hoc Committee entrusted with the task of drafting an international classification
through which setting the different types of coal, irrespective of their origin. The
works were completed in 1956; according to this classification, each coal is
characterised by a three-digit code, each digit indicating a class, a group and a
subgroup, respectively.
In total, 10 classes were identified, which indicate the content in volatile matter;
whenever this value exceeds 33%, the higher heating value is introduced as a
discriminating value. The groups and subgroups, amounting to four and six,
respectively, are determined on the basis of other properties as, i.e., the swelling
index and the agglomerating power.19
Another important classification is made by ASTM20 (Specification ASTM D-
388) according to which coals are divided into four classes:
• Anthracite
• Bituminous
• Sub-bituminous
• Lignite
Classes are in turn divided into groups, which are characterised by the content
in fixed carbon,21 by the quantity of volatile matter,22 by the higher heating value
and, subordinately, by the agglomerating power.
2.4.1.5 Treatment and Use
In order to improve the collection, transportation and combustion of coal, many

researches were carried out. The main hindrance is represented by its lack of flu-
idity—for this reason coal needs expensive transportation infrastructures—linked to
the high rate of emissions of polluting substances that need fumes abatement sys-
tems, in this case as well entailing outstanding economic commitments.
Various technologies were developed in the attempt of giving coal those
peculiar characteristics that allowed oil and natural gas to gain ground in recent
times (removing in this way the two ‘‘negative’’ characteristics of solidity and
highly polluting combustion):
• Pulverisation: presently, this is the most developed and widely used technique
in the industrial sector. It allows to burn in steam generators the coal dust
injected thanks to the suitable fans. Among its main problems: the easiness of
19
Coal capacity to agglomerate inert substances.
20
American Society for Testing and Materials.
21
Solid residue obtained through distillation and determined with normalized methods without
considering ashes.
22
They represent the portion transformable into gas through warming and is determined by
heating the fuel inside of a closed oven filled with inert material for a given time and at a
predetermined temperature.
self-combustion in deposits and the possible environmental impact in the

transportation and storage phase.
• Gasification and liquefaction: they entail the addition of hydrogen (through steam)
to coal, which in this way becomes a hydrocarbon. The energy necessary for the
separation of hydrogen from water shall be provided by coal itself, in order to have a
positive economic balance in this operation. Synthetic gas is obtained (CO ? H2)
which may be further modified by adding steam in order to have a quantity of
hydrogen exceeding the amount necessary to convert coal into hydrocarbons.
Some of the processes used and/or under study include:
• Hydrocarbonisation
• Hydrogenation
• Extraction
• Fischer–Tropsch process23
• Coal–oil: mix of oil and coal dust (all included in the combustion chamber).
• Coal–water: creation of an inhomogeneous mix of water and coal particles (not
all included in the combustion chamber: need for further links in the techno-
logical chain, increasing costs).
2.4.1.6 Reserves and Geographical Distribution
Among fossil fuels, coal is undoubtedly the one that offers more guarantees in terms
of future supplies, thanks the huge reserves identified, as shown in Table 2.5.
On the basis of present production and consumption rates, the estimated avail-
ability of coal apparently ensures stocks for the next 133 years (Fig. 2.24). This
estimate, however, is not entirely exhaustive, first of all because the level of coal
exploitation is strictly connected to the other commercial sources, mainly oil and
natural gas, whose depletion is expected to occur far earlier. Furthermore, it is
necessary to take into consideration the uncertainty in the determination of eco-
nomically usable reserves, which change according to the variations in market prices.
The localisation of world reserves sees coal sufficiently available in all geo-
political areas; however, a particular concentration is present in North America
(29.6%), in ex-URSS (26.7%) and in China (13.5%), as shown in Fig. 2.25.
23
Fischer–Tropsch process: method for the synthesis of hydrocarbons and other aliphatic
compounds. Synthetic gas, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, is reacted in the
presence of an iron or cobalt catalyst; much heat is evolved, and such products as methane,
synthetic gasoline and waxes, and alcohols are made, with water or carbon dioxide produced as a
by-product. An important source of the hydrogen–carbon monoxide gas mixture is the
gasification of coal (see water gas). The process is named after F. Fischer and H. Tropsch, the
German coal researchers who proposed it in 1923.
Table 2.5 World coal reserves at the end of 2007, in million tons [7]
Anthracite and Sub-bituminous and Total %
bituminous lignite
USA 112,261 130,460 242,721 28.6
Canada 3,471 3,107 6,578 0.8
Mexico 860 351 1,211 0.1
Total North America 116,592 133,918 250,510 29.6
Brazil – 7,068 7,068 0.8
Colombia 6,578 381 6,959 0.8
Venezuela 479 – 479 0.1
Others 172 1,598 1,770 0.2
Total Central America 7,229 9,047 16,276 1.9
Bulgaria 5 1,991 1,996 0.2
Czech Republic 1,673 2,828 4,501 0.5
Germany 152 6,556 6,708 0.8
Greece – 3,900 3,900 0.5
Hungary 199 3,103 3,302 0.4
Kazakhstan 28,170 3,130 31,300 3.7
Poland 6,012 1,490 7,502 0.9
Romania 12 410 422 0.0
Russia 49,088 107,922 157,010 18.5
Spain 200 330 530 0.1
Turkey – 1,814 1,814 0.2
Ukraine 15,351 18,522 33,873 4.0
UK 155 – 155 0.0
Others 1,025 18,208 19,233 2.3
Total Europe and Eurasia 102,042 170,204 272,246 32.1
South Africa 48,000 – 48,000 5.7
Zimbabwe 502 – 502 0.1
Other Africa 929 174 1,103 0.1
Middle East 1,386 – 1,386 0.2
Total Africa and Middle 50,817 174 50,991 6.0
East
Australia 37,100 39,500 76,600 9.0
China 62,200 52,300 114,500 13.5
India 52,240 4,258 56,498 6.7
Indonesia 1,721 2,607 4,328 0.5
Japan 355 – 355 0.0
New Zealand 33 538 571 0.1
North Korea 300 300 600 0.1
Pakistan 1 1,981 1,982 0.2
South Korea – 135 135 0.0
Thailand – 1,354 1,354 0.2
Vietnam 150 – 150 0.0
Other Asia–Pacific 155 276 431 0.1
Total Asia–Pacific 154,255 103,249 257,504 30.4
Total 430,935 416,592 847,527 100
Fig. 2.24 Coal consumption/

production ratio
Fig. 2.25 World distribution

of coal reserves
2.4.2 Oil
2.4.2.1 Definition and Structure
The word petroleum derives from the two Latin words petra and oleum that is, to
say ‘‘stone oil’’ and, in its general use, it indicates an oily liquid, with a variable
density, brown in colour with yellow or fluorescent black shades, insoluble in
water. The scientific and technical meaning is wider and includes all natural
mixtures mainly made up of hydrocarbons,24being either liquid or gaseous or
solid; in this framework, liquid oil (at room conditions) is called fuel oil and the
gaseous one is called natural gas.
Petroleum is the primary energy source presently most used all over the world.
The reasons for this spreading are mainly linked to its relatively high energy
density (on average 10,000 kcal/kg that is around 41,860 kJ/kg), its considerable
chemical–physical stability and the limited quantity of solid residues produced
with its combustion. Furthermore, since petroleum is liquid at its normal
24
Hydrocarbons are, by definition, exclusively made up of hydrogen and carbon; strictly
speaking, then, the word ‘‘hydrocarbons’’ shall not be used as a synonym of petroleum, since it
contains, in lower percentages, other organic compounds made up—besides hydrogen and
carbon—by nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen and other elements.
conditions in the environment, it can be transported relatively inexpensively; given

the same calories transported, it is certainly preferable over both natural gas
(aeriform) and coal (solid).
The main disadvantages of this strategic source, which have caused its enduring
crisis in the last decades, are linked to the fact that it is characterised by a geo-
politicallyunbalanced distribution, it is a non-renewable source and its combustion
produces a remarkable air pollution.
In some cases, petroleum may spontaneously reach the earth surface and burst
into flames for natural causes; this is how men learned about its existence since the
prehistory. Already around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia, bitumen (i.e. thick and
oxidized oil) was used as a fuel for lighting, as a binder in the building sector, for
the waterproofing of the hulls of boats, or as a preservative for wood and leather,
and as a medicine. There are also witnesses indicating the research and extraction
of petroleum in the subsoil, through artificial wells, in China as from 250 AD.
In any case, the official date of the beginning of the modern oil industry tra-
ditionally dates back to 1859, when the US colonel Drake was entrusted with the
task of performing drilling at Oil Creek, in Pennsylvania, with the specific purpose
of finding petroleum.
From the morphological viewpoint, its structure is made up of a mix of different
hydrocarbons and, to a lower extent, of other organic substances. It is not possible
to perform a complete classification of all its components, since they more or less
amount to over one thousand; for instance, the American Petroleum Institute (API)
has identified 350 different types of hydrocarbons, almost all liquid. The fluctu-
ations of weight percentage values of the main elements include the following:
• C: 83–87%
• H: 11–15%
• O: 0.05–4%
• S: 0.05–7%
• N: 0.05–2%
2.4.2.2 Genesis of Oil
An oil field, that is to say the reservoir in which oil is concentrated in such
quantities that make its extraction cost-effective, is the final result of a very slow
process that determines petroleum formation and, generally, its migration from the
place of origin to the place of storage, which are often far from one another.
Because of the particular complexity and duration of this process, its phases have
not been, until today, sufficiently clarified, although in the last few years satis-
factory progresses were obtained, especially in the field of geochemical research.
In the past, the origin of petroleum was ascribed to the combined action of
pressure andtemperature on the remains ofcrustaceans, molluscs and, in any-
case,large animals (both sea and terrestrial animals); present hypothesis, on the
contrary, indicate that the initial organic matter originated from sea settlements of
Fig. 2.26 Area of deposit of

oil organic substances
micro-flora and micro-fauna. The organic origin of petroleum25 is in any case

ascertained on the basis of some objective elements. For instance, a large quantity
of organic matter can be observed in the sedimentary rocks rich in carbon and
hydrogen, which are particularly suitable for oil formation; it is also possible to
assess that all types of petroleum contain nitrogen and porphyrin pigments of
exclusively vegetable and animal origin. Porphyrin, in fact, can derive from both
vegetable chlorophyll and from animal haemoglobin. Nitrogen, conversely, varies
in sediments directly proportionally to organic carbon.
Animal and vegetable microorganisms, once dead, accumulate at the bottom of
aquatic basins, together with small siliceous, calcareous and argillaceous particles,
transported as detritus by watercourses and by the wind. The deposit of these
sediments takes place in particular in smooth and shallow waters as, for instance,
in gulfs, inland seas and lagoons, and it is what still nowadays forms the mud of
some basins; this organogenic mud is named sapropel. This is the ideal environ-
mental condition to start the petroleum formation process.
Figure 2.26 shows the typical scheme of these ideal environments: it is a lagoon
basin, whose limited communication with the open sea leads to the stagnation of
the water under the superficial layer with a low concentration of oxygen; hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) is developed as a consequence of the limited exchange of aerated
water in the water. In this situation, the remains of microorganisms abundantly
present in the aerated superficial layer accumulate at the bottom of water.
In normal conditions that is, to say in the presence of oxygen dissolved in water,
organic remains undergo the attack by aerobic bacteria,26 that while oxidizing the
organic carbon, bring these remains back to the marine cycle, under the form of
various chemical compounds. This does not take place when such organic mate-
rials are in an oxygen-free environment, where the action of anaerobic bacteria
25
During the XIX century, many supported the inorganic origin of petroleum. In fact, it is
theoretically possible that the formation of hydrocarbons through chemical processes that occur
among inorganic compounds of petroleum, or by polymerisation of primordial methane making
up the stellar matter; the presence of methane among volcanic gases is ascertained. It is however
incompatible with the mechanisms characterising inorganic chemistry the formation of complex
organic substances as those that can be found in petroleum, and is in any case difficult to justify
the distribution of deposits, more abundant in the recent layers of the Earth’s crust.
26
Aerobic bacteria need free oxygen to develop their action; conversely, anaerobic bacteria only
use combined oxygen.
Fig. 2.27 Simplified

diagram of naftogenesis [10]
prevails, and they use the oxygen belonging to organic molecules and, through
fermentation processes, mainly produce carbon dioxide and methane.
In environments similar to the one described above, through given biochemical
reactions and the influence of some physical factors as temperature and pressure,
the so-called naftogenesis occurs, which transforms organic raw materials into the
compounds that make up petroleum (Fig. 2.27).
Furthermore, in order to allow environmental conditions to remain unchanged,
it is necessary that depths undergo a continuous and regular lowering called
subsidence, able to offset the supply of sediments; in this way, large quantities of
organic matter will settle for very long times (several geological eras), without
assisting to an interruption of the conditions favourable to deposit.
The slow and progressive subsidence of the Earth’s crust, determined by both
the attraction action of underlying fluid levels, and by the weight of sediments
themselves, allows an accumulation of organic matter included in detritus, which
reach several kilometres in thickness, although generally the waters above have
limited depths (ranging from a few meters to a few hundreds of meters).
The subsidence of sedimentary sequences is also important since the reaching
of higher and higher depths leads to an increase in their temperature, in consid-
eration of the geothermal gradient, originated from the endogenous heat of the
earth. The action of temperature and its persistence for very long times, repre-
sent—as described afterwards—the pre-requirements for most of the chemical
transformations of the organic matter.
Naftogenesis is a complex process, still not entirely known, from whose
interpretation many theories were developed. One of the most exhaustive and
accredited theories was presented by Tissot and Welte [9]. According to this
theory, the naftogenesis process is divided into four stages:
• Diagenesis
• Catagenesis
• Metagenesis
• Metamorphism
Fig. 2.28 Possible evolution

of organic matter in
petroleum formation
according to Tissot
and Welte [9]
Figure 2.28 shows a simplified evolution of sediments in the first three phases
of naftogenesis that is, to say those that properly concern petroleum formation.
Diagenesis begins as organic sediments and detritus settle on the bottom of the
basin. During this first phase, deposits gradually reach depths of nearly 1,000 m
and temperatures of about 50C. Water, still present in relevant percentages, is
partly expelled following compaction, a process due to the load exercised by the
layers above and that, together with the cementation made by the salts dissolved in
water, transforms inorganic detritus into sedimentary rock. Furthermore, an intense
activity of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria takes place, whose quantity is not suf-
ficient for the decomposition (and thence the disruption) of the organic matter.
They operate the separation of biopolymers, that is to say the molecules that make
up the organic matter, originating new structures made up of smaller and simpler
organic molecules. Besides providing nutrition to bacteria, they tend to react
among themselves, combining into new large molecular formations called geo-
polymers. In these compounds, the macromolecule with the highest concentration
is kerogen.27 This is the substance from which, thanks to the transformations
occurring in the subsequent phases, petroleum originates.
Besides kerogen, representing the main derivative of the organic compound,
high-molecular weight compounds are formed, defined as geochemical fossils,
which are synthesised from plants and animals and absorbed in sediments. From a
chronological standpoint, they represent the original substance from whose evo-
lution hydrocarbons originate; consequently, they are considered as contributing—
27
Kerogen is an organic matter composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; three main types of
kerogen exist, with different evolution and therefore leading to different end product; they are
differentiated according to the relative quantities of hydrogen and oxygen compared to carbon.
Fig. 2.29 Schematic

diagram of a typical oil field
[11]
although marginally—to petroleum formation, since the origin of the latter is

mainly ascribed to the transformation that kerogen undergoes with depths.
Sometimes the sediment that settles in basins is particularly rich in vegetable
substances, derived from terrestrial plants; this mainly happens in lake basins
surrounded by abundant vegetation and in coastal marshes of tropical areas, where
a typical thick vegetation grows. In this way, layers of sediments mainly made up
of vegetable materials are formed and, at the end of diagenesis, essentially orig-
inate peats, lignite and brown coals, in which the structure of the plants of origin is
still clearly recognisable.
Catagenesis intervenes when, due to subsidence, the thickness of sediments
exceeds 2,000 m, and high values of pressure (from 300 up to 1,000–1,500 bars)
and temperature (nearly 150C) are generated. As an effect of pressure, sedi-
mentary rock porosity and permeability decrease, a further quantity of water is
expelled, and salinity increases in the remaining portion. In this stage, the major
changes in kerogen take place, and lead to the degradation of its molecules.
In this phase, the factors that influence the development of kerogen and the
formation of petroleum mainly include temperature and duration, which charac-
terise the heating and transformation processes of kerogen. These factors are
linked proportionally—in the sense that the same result can be achieved at high
temperature in short times and, vice versa, in long times at lower temperature. In
this phase, methane develops as well, whereas the petroleum produced in the
parent rock that is to say the rock in which the initial organic compound was
contained, once a given quantity is exceeded, is ejected and penetrates the sur-
rounding rocks. This is therefore the beginning of migration that brings crude oil to
the so-called reservoir rocks, in which real oilfields are localised.
Metagenesis represents the last stage of evolution of the organic compound, and
takes place at high depths reaching 5–6 km, and at temperatures of 150–200C.
Kerogen molecules lose almost all the oxygen atoms and most of hydrogen atoms,
producing limited quantities of methane, whereas—at the end of this phase—they
originate a carbon residue, destined to become graphite.
Temperature increase also modifies the composition of part of the oil formed
during the previous phase of catagenesis; in fact, a thermal cracking that is, to say
the breaking of those oil molecules with a high-molecular weight, and the for-
mation of smaller and lighter molecules that are destined to make up light oil and
gas (mainly methane).
As a consequence of the high temperatures involved, several mineral sediments
undergo solution and recrystallisation processes. Furthermore, they exercise a
catalytic action in chemical reactions that, as far as hydrocarbons are concerned,
lead to the formation of methane alone.
Fig. 2.30 Migration of

petroleum from the parent
rocks [12]
Metamorphism, finally, determines the total loss of the original features of

organic sediments. Hydrocarbons are not involved in this stage, whereas what
remains of the original constituents of kerogen is transformed into graphite.
As already mentioned, temperature is the guiding factor of naftogenesis, since
some of the chemical-physical reactions that transform organic compounds into
petroleum only occur at temperatures close to 250–300C. Pressure, on the con-
trary—which increases with the depth of sedimentary layers—mainly intervenes in
determining the removal of fluids from the parent rock and their migration. In the
final analysis, a typical petroleum formation is made up of a set of rocks
impregnated of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, mixed with salty water
(Fig. 2.29).
These formations are generally divided into primary and secondary, respec-
tively, when petroleum is kept in the rocks of origin (parent rocks) or when
because of the effect of compaction, it migrates to other rocks called reservoir
rocks, different from those in which it was formed. In Fig. 2.30, which sum-
marises the migration movement of petroleum that abandons parent rocks,
arrows represent the direction of petroleum migration from parent rocks to the
adjacent permeable rocks, allowing it to reach the reservoir rocks that represent
the areas of accumulation (oilfields), and, in some cases, up to the surface.
Parent rocks can have different natures: argillaceous, calcareous, siliceous, and
carbonaceous. Impregnated rocks are generally sedimentary, sandstones or
sands.
The geological eras which the formation of petroleum dates back to include, in
order of importance: Cenozoic, Paleozoic and Mesozoic28; only a few formations
date back to more recent times, and more precisely to the Pleistocene period.
28
This is the historical sequence of these eras:
Palaeozoic era (from 570 to 225 million years ago);
Mesozoic Era (from 225 to 65 million years ago);
Cenozoic Era (from 65 to 2 million years ago).
Table 2.6 Conversion API degrees Relative density

values of API degrees
0 1.076
10 1.000
15 0.966
20 0.934
25 0.904
30 0.876
35 0.850
40 0.825
45 0.802
50 0.780
2.4.2.3 Physical Properties and Technological Merits of Petroleum
In nature, it is not possible to find two oilfields providing petroleum with the same
composition. They are different to such an extent that sometimes there are changes
in the petroleum of the same oil well at the moment of extraction. It is therefore
necessary to carefully assess the characteristics of each crude oil, in order to
identify the appropriate refining processes.
From the energy viewpoint, the main property is the lower calorific value. In
case of petroleum, different from what one might expect because of the variability
of its composition, the lower heating value has a little variable value
(9,600–10,800 kcal/kg)29; the higher heating value is generally higher by nearly
10%. The high energy density of petroleum is the main reason for the very large
spread of this substance as a primary energy source.
Another important characteristic is density that is, to say the weight of the
substance by unit of volume, which obviously varies according to temperature.
From density it is possible to derive the first information on the refining processes
to be followed; high-density crude oils, for instance, contain petrol in lower
quantities and, consequently, are less valuable. Furthermore, as density increases,
the calorific value decreases.
Usually, reference is made to relative density, that is to say the ratio between
the oil mass under consideration and the mass of the same volume of water, both at
a temperature of 60F (15.6C).30
In density determination, API degrees are very much used, and they vary
according to the relative density, based on the formula:
141:5
1 API ¼ 131:5
relative density
29
Usually, a medium calorific value of 10,000 kcal/kg is considered, which is also the reference
value for ton of oil equivalent. A t.o.e. has then a thermal content of 107 kcal, amounting to
nearly 41.99109 J = 41.9 GJ.
30
Relative density differs from specific gravity since, although being a ratio between equal
values of matter and water, it is calculated at a temperature of 4C.
Table 2.7 General classification of hydrocarbons

Structure Series Parent Homologous
Saturated Acyclic Paraffin (CnH2n+2) Methane (CH4) Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Cyclic Naphthenic (CnH2n) Cyclopropane Cyclobutane
(trimethylene) (C3H6) Cyclopentane
Unsaturated Cyclic and Aromatic or Benzenic Benzole (Benzene) Toluene
polycyclic (CnH2n-6) (C6H6)
Acyclic Olefinic Acetylenic Ethylene (C2H4)
(CnH2n)
Table 2.6 shows some values of API degrees with the corresponding relative
density.
In general, petroleum has a relative density ranging from 0.950 to 0.750 kg/dm3
(17–57 API), with the most frequent values included between 0.950–0.850
(17–35 API).
The other properties of petroleum include viscosity, whose determination is
necessary for the extraction procedures.
For safety purposes, during transportation and storage, important items include
the flash point (that is to say oil temperature at which the vapours released from it,
in the presence of a flame, catch fire without creating combustion to petroleum
itself) and the burning point, which corresponds to the temperature of oil at which
vapours develop at such quantities that, if triggered, are also able to fire the liquid
petroleum. As to the transportation of crude oil through the pipelines crossing cold
regions, it is also important to take into account the freezing point (pour point),
that is to say the temperature below which petroleum is completely coagulated and
does not flow any longer. As regards petroleum containing paraffin solutions,
instead of the pour point, the temperature at which paraffin starts to solidify (cloud
point) is taken into consideration, producing a ‘‘cloud of wax’’. Finally, the boiling
point of the different components of crude oil, sets the reference temperatures for
fractional distillation.
2.4.2.4 Composition and Classification of Petroleum
As already said, petroleum is made up of mixtures and solutions of many

hydrocarbons (liquid, gaseous and solid), with relatively scarce quantities of other
organic, oxygenated, sulphured and nitrogenous compounds. Because of this
complex composition, there is no any systematic classification system. In any case,
in the determination of the various types of crude oil, the hydrocarbons composing
them are mainly taken into consideration.
Fig. 2.31 Ternary diagram

of petroleum composition [9]
A basic criterion consists in the subdivision of hydrocarbons into saturated

(carbon atoms saturated by simple bonds) and unsaturated (double or triple bonds
between carbon atoms).
A second classification, based on the molecular structure, divides the hydro-
carbons contained in crude oil into:
• Acyclic (or aliphatic) with carbon atoms bonded as an open chain;
• Cyclic with carbon atoms bonded as a closed chain;
• Polycyclic with the chain containing several links.
As regards these two classifications, the main hydrocarbons can be divided into
three series characterised as follows:
• Paraffin series, saturated hydrocarbons, acyclic.
• Naphthenic series, saturated hydrocarbons, cyclic.
• Aromatic series (or benzene), cyclic and polycyclic unsaturated hydrocarbons.
There are then two other categories less important in the oil sector: olefins and
acetylene series; both of them are characterised by acyclic unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
Table 2.7 shows a schematic subdivision of hydrocarbons according to the
criteria mentioned above.
Usually, petroleum contains at the same time the three main series mentioned
above; Fig. 2.31 shows the ternary diagram of petroleum composition.
According to the prevailing series of hydrocarbons, petroleum can be divided
into paraffinic, naphthenic, aromatic and mixed.
Paraffinic petroleum contains abundant dissolved quantities (up to 10%) of
solid paraffin (called petroleum wax). Many oil fields with paraffinic petroleum are
located in the USA (Pennsylvania, Ohio, Oklahoma and Texas) and in Europe
(Galicia and Romania). The residues of distillation are characterised by a light
colour.
Naphthenic petroleum contains high percentages of cyclopentane and dicy-
cloesane (naphthenic series) and large quantities of asphalt (for this reason called
asphaltic petroleum), whereas it is poor in solid paraffin (maximum accounting for

1.5%). Naphthenic petroleum is the majority of oil available in Russia, and part of
the petroleum available in Romania and America (California, Mexico and South
America). After distillation, it shows a dark-coloured residue.
Aromaticpetroleum contains hydrocarbons of the aromatic series for a maxi-
mum percentage of 40% and solid paraffin is present in quantities lower than 5%.
In this case as well, the residue of distillation is dark-coloured. This petroleum is
mainly available in the Middle East, Japan and in South-East Asia.
Mixed petroleum does not show a dominating series of hydrocarbons, although
very often there is a predominance of paraffin and naphthene.
As regards the minor substances present in petroleum, they are mainly made up
of oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen.
Oxygen can be found in petroleum both in a free state and as a component of
several organic compounds; furthermore, due to air exposure, several oxygenated
substances are formed. In general, oxygen content grows with the specific gravity
of petroleum; in asphalts, for instance, it may also reach 5%.
Sulphur is present in all crude oils, both in a free state and as a component of
H2S, and of many sulphurated organic compounds. Usually, in crude oils with a
low specific gravity there is a low sulphur content, in the same way as the
lightest fractions of whatever type of petroleum are, in general, poor in sulphur.
Crude oils with a sulphur content higher than 0.5% are called sulphorous (high-
sulphur crudes). In asphalts, finally, contents are very high, even exceeding
10%.
Nitrogen is contained in all types of petroleum, generally in quantities lower
than 0.5%, with maximum peaks of 2%. Also in this case, it is available in the free
state, or in organic compounds. Among nitrogenous substances, particular
importance is ascribed to porphyrines, not for their features, but rather because
they provide indirect confirmation of the theory on the organic origin of petro-
leum; these substances are, in fact, exclusively derived from haemoglobin and
chlorophyll.
The microscopic study of petroleum also showed that it may contain different
materials of organic origin, like, for instance, flakes of siliceous shells, fragments
of insects, spores, algae and unicellular organisms (also living ones).
Finally, petroleum has an inorganic content that is shown in combustion-
originated ash. Ashes, mainly made up of salts, generally represent 0.01–0.05% of
crude oil weight, and their level increases as the weight density of oils increases; in
asphaltic ones, it is possible to reach l%.
2.4.2.5 Treatment and Use
The petroleum extracted from oil fields is generally subsequently refined (some
Arab countries also use it directly), to obtain products with a higher energy content
and a better combustion capability.
From crude oil it is possible to derive:

• Gas
• Gasoline
• Kerosene
• Diesel oil
• Lubricant bases
• Fuel oil
• Bitumen
• Other products.
2.4.2.6 Oil reserves and Geographical Distribution
The definition ‘‘oil reserves’’ generally indicates the quantity of petroleum that can
be cost-effectively drilled from oil fields either through flowing wells or by means
of suitable interventions (repressurisation, fluidization, pumping, etc.).
The recoverable quantity of the petroleum originally present in the oil field
depends on many factors; in particular, it varies according to the hydrocarbons
composing it and to the type of rock containing it. This percentage may range
between 10 and 50% of the real quantity of oil originally present in the field, called
original oil in place (OOIP).
The determination of the quantity of petroleum still present in a production
basin or in a newly discovered oil field implies a careful geological and chemical
analysis. It is however necessary to underline that very often the official assess-
ment is heavily influenced by political and economic interests.
However, thanks to the improvement of surveying and production methodol-
ogies, the crude oil reserves which can be really exploited are destined to increase.
Furthermore, despite the objective difficulties in the determination of the real
capacity of an oil field, large areas of the Earth—first of all seabed—are still
nowadays almost entirely unexplored, and this justifies a certain optimism.
Table 2.8 shows the data on the distribution of ascertained petroleum reserves.
It shows that these reserves are almost exclusively concentrated in some geo-
graphical areas. In fact, over 60% of oil fields are located in the Middle East. In
particular, Saudi Arabia—the richest country in petroleum—hosts over one-fifth of
world reserves, followed by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela
(the first non-Middle East country), and the Russian Federation (Fig. 2.32).
Based on the present production and consumption rates, the estimated avail-
ability of petroleum apparently guarantees stocks for the next 42 years (Fig. 2.33).
Table 2.8 Ascertained oil reserves at the end of 2007 [8]

109 tonnes 109 barrels %
USA 3.6 29.4 2.4
Canada 4.2 27.7 2.2
Mexico 1.7 12.2 1.0
Total North America 9.5 69.3 5.6
Argentina 0.4 2.6 0.2
Brazil 1.7 12.6 1.0
Colombia 0.2 1.5 0.1
Ecuador 0.6 4.3 0.3
Peru 0.1 1.1 0.1
Trinidad and Tobago 0.1 0.8 0.1
Venezuela 12.5 87.0 7.0
Other Central America 0.2 1.3 0.1
Total South and Central America 15.8 111.2 9.0
Azerbaijan 1.0 7.0 0.6
Denmark 0.1 1.1 0.1
Italy 0.1 0.8 0.1
Kazakhstan 5.3 39.8 3.2
Norway 1.0 8.2 0.7
Romania 0.1 0.5 0.0
Russian Federation 10.9 79.4 6.4
Turkmenistan 0.1 0.6 0.0
Great Britain 0.5 3.6 0.3
Uzbekistan 0.1 0.6 0.0
Others 0.3 2.1 0.2
Total Europe and Eurasia 19.5 143.7 11.6
Iran 19.0 138.4 11.2
Iraq 15.5 115.0 9.3
Kuwait 14.0 101.5 8.2
Oman 0.8 5.6 0.5
Qatar 3.6 27.4 2.2
Saudi Arabia 36.3 264.2 21.3
Syria 0.3 2.5 0.2
United Arab Emirates 13.0 97.8 7.9
Yemen 0.4 2.8 0.2
Others – 0.1 0.0
Total Middle East 102.9 755.3 61.0
Algeria 1.5 12.3 1.0
Angola 1.2 9.0 0.7
Chad 0.1 0.9 0.1
Republic of Congo 0.3 1.9 0.2
Egypt 0.5 4.1 0.3
Equatorial Guinea 0.2 1.8 0.1
Gabon 0.3 2.0 0.2
Libya 5.4 41.5 3.4
Nigeria 4.9 36.2 2.9
(continued)
Table 2.8 (continued)

109 tonnes 109 barrels %
Sudan 0.9 6.6 0.5
Tunisia 0.1 0.6 0.0
Others 0.1 0.6 0.0
Total Africa 15.5 117.5 9.5
Australia 0.4 4.2 0.3
Brunei 0.2 1.2 0.1
China 2.1 15.5 1.3
India 0.7 5.5 0.4
Indonesia 0.6 4.4 0.4
Malaysia 0.7 5.4 0.4
Thailand 0.1 0.5 0.0
Vietnam 0.5 3.4 0.3
Others 0.1 0.9 0.1
Total Pacific Area 5.4 41.0 3.3
Total world 168.6 1,238.0 100.0
Fig. 2.32 Distribution of

world oil reserves [8]
Fig. 2.33 Oil consumption/

production ratio [8]
2.4.3 Tar Sands
Tar sands are sedimentary rocks (either coherent or incoherent) containing bitu-
men31 or another type of thick petroleum, which cannot be drilled with the con-
ventional methods used for petroleum with an API32 density below 12.
These sands, usually quartzous, originated from lake and river sediments, and
deposited on the layer of parent rocks between the end of the Upper Devonian and
the beginning of the Lower Cretaceous (in a time leg that lasted nearly 225 million
years). Through this contact, they absorbed the underlying oil and gas, hence
saturating over 90% of their porosity. In this way, an oily content was created,
whose weight reaches a maximum of 18–20% of sand mass, and that therefore has
a typically wet appearance.
In particular, tar sands are traced back to the Lower Cretaceous33 and derive
their tar content from the underlying layers of parent rocks dating back to Upper
Devonian34 and rich in organic remains.
Tar sand stocks amount to nearly 2/3 of our Planet’s oil stocks; the main deposits
are located in Canada (1,700 billion barrels, corresponding to 270 9 109 m3 in the
deposit of Athabasca) and Venezuela (235 billion barrels, corresponding to
37 9 109 m3 in the deposit of Orinoco). Overall, the Canadian and Venezuelan
deposits contain 570 9 109 m3 of petroleum, corresponding to 280 9 109 m3 of
conventional petroleum, far more than the one contained in the subsoil of Saudi
Arabia and of Middle East Countries. Tar sands reserves are also present in Russia
and Middle East, although the largest deposits are the two ones mentioned above.
In consideration of their size, the deposits of this energy source arouse
increasing interest, mainly in Canada, which depends upon a concrete technical
and economic difficulty for the exploitation in percentages comparable to con-
ventional fields. This is the reason for the previous reluctance in promoting
research campaigns, especially by those Countries that have at one’s disposal
abundant quantities of petroleum.
31
Bitumen, together with other types of heavy oils available in these sands, belongs to solid or
semisolid hydrocarbons. They are composed of high-molecular weight complex blends, whose
chemical knowledge is imperfect because of analysis difficulties. This category also includes the
asphalts used for road paving.
32
Cf. Sect. 2.4.2.3.
33
Geological period belonging to the Mesozoic Era, dating back to nearly 135 million years ago.
34
Geological period belonging to the Palaeozoic Era, dating back to nearly 360 million years
ago.
Table 2.9 Typical Gas Content (%)

composition of natural gas
Methane CH4 70–90
Ethane C2H6 0–20
Propane C3H8
Butane C4H10
Carbon dioxide CO2 0–8
Oxygen O2 0–0.2
Nitrogen N2 0–5
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0–5
Rare gases A, He, Ne, Xe Traces
Source http://www.naturalgas.org
2.4.4 Natural Gas
2.4.4.1 General Description and Genesis
Mostly made up of gaseous hydrocarbons and by other gases in variable quantities,

natural gas can be found both in its own deposits, and combined to petroleum.
Therefore, the following different configurations can be identified, which often
coexist;
• Gas is free and occupies the upper part of the deposit, whereas below there is
petroleum or, in the absence of petroleum, it overhangs the areas of parent rock
soaked with generally salty water;
• Gas is dissolved in oil and the quantity in solution varies according to pressure
and temperature conditions in the deposit, and with the physical characteristics
of oil and of the gas mixture;
• Gas is dissolved in water, whenever it is in the gas–water interface of free gas
deposits, or completely dissolved in gas-waters deposits, as those in the Po
Delta. In consideration of the high pressure and temperature levels detected in
these deposits, the water solubility of natural gas reaches remarkable values,
also amounting to some hundreds of percentage points in volume;
• Gas is liquefied when, at depths exceeding 2,000 m and in conditions of high
pressure and temperature, natural gas and petroleum form a single liquid phase,
physically indistinguishable (condensate).
There are then still undetermined quantities—or determined with a large
approximation—of natural gas ‘‘entrapped’’ in complex crystalline structures,
consisting a water molecules linked through hydrogen, methane and/or other gas
bonds, including, in particular, gaseous hydrocarbons. In order to remain stable,
these crystals must be in particular temperature and pressure conditions.
According to many researchers—also on the basis of studies carried out as from
the ’60s on this particular energy source made up of the so-called gas hydrates (or
methane hydrates or clathrates)—this might represent one of the primary energy
sources of the future. In fact, in free and in suitable conditions the gas entrapped in
the cavities of crystal lattice and originated from water molecules, it is possible to
derive natural fuel gas.
The genesis of gaseous hydrocarbons representing the energy source called
naturalgas is strictly related to the modes and conditions of formation of liquid
hydrocarbons (see Sect. 2.4.2.2), since both derive from a common matrix.
The chemical analysis of natural gas is by far less complex than petroleum,
because of the lower number of its compounds and their simplicity; it is performed
through distillation by means of mass spectrometers and gas chromatographs.
As to its composition, methane is the hydrocarbon present in the highest per-
centage; for this reason, people tend to use the word methane as a synonym of
natural gas. The other compounds generally belong to the paraffin series and to
olefins (ethylene in particular). If the deposit also contains petroleum, then the
quantity of hydrocarbons other than methane (ethane, propane, butane and higher)
may reach 50%.
Natural gases are classified into dry, lean and wet, according to the content in
liquid hydrocarbon vapours. Vapour content represents a point of strength, since
they can be separated,35 condensed and used for the production of light diesel oils.
Another characteristic that enhances natural gas is the presence, more or less
marked, of propane and butane in quantities that make its separation economically
convenient. These hydrocarbons, whose liquefaction is simple and occurs at a
relatively low pressure, are very much used as fuels and marketed in easily
transportable cylinders, at a pressure of 4–6 bars, with a composition of 60–70%
butane and 30–40% propane; their product name is liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
The other main gases that can be identified in natural gas include nitrogen (N2),
carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and, rarely, hydrogen (H2), carbon
oxide (CO) and helium (He) (Table 2.9).
As regards the lower heating value, the average value of 12,000 kcal/kg can be
considered, that is to say 8.200 kcal/m3.
Among the main values linked to natural gas, besides density (both absolute and
relative) and specific gravity,36 particular importance is also ascribed to pressure,
temperature, volume and flow rate. The latter, very much used especially in
transportation phases, is generally expressed in m3/h and, when referred to normal
conditions, is measured in Nm3/h.
Over the last decades, natural gas gained a growing importance in energy
markets.
Although the areas rich in crude oil are generally also rich in natural gas, not
always the importance of the latter in the scale of production of primary sources
has been considered as the former. Its main drawbacks include the need for major
financial investments and technological hindrances, mostly linked to the trans-
portation problems due to its gaseous physical state. The transportation of natural
35
Through the so-called ‘‘degasolination’’ process.
36
As regards absolute density and specific gravity in natural gas compared to liquid fuel, the
dependency from pressure and temperature is higher. Methane relative density amounts to 0.57.
gas, in fact, demands large infrastructures, gas pipelines, sometimes long thou-
sands of kilometres, with pumping and decompression plants and widespread
distribution networks.
The political stability of producing Countries as well as of the Countries of
transit of gas pipelines is key for supplies. Furthermore, natural gas demands
particular caution during distribution, due to the risk of gas leaks and explosions.
Finally, another of its drawbacks is the fact that combustion—that is triggered at a
high flame temperature—entails a high development of nitric oxides. In the past,
this aptitude determined some marketing difficulties.
Another drawback of natural gas is represented by the fact that it is not possible
to have a constant flow rate of gas for the entire life of the deposit; the production
profile, in fact, rapidly peaks during the first years of gas extraction, and then
slowly decreases for the rest of the life of the deposit.37
However, natural gas has many of the advantages of petroleum and, in addition,
further positive aspects as, for instance, a limited global production of polluting
substances and of CO2 following its combustion. With respect to the already
mentioned development of nitric oxides, methane combustion determines:
• A reduction of CO2 emissions accounting for 50% compared to the CO2 pro-
duced by coal and 30% compared to petroleum38;
• Total or nearly total absence of sulphur oxides, particulate,metals and non-
combustible residues.
Other advantages of natural gas include the higher efficiency of combustion and
its high calorific value (12,000 kcal/kg).
Particularly noticeable is also the availability ensured by the diversification of
stocks, possible thanks to a geopolitical distribution far less critical than
petroleum.
The setting up of gas storage reservoirs, possibly in areas close to highly
consuming regions, can be carried out through the utilisation of:
• Gas deposits close to depletion (during the period of low consumption, generally
in summer, the gas coming from distant deposits or from import is pumped in
the storage reservoir in order to be extracted during the peaks of demand).
• Reservoirs in the liquefied natural gas regasification plants, which allow a rapid
conversion and availability of natural gas.
• The transportation routes of the network of gas pipelines, in which the operating
pressure is higher than the distribution pressure, can also be considered as
storage reservoirs to be used in the periods of daily peaks.
37
Sometimes this behaviour can be seen—although more limitedly—also in crude oil fields.
38
Given the same energy produced through combustion.
Table 2.10 Natural gas 1012 m3 %

reserves ascertained at the
end of 2007 [8] USA 5.98 3.4
Canada 1.63 0.9
Mexico 0.37 0.2
Total North America 7.98 4.5
Argentina 0.44 0.2
Bolivia 0.74 0.4
Brazil 0.36 0.2
Peru 0.13 0.1
Colombia 0.36 0.2
Trinidad & Tobago 0.48 0.3
Venezuela 5.15 2.9
Others 0.07 0.0
Total South and Central America 7.73 4.4
Azerbaijan 1.28 0.7
Denmark 0.12 0.1
Germany 0.14 0.1
Italy 0.09 0.1
Kazakhstan 1.90 1.1
The Netherlands 1.25 0.7
Norway 2.96 1.7
Poland 0.11 0.1
Romania 0.63 0.4
Russian Federation 44.65 25.2
Turkmenistan 2.67 1.5
Ukraine 1.03 0.6
Great Britain 0.41 0.2
Uzbekistan 1.74 1.0
Others 0.43 0.2
Total Europe and Eurasia 59.41 33.5
Bahrain 0.09 0.1
Iran 27.80 15.7
Iraq 3.17 1.8
Kuwait 1.78 1.0
Oman 0.69 0.4
Qatar 25.60 14.4
Saudi Arabia 7.17 4.0
Syria 0.29 0.2
United Arab Emirates 6.09 3.4
Yemen 0.49 0.3
Others 0.05 0.0
Total Middle East 73.22 41.3
Algeria 4.51 2.5
Egypt 2.06 1.2
Libya 1.50 0.8
Nigeria 5.30 3.0
Others 1.21 0.7
(continued)
Table 2.10 (continued) 1012 m3 %

Total Africa 14.58 8.2
Australia 2.51 1.4
Bangladesh 0.39 0.2
Brunei 0.34 0.2
China 1.88 1.1
India 1.06 0.6
Indonesia 3.00 1.7
Malaysia 2.47 1.4
Myanmar 0.60 0.3
Pakistan 0.85 0.5
Papua New Guinea 0.44 0.2
Thailand 0.33 0.2
Vietnam 0.22 0.1
Others 0.37 0.2
Total Pacific Area 14.46 8.2
Total world 177.38 100.0
Fig. 2.34 Distribution of

natural gas reserves all over
the world
Fig. 2.35 Natural gas

production/consumption ratio
Fig. 2.36 Nuclear fission

and fusion
2.4.4.2 Processing and Utilisation
Very often, methane is used in the form in which it is extracted, without any pro-
cessing whatsoever; its gaseous state allows its good distribution in the short range
(long-range distribution is costly, while transoceanic distribution is highly difficult).
2.4.4.3 Geographical Distribution and Reserves
Table 2.10 shows the distribution of natural gas reserves ascertained in the dif-
ferent geographical areas (Fig. 2.34).
On the basis of present production rate, stock would cover nearly 60 years
(Fig. 2.35).
Because of the technological problems that make its transportation more
expensive, the growth in natural gas consumption mainly occurred in industrialised
countries, whereas there are still large intact deposits in regions located far away
from the areas of consumption, mainly in some newly industrialising countries.
Due to the difficulties mentioned above, in fact, many Countries potentially rich
in natural gas do not extract it or decide to extract limited quantities of it. So, for
instance, the present phase of intensive exploitation of petroleum allows the Arab
Countries in the Middle East to preserve the huge gas reserves located in their
areas to use them when oil begins to be in short supply.
As far as the huge reserves of the ex-USSR are concerned, shorter times of
depletion are envisaged, since they are destined, already nowadays, to cover a
larger portion of European consumption.
2.4.5 Nuclear Power
Nuclear power is released, in huge quantities, by reactions that determine

transmutations of given elements. The quantity of energy derived from these
reactions can be calculated through the well-known Einstein relation that links
mass and energy.39 The calculation is based on the massdefect that the
products of the reaction show compared to the elements involved in the
reaction itself.
The remarkable difference between the quantities of energy that develop
through these reactions and those linked to combustion is explained with the fact
that in the latter the forces keeping electrons are exploited, hence involving the
outer levels of the atom, whereas in nuclear reactions the nucleus of atom is
decomposed or in any case it undergoes a transformation, and during these actions
higher forces come into play. For instance, the energy generated through fission by
1 g of uranium is equivalent to nearly 8.4 9 1010 J, whereas the one released
through combustion by 1 g of gasoline is equal to nearly 4.84 9 104 J; given the
same masses, then the ratio between the two energy capacities amounts to nearly
24 9 106.
The chemical elements involving spontaneous nuclear reactions are called
radioisotopes and can be either natural or artificial.
The processes that make this form of energy available include the fission of
nuclei with a high atomic weight and the fusion40 of light nuclei.
2.4.5.1 Energy Use of Nuclear Power
Nuclear power can be exploited in two ways:

1. Through the fission of the uranium atom
2. Through the fusion of two hydrogen atoms.
If, on the one hand, the fission technology has been available for a few decades,
fusion, on the other hand, is still undergoing a pre-commercial development phase.
The uranium used for fission purposes is contained in its minerals in quantities
ranging between 0.1 and 0.5%, and is 0.71% made up of isotope 235U, 99.28% of
isotope 238U and the remaining 0.01% by isotope 234U; the ‘‘fissile’’ one that is, to
say useful for nuclear fission, is 235U, present in a much lower percentage. For this
reason, uranium generally undergoes ‘‘enrichment’’ to obtain higher percentages of
the fissile isotope.
39
This is the famous equation E = mc2, where e is, by definition, the value of nuclear power
owned by a mass, m is the so-called mass defect and c is the speed of light (c % 39 108 m/s).
The mass value of a nucleus, theoretically calculated by adding up the masses of neutrons and
protons that compose it, is higher than the one experimentally calculated, and the difference
between the two quantities is precisely the mass defect.
40
This is a reaction in which, through the fusion of nuclei of light elements, a mass nucleus
lower than the sum of the initial masses is formed, and energy is generated in a quantity
proportional to this mass defect.
From fission, through one neuron, of a 235U atom (Fig. 2.36) it is possible to
obtain one cesium atom, one of rubidium, two neurons41 and a quantity of energy
amounting to 200 MeV.42
From the fusion of two hydrogen atoms, it is possible to obtain one helium atom
and a quantity of energy amounting to 3.2 MeV.
In consideration of molecular weights and by comparing the energy released
given the same mass, it is possible to derive that from the fission of 1 kg of 235U
18.6 GWh are obtained, whereas from the fusion of 1 kg of hydrogen, 5,262 GWh
are obtained.
Nuclear fission
In theory, all the elements with a sufficiently high atomic weight can undergo the
fission process, that is to say the splitting of the nucleus through a neutron bom-
bardment with a suitable energy level; in practice, however, only a few elements
are fissile that is, to say able to really generate this reaction.
In nature, the only fissile element known is uranium (U), which is, therefore, the
only primary source presently available for the fission process. Natural uranium is
made up of a mixture of three isotopes, with an atomic weight of 234, 235 and 238,
present in the percentages of 0.01, 0.71 and 99.28%, respectively. Isotope 235U is
the only fissile out of the three of them; the other fissile isotope of uranium, 233U,
is artificial and can be derived, through neutron bombardment, from isotope 232 of
thorium (232Th), that for this reason, is called fertile isotope, and can be numbered
among the primary sources of nuclear power. Also uranium isotope 238 is fertile
since, when undergoing suitable processing, originates plutonium 239 isotope
(239P), fissile as well. The next Chapter provides a description of the methods used
to artificially increase the percentage of fissile isotopes.
Minerals containing uranium43 and thorium are rather widespread throughout
the surface of the Earth, but the concentrations of these minerals hardly make
deposits economically interesting.
In any case uranium, out of these two elements, arouses the main interest. In the
main deposits, minerals have an average uranium content of 1%; they are located
in Australia, Nigeria, Brazil, Canada and United States.
41
Neuron emissions allow the fission reaction to be self-sustained (chain reaction); in fact, the
neurons produced will affect other uranium atoms by causing other fissions that in turn produce
other neurons, etc.
42
MeV: MegaelectronVolt. 1 MeV = 1,60217646 9 10-13 J.
43
Those with the highest uranium content are pitchblende and uranites, made up of blends of
uranium oxides in variable percentage. They are also called ‘‘primary minerals’’, as opposed to
‘‘secondary minerals’’, with a minor uranium content.
Nuclear Fusion
As far as nuclear fusion is concerned, there are no fine-tuned technological pro-

cesses allowing the peaceful use of the energy produced by the relevant reactions,
and consisting in the development of energy following the fusion of atoms or
molecules of light elements. The main aim, in particular, is to reproduce in a much
lower scale the nuclear reactions occurring in the sun. The most interesting
chemical species for these reactions include some low-atomic weight elements,
such as deuterium (D), tritium (T) and lithium (Li).
Deuterium and tritium are two hydrogen isotopes. They are present in nature in
very low percentages compared to hydrogen.44 The large spread of the latter
element on earth makes in any case deuterium relatively abundant; in considering
that only 1% of this isotope is concretely available, then the total world resources
are considered as amounting to nearly 50 9 109 t.
Lithium is available in nature mainly in the form of oxide (Li2O), but it can also
be extracted from sea water when its concentration reaches 0.1 ppm, or it can be
derived from those rocks where a quantity amounting to 20 ppm is present. The
most suitable isotope for nuclear fusion is 6Li, whose world availability amounts to
nearly 67 9 104 t.
Finally, it is suitable to recall natural radioisotopes. They are grouped into four
families and are characterised—besides by the number of neutrons present in the
nucleus—also by their half-life.45 Each of the four series starts from a parent that,
with subsequent decays, generates the other radioactive isotopes of the family,
until reaching a stable element (lead or bismuth) that closes the series.
2.4.5.2 Reserves and Geographical Distribution46
Recent figures are those collected by the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and are
referred to 2003 estimates. The quantity of Uranium available in deposits, which
can be extracted at the presently competitive cost of 80 $/kg, amounts to around
2.5 Mt. Conversely, if a highest extraction price amounting to 130 $/kg is con-
sidered as acceptable, then the reserves of Uranium increase to the value of 3.2
Mt.47 Thus, at the today rate of consumption:
Enriched U derived from the one at 80 $/kg R/P = 36 years.
Enriched U derived from the one at 130 $/kg R/P = 47 years.
44
The deuterium–hydrogen report is nearly 1–6,500; the percentage of tritium is, on the
contrary, negligible (nearly 10-15%).
45
Is the time needed so that 50% of the atoms considered turn into stable elements through the
natural decay process.
46
Source http://www.aspoitalia.it/documenti/coiante/nucleareidrogeno.html
47
Every 6 tons of natural U generate 1 ton of enriched U.
It is then necessary to stress that the strategic importance of nuclear power does
not consist in the possibility of ‘‘controlling’’ uranium basins (that are also rather
uniformly distributed from the geopolitical viewpoint), but rather in owning the
updated ‘‘know-how’’ on the most economically-effective and efficient processes
for the energy exploitation of the primary source.
References
1. Energy Policies of IEA Countries (Compendium) (1998) Review, ISBN: 92-64-16146-5,

p 319
2. Nakícenovíc N, Grubler A, MacDonald A (1998) Global energy perspectives. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge p 299 ISBN 0-521-64569-7
3. Dunn PD (1986) Renewable energies: sources, conversion and application. Peter Peregrinus
Ltd, London
4. World Energy Outlook (2010) International Energy Agency, Paris, International Energy
Agency ISBN 978-92-64-086241
5. World energy assessment (2000) United Nations Development Programme. Washington, DC.
Available at http://www.undp.org/energy/activities/wea/drafts-frame.html, New York, ISBN:
92-1-126126-0
6. McKendry P (2002) Energy production from biomass (part 1): overview of biomass.
Bioresour Technol 83(1):37–46
7. World Energy Assessment (2004) UNDP. New York, ISBN: 92-1-126167-8
8. BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2008) BP p.l.c., London
9. Tissot B, Welte DH (1991) Petroleum formation and occurrence. A new approach to oil and
gas exploration, 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin
10. Ceron P (N. 4, Febbraio 1976) Energia Geotermica—Stato attuale e prospettive, con
particolare riguardo alla produzione di energia elettrica’’ in ‘‘L’energia geotermica, Studi e
Ricerche ENEL; also: World Energy Council 2010, Survey of Energy Resources, London
ISBN: 978-0-946121-021
11. Cavinato C (1964) Giacimenti minerari. UTET, Torino; Also: Taylor TN, Taylor EL,
Krings M (2009) Paleobotany. The biology and evolution of fossil plants, ISBN 9780-
123739-728
12. Barnaba FP (1990) Geologia degli Idrocarburi. AGIP. Milano; also: Boggs S Jr (2006)
Principles of sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Pearson Hall, 4th edn, ISBN 0-13-154728-3
13. Raabe J (1985) The design, use, and function of hydromechanical, hydraulic, and electrical
equipment. VDI-Verlag, Dusseldorf, ISBN 3184006166
Chapter 3
Energy Vectors
3.1 The Need for Energy Transportation and Storage
While considering the human use of energy, ‘‘where’’ and ‘‘when’’ are often more
important than ‘‘how’’ and ‘‘how much’’. Human beings do not simply need
energy: they need it wherever and whenever they decide. An energy system is
therefore satisfactory when it is able to guarantee the right quantity and form of
energy in the right moment (for all required time) and at the place of need.
From the energy market viewpoint, to succeed in meeting the demand in the
place and at the moment requested is often considered more important than the
way in which energy is supplied and also than the quantity of primary energy
needed to make the quantity and form requested available in the place and at the
moment of the demand.
The process of energy production and supply is dominated by the economic
conditions of demand, largely more than by its energy balance.
A common example, familiar to all, can easily clarify the issue: we all know
that the sunlight is available during the daytime; however, if from a social and
economic viewpoint it is considered more convenient to play a sports match in the
evening—although from an energy viewpoint this choice is absolutely unjusti-
fied—the match is played in the evening with artificial lighting and subsequent
energy spending. Although lightning would be cheaper from an energy perspective
in a place rather than another, the match would take place in any case in the place
privileged by the socio-economic reality, irrespective of the necessary energy
spending.
The modern concept of energy system, therefore, has to be able to meet—even
better to ‘‘foresee’’—these needs. The concepts of time and space therefore
forcefully fall within energy analysis and in the capacity to develop, design and
implement energy systems. Energy transportation and storage become in this way
the main attributes to be considered while standardising systems and usage tech-
nologies; in a word, the way itself of reasoning in terms of energy.

98 3 Energy Vectors
A primary energy resource is generally available in a place different from the

energy demand. This implies the need for energy transportation; and the need for
continuously and instantly meeting the energy demand makes the storage necessary.
The concepts of transportation in space and storage in time of a given quantity
of energy are nowadays predominant to correctly meet the needs relating to global
development and access to technologies of an increasing number of human beings.
To express at best the concepts of energy transportation and storage and to
effectively integrate them in the analysis of energy systems, it is necessary to
introduce a new concept: the energy vector (or career).
On the basis of the characteristics highlighted in Fig. 1.6 and of the analysis of
energy systems, the definition of energy vector is the following:
An energy vector allows transfer, in space and time, a given quantity of energy,
hence making it available for use distantly in time and space from the point of
availability of the natural source.
The interpretation of the entire world energy system radically changes if con-
sidered from the perspective of energy vectors. Already today, the success and the
failure of different modes of exploiting primary energy resources and making their
use available for end users, is regulated by the growing need of the energy market
to avail itself of standardised energy vectors always endowed with specific char-
acteristics, and not only of energy sources able to meet their demand from the
quantity viewpoint. This characteristic of the energy market and of energy systems
is destined to become increasingly important in the decades to come.
Energy vectors must allow to transfer energy, to store relevant quantities of it
for a deferred use over time, in ways that are not always foreseeable in advance.
These vectors have to guarantee higher and higher performance levels in the
conversion and transformation processes, in transportation and storage, with a
limitation in the environmental impact of the entire cycle and particular attention
must be paid to the utilisation phase.
Many primary sources are also vectors, in the sense that they are able to allow
energy storage and transportation. Conversely, for other sources this ability has to
be carried out through the production of specific vectors obtained by converting or
changing the natural source.
The main energy vectors presently known and in many cases already used are
the following:
• Fossil fuels
– Oil and its derivatives
– Natural gas
– Coal
• Electricity
• Heat-transfer fluids
• Hydrogen
• Mechanical transmission systems
• Radiative transfer.
3.1 The Need for Energy Transportation and Storage 99
The main energy characteristic of a vector is the form of energy that allows it to
transport and thence to make it available at the ‘‘delivery’’, in a place and time
other than those available at the source. Knowing the form of energy transported
and stored allows the correct inclusion of each energy vector in the framework of
each complex energy system.
The energy vectors presently most known and used transport the following
forms of energy:
• Fossil fuels ? chemical energy
• Electricity ? electric power
• Heat-transfer fluid ? thermal energy
• Hydrogen ? chemical energy
• Mechanical transmissions ? mechanic energy
• Radioactive transfer ? radiant energy
As it can be easily inferred, some of these vectors are also primary sources (this
is the case of fossil fuels), others (mechanical transmissions and thermal vectors)
carry forms of energy demanded and directly used in the form transported for end
use. In particular, vectors as electricity and hydrogen must be the object of specific
production processes; they require technologies within the system that might be
useful for their final conversion, allowing to provide users with the useful effect
needed (thermal, electric, mechanic and luminous).
3.2 Attitude to Energy Transportation in Space and Time

and Range of Application
It is very important to asses in detail the characteristics of each energy vector as

concerns its capacity to transfer, in space and time and the quantity of energy
transported.
Fossil fuels owe their extraordinary energy success to the large availability in
nature, to limited or zero extraction costs, to the lack of interest shown until
nowadays by the human society vis-à-vis the environmental impact entailed by
their use and the practical impossibility of natural recovery of the resource taken
away from the ecosystem; but most of all to their extraordinary characteristics as
energy vectors. The zero extraction cost, a concept not much tackled in the liter-
ature, is strictly related to each natural resource and particularly evident in mineral
resources. The removal of a resource from nature, if not linked to particular eco-
nomic mechanisms linked to its formation (for instance the cultivation of fields for
grain collection), is mainly free of charge. Nature deals with the formation and
conservation resources, men only deal with its ‘‘collection’’ from the place of
availability. The technical cost to access fossil fuels is therefore simply linked to the
cost of research, the cost to reach the deposit and the extraction cost.
Their availability has no cost whatsoever, since it was previously arranged and
‘‘paid’’ by nature.
100 3 Energy Vectors
The lack of interest for the new formation of the natural resource freely taken is
commonly accepted by the human society, particularly as concerns mineral
resources, whose extreme difficulty (in almost all cases, impossibility) of re-for-
mation through human work has not discouraged its extensive use, without con-
sidering its inevitable depletion. In different periods, the lack of resource
replenishment capacity has been, only partly mitigated by techniques destined to
reuse products and their components, and in recent times by the end-of-life
recycling of part of raw materials.
The extraordinary capacity of keeping the quantity of energy stored—the real
access key to the world spreading and the commercial success of fossil fuels—is
inborn in their structure. Fossil resources, in fact, are available to us because it was
possible, for millions of years, to thoroughly preserve the quantity of energy that
had been fixed and stored in them in past geological eras.
Once extracted from the subsoil, coal and oil in particular maintain, at atmo-
spheric conditions, also the quantity of energy they contain in an extremely stable
way, hence favouring the storage in deposits rather easy to create and the trans-
portation through simple and inexpensive means.
The superiority of oil over coal from the viewpoint of easiness of storage and
transportation in terms of energy density, and easiness of handling (far better for a
liquid substance rather than for a fragmented solid one) is the main reason for the
success that allowed the former to replace the latter as a leading fuel in the world
energy scenario of the 20th century.
The characteristics of fossil fuels as energy vectors are, therefore, at the basis of
their global success and are the ones with which each new vector has to be
compared in order to show its competitiveness.
Putting (for the time being) any other considerations aside—as for instance the
obtainability from different primary sources, the renewability of the source, the
level of emission of undesired and polluting substances at the point of use, which
are certainly penalising for fossil fuels—and focusing on their capacity to allow
the movement of a quantity of energy in time and space—that is to say their best
qualities—it is easily possible to understand what are the characteristics requested
to each energy vector that intends to play a major role in world’s energy system.
3.3 Duration and Range of Transfers
In order to better understand the characteristics of the main energy vectors, it is

suitable to divide the aptitude to transfer energy into three levels for space and
three levels for time.
Transfer in short range indicating the capacity of a vector to transfer energy for
distances of tens and hundreds of metres, until extreme cases of some kilometres.
Transfer in medium range indicating the capacity of a vector to transport energy
for distances of tens and hundreds of kilometres, up to extreme cases of some
thousands of kilometres.
3.3 Duration and Range of Transfers 101
Transfer in long range that is capacity of a vector to transport energy for

distances of thousands of kilometres.
Transfer in short term that is the capacity of a vector to store energy for a few
days up to extreme cases of a few weeks or months.
Transfer in medium term that is the capacity of a vector to store energy for a
few months, up to the extreme case of a few years.
Transfer in long term that is the capacity of a vector to store energy for years,
up to the potential capacity of storing it for thousands or millions of years.
Fossil fuels are able to transfer energy in the short, medium and long range, and
also for a short, medium or long period with transportation solutions absolutely
simple, sufficiently safe and inexpensive (or reasonably costly). Each time, for each
single characteristic and for each technical solution of storage and transportation, the
other energy vectors are inevitably compared to the equivalent costs (energetic,
technological, economic) of transportation or storage of the same quantity of energy
for the same order of magnitude in terms of distance or time, as the main fossil fuels.
Electricity allows to transfer energy efficiently, often more convenient than
fossil fuels, in a short and medium range in terms of kilometres. Although the
transportation infrastructure and the related infrastructures involve major invest-
ments, the low energy and economic costs linked to transportation and the high
level of reliability of solutions turn electricity into a competitive energy vector,
sometimes outperforming fossil fuels, although considering the transportation
capacity only, and not the versatility of production, storage, utilisation and the
limited environmental impact achievable.
As far as long-range transfers are concerned, for the time being the transpor-
tation losses, the size of investments, the technical difficulty of solutions in case of
crossing of oceans, chains of mountains and places with extreme weather condi-
tions, make electricity less competitive.
The lack of competitiveness in long-range transportation is also linked to the
characteristic of the electricity vector of not allowing storage over time of the
energy transported (for this reason, electricity can be defined an ‘‘incomplete
vector’’). This makes it necessary a connection in controls and in the management
systems of interconnected and chained transmission networks, which becomes
increasingly difficult with the geographical distance and the decision-making
independence between the network operators and the political framework of the
countries involved.
The indirect methods for the storage of electric power over time are increas-
ingly competing with fossil fuels, especially for mobile applications, in portable
electronics and in transportation vehicles. The complexity and the cost to imple-
ment the different systems, besides the cost for management, maintenance and
duration over time, make increasingly difficult the competition between indirect
electricity storage and storage of equal quantities of energy with fossil fuels.
However, in this case, the growing request for zero-emission solutions at the point
of use (presently generally adopted for electronics and telephony or portable
electronics, although gradually implemented also for mobility, especially in urban
areas) can turn out to be able to drive the market.
Indirect storage methods allow to achieve the two most important conditions for
the economic enhancement of an energy vector that is, to say the short and
medium term storage capacity. And in many cases long-term storage as well is not
beyond the technological and economic range.
Hydrogen, while allowing energy storage and transportation in the chemical
form, and since it can be employed in all energy conversion technologies using
fossil fuels, besides in other new generation technologies (as fuel cells), is very
often immediately associated to fossil fuels, and also considered—for these sim-
ilarities—as a possible ‘‘new universal fuel’’.
In theory, hydrogen allows a short, medium and long-term storage when in
gaseous form and in a form absorbed or chemically bonded with other substances.
As concerns, on the contrary, the storage in a cryogenic liquid form, it is possible
to state that it is only possible in the short term and gradually less and less
satisfactorily as the timeframe extends. Yet, in any case, storage is never possible
with a zero-energy spending and always needs committing technological condi-
tions as concerns the solutions for thermal insulation or the presence of ancillary
components that envisage a continuous heat subtraction.
Synthetic fuels basically have the same features as fossil fuels, with which they
share applications; therefore, they easily allow storage and transportation in the
short, medium and long term/range.
Heat transfer fluids allow both transportation and storage, but transportation is
limited to the short range and storage to the short term.
Mechanical transmissions, as well as oleodynamic and pressure-dynamic
transmissions, like the heat-transfer fluids with which they share several applica-
tions for the simultaneous transfer and thermal and mechanic energy, allow both
transportation and storage, but only in the short range and short term.
Radiation allows, on the contrary, transportation and not storage. Transporta-
tion can take place at a very long range (interstellar and interplanetary distances),
in the vacuum of space, and in a very short range, in the atmosphere.
Table 3.1 sums up the aptitudes of the different vectors mentioned above.
3.4 Characteristics of Energy Vectors
For each energy system, it is possible to identify the vector that allows energy
transportation and storage, the way in which storage and transportation–distribution
are possible, and the means that allows its storage, transportation and distribution.
3.4.1 Ways and Means of Storage, Transportation

and Distribution of Vectors
This paragraph contains an analysis of the definition of vector and of its main
properties and functions.
3.4 Characteristics of Energy Vectors 103
Table 3.1 Energy transportation and storage capacity of the main energy vectors in the short,
medium and long range and in the short, medium and long term
Energy vector Transportation Storage
Fossil fuels Short, medium, long range Yes, short, medium, long term.
Electricity Short and medium range No (indirect methods)
Hydrogen Short, medium, long range Yes, short, medium, long term.
(cryogenic exception)
Synthetic fuels Short, medium, long range Yes, short, medium, long term.
Heat exchanging fluids Short range Yes, short term
Mechanical, oleodynamic Short range Yes
and pressure-dynamic
transmissions
Radiation Very long range in space Short No
range in the atmosphere
3.4.1.1 Vector
The energy vector is the minimum unit of the system: it is the substance, the
chemical compound or element, or the physical phenomenon that allow the
transportation of a given quantity of energy. More precisely, a vector (substance or
phenomenon) allows the transportation of an energy potential, since what is
transferred in time and space is the ‘‘potential’’ capacity of a given substance or of
a given phenomenon to allow the achievement of a useful energy conversion.
By convention, therefore, reference is made to energy vector rather than energy
potential vector, although assuming that the correct and complete definition would
impose to refer to the potential.
An energy vector is therefore the fossil fuel (chemical compound), electricity
(more correctly: the electronic flow, physical phenomenon), hydrogen (chemical
element), synthetic fuel (chemical compound), heat-transfer fluid (substance with
given physical characteristics), the shear stress or tensile-compressive stress,
oleodynamic pressure, aerodynamic pressure (physical phenomenon), solar
radiation (physical phenomenon).
3.4.1.2 Transportation Procedures
The modalities for the transportation and distribution of vectors can vary, in
different applications, also for the same vector. The possibility of different ways
of storage, transportation and distribution is an indirect index of the good quality
of a vector. Having a higher number of possible choices makes, in fact, the
vector more easily usable in different frameworks and for different solutions of
energy systems.
Transportation procedures necessarily envisage the use of a network of infra-
structures that can be:
• Dedicated network
– Oil pipelines
– Gas pipelines
– Long-distance power lines
– Mechanical transmission
– Oleodynamic transmission
– Pressure-dynamic transmission
– Heat-transfer fluid distribution systems
• Non-dedicated network (also existing for other purposes of transportation of
goods and persons):
– Water (sea, river)
– Road
– Railway
– Air
– Remote transmission
3.4.1.3 Means of Transport
A means of energy transport is, conversely, the means aimed at containing—

during transportation operations—the energy unit which is the object of transfer of
availability in time and space.
Each transportation system envisages one or more possible means, whose charac-
teristics relate to the quantity of energy to be transferred, the distances to be
covered, and the energy system in which they have to be included; these means are:
• Dedicated network
– Oil pipelines ? pipe.
– Gas pipelines ? pipe.
– Long-distance power lines ? electric cables.
– Mechanical transmissions ? shaft, connecting rod, crank.
– Oleodynamic transmission ? pipes.
– Pressure-dynamic transmission ? pipes.
– Heat-transfer fluid distribution system ? pipes.
• Non-dedicated network
– Water (sea, river) ? ship.
– Road ? road vehicle.
– Railway ? train.
– Air ? aircraft, helicopter.
In the same way, for the use of suitably developed technological structures or
solutions the storage modality provides:
3.4 Characteristics of Energy Vectors 105
• Tanks and pressure tanks

• Electrochemical applications
• Springs, flywheels
• Thermal-insulating tanks.
3.5 Analysis of the Main Energy Vectors
This chapter deals with the characteristics of the main energy vectors and primary
and secondary energy sources in their function as energy vectors (that is to say
useful for energy transportation and storage) as well as the relevant processes and
technologies.
3.5.1 Oil as Energy Vector
Among fossil fuels, oil is the vector that shows the best transportability charac-
teristics, thanks to its physical features (it is liquid at ambient temperature and
pressure).
In general, the transportation and distribution of oil and its derivatives takes
place through the modes described in Fig. 3.1.
Crude oil is transported for long/very long distances through oil pipelines or by
sea in oil tankers (in this case, it reaches the port through an oil pipeline where it is
loaded on oil tankers and taken to the port of destination; from there, through an
oil pipeline, it is transported to refineries). Once arrived to the user Country, it is
refined and oil products (petrol, gasoil, LPG, fuel oil and others) are transported,
for short/medium ranges to end users or to the distribution facilities, normally by
means of oil road tankers.
When calculating the energy spending due to a given energy quantity trans-
portation through vectors starting from the data relating to the transportation of
goods in general, it is necessary to consider that the mass transported is the sum of
the mass of the vector plus the mass of the container. This means that per each kg
of energy vector, the total mass transported is higher.1 Therefore, indicating with
mv (kg) the mass of the energy vector transported and with LHV (kJ/kg) its lower
heating value, the energy transported is:
Ev ¼ mv LHV ð3:1Þ
1
For solid and liquid substances (at room temperature) this aspect is little relevant: conversely, it
is very much significant for low temperature liquefied and pressurised gases, since in these cases
the weight of the container is often of the same order of magnitude as the gas therein contained.
Fig. 3.1 Chart describing the

transportation and
distribution of oil and its
derivate
Indicating with Rp the ratio between the mass of the vector and the overall mass
mtot (vector ? container), it follows that:
mv ¼ Rp mtot ð3:2Þ
Therefore, the energy transported Ev is
Ev ¼ Rp mtot LHV ð3:3Þ
Now, indicating with Et the energy spent for the transportation of the mass unit
(mtot = 1) (kJ/kg km) shown in Table 3.2, the energy spending for the transpor-
tation of a fuel along n km, expressed as a percentage of the energy transported
(Et%,n) can be calculated as follows:
Et n Et n
Et%;n ¼ ¼ ð3:4Þ
Ev Rp LHV
Based on (3.4), since oil lower heating value amounts to 41,868 kJ/kg,
assuming Rp = 0.9 and according to the data shown in Table 3.2 it is possible to
calculate the energy costs for the different types of transport.
Table 3.3 shows the energy spending, expressed as a percentage of the energy
transported, along a distance of 1,000 km.
As already said, oil can be transported through oil pipelines. In this case, energy
spending can be calculated as follows.
If we consider the generalised form of the first law of thermodynamics2 for
open systems and for adiabatic transformations (without heat exchanges, that is to
say Q = 0), indicating with DH the enthalpy variation (per mass unit), DEp the
variation of potential energy (per mass unit) and DEc the variation of kinetic
energy (per mass unit) and with n the energy losses due to the load loss (per unit of
length of the pipeline), the work L necessary to transport an oil mass m for a
distance D, is the following:
2
Kinetic energy and potential energy are also taken into consideration.
3.5 Analysis of the Main Energy Vectors 107
Table 3.3 Energy spending Transportation system Energy spending (%/1,000 km)
for oil transportation through
non-dedicated networks Road 7.0
Railway 3.4
Water (sea, river) 2.0
Table 3.2 Energy spending Transportation system Energy spending (kJ/kg km)
for freight transportation [1]
Road 2.638
Railway 1.298
Water (sea, river) 0.754
L ¼ m DH þ m DEp þ m DEc þ n D ð3:5Þ

Energy losses n can be calculated according to the load losses J (expressed in
metres of load losses per metre of length of the pipeline3) using the Darcy–
Weisbach equation, applied to incompressible fluids in permanent motion
k v2
J¼ ð3:6Þ
2gd
where k is an adimensional coefficient of resistance function, in general, of the
relative roughness factor of the pipeline e and of the Reynolds number, d is the
diameter of the pipeline, and g is the gravity acceleration. The coefficient k can be
calculated by using the Colebrook–White equation:

1 2:51 e
pffiffiffi ¼ 2 log pffiffiffi þ ð3:7Þ
k Re k d 3:71
where e is the relative roughness factor and Re is the Reynolds number as
expressed by the ratio:
qvd
Re ¼ ð3:8Þ
l
where q is density and l the dynamic viscosity.
Once J is known, the energy loss is (J/m):
n¼Jmg ð3:9Þ
Thence, as concerns the mass unit, the following unitary work Lu is obtained:
Lu ¼ DH þ DEp þ DEc þ J g D ð3:10Þ
Indicating with q fluid density, with p pressure, with h height and with
v velocity, the following is obtained:
3
Physically, then, J is dimensional.
Dp
DH ¼ ð3:11Þ
q
DEp ¼ g Dh ð3:12Þ
1
DEc ¼ Dv2 ð3:13Þ
2
Pressure remains constant (Dp = 0, thence DH = 0); furthermore, the height
variations can be neglected4 (Dh % 0, thence DEp % 0). The initial velocity is
null.
The unitary work, therefore, is the following:
1 2
Lu ¼ v þJgD ð3:14Þ
2
In general, oil pipelines are made of steel pipes with a diameter varying
between 0.3 and 1.4 m; fluid velocity ranges between 1 and 6 m/s.
For example, considering a section of a steel oil pipeline (for which a relative
roughness e = 0.01 mm can be assumed) with a diameter of d = 1 m and a
velocity of crude oil of v = 4 m/s, the following is obtained5: Re = 16.000,
k = 0.02735 and J = 0.02231.
Therefore
1 2
Lu ¼ v þ J g D ¼ 4 þ 0:21883 D½J ð3:15Þ
2
For a distance of 1,000 km (D = 1.000.000 m), the unitary work Lu (J) is6:
1
Lu ¼ v2 þ J g D ¼ 4 þ 218:827 ¼ 218; 831 ð3:16Þ
2
In loss calculation, only distributed losses were taken into consideration; as a
matter of fact, it is also necessary to consider the concentrated losses due to bends,
joints, valves, gates, etc. These losses are calculated by considering for each
element an equivalent length. Therefore, for the calculation of total losses, a
fictitious length of the pipeline is considered, given by the sum of the real pipeline
and the equivalent one due to the elements generating concentrated losses. It is
readily evident that to calculate the equivalent length it is necessary to know in
detail the pipeline in question: in a first approximation, it is possible to consider a
fictitious length amounting to 1.2 times the real one. Therefore putting aside the
4
It is possible to assume that positive and negative height variations along the pathway are
equivalent, that is to say the height of the starting point is the same as the end point.
5
Considering for crude oil a dynamic viscosity of 0.215 Pa s and a density of 0.86 kg/l.
6
In general, for long distances (typical of oil pipelines) the term relating to kinetic energy
becomes negligible compared to load losses:
J g D [ [ 12 v2 ) L ffi J g D.
Fig. 3.2 Oil pipelines
level relating to kinetic energy variation, the unitary work for the transportation
along a section of length D is:
Lu;D ¼ J g 1:2 D ð3:17Þ
Then, to calculate the real energy spending for transportation, it is necessary to
consider the efficiency of pumping stations (gSP). Considering a 40% efficiency,
the following is obtained:
Jg
Leff;D ¼ 1:2 D ð3:18Þ
gSP
For a section of 1,000 km: Lu,eff = 656.48 kJ/kg.
Considering oil lower heating value (41,868 kJ/kg), energy spending for
transportation as a percentage of the energy transported is nearly 1.6% for a
distance of 1,000 km.
In general, oil pipelines (Fig. 3.2) as a means for oil transportation, as well as
gas pipelines, show the following characteristics
• Disadvantages
– High construction and laying costs
– Cost for pumping and distribution stations
– Difficult conversion in case of oilfield or deposit exhaustion or depletion
• Advantages
– Low energy transportation costs
– Good level of safety7
7
Safety and damage risks vary according to the Countries and the regional areas crossed.
In general, oil pipelines are made up of steel pipes with a diameter ranging
between 30 and 140 cm, possibly laid aboveground in order to make inspections
easier. The liquid is channelled through pumps that give the flow a velocity
ranging between 1 and 6 m/s.
The most famous oil pipelines nowadays include:
• The Friendship Pipeline. It is the longest pipeline in the world and transports oil
along nearly 4,000 km from Russia, crossing Ukraine and Hungary, and
reaching Germany. Today it is the main route for the transportation of Russian
and Kazak oil to Europe. Its range amounts to 1.2–1.4 million barrels per day.
The diameter of pipelines ranges between 420 mm and 1,020 mm. 20 pumping
stations are active.
• Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline. It is used to transport the oil extracted at
the oilfield of the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea shores. It is endowed
with eight pumping stations and its total length is 1.776 km. It stretches to
Azerbaijan for 440 km, then to Georgia for 260 km and finally to Turkey for
1,076 km, and it is able to transport one million barrels per day.
• Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. It connects Alaska with the heart of America
through a pipeline of nearly four thousand kilometres.
As far as storage is concerned, crude oil is stored in large quantities and for long
times at a national level. These storages represent the strategic stocks of importing
Countries.
3.5.1.1 Derivatives of Petroleum
As already said, petroleum is not used as crude oil, but rather it is processed to
obtain different types of fuels. After some pre-processing stages (as water elimi-
nation), it undergoes continuous distillation processes in tray columns whose
pressure is close to atmospheric pressure. As shown in Fig. 3.3, the most volatile
products are released from the top of the column, whereas less volatile products
are collected at decreasing heights.
The quantity of refining products obtained hugely varies with the quantity of oil
processed. The quantities of products obtained are rather predefined, and, in any
case, the refining process always produces—from a given type of petroleum—all the
different products. On average, nearly 20% of crude oil provides petrol, nearly 55%
diesel oil and fuel oil, 7% covers internal refining consumption, 7% oil, 3% LPG, 3%
bitumen, 1% lubricant bases, and the remaining 4% includes other products as
petroleum coke, paraffin, petrolatum, etc. Petrol, diesel oil and fuel oil totally
account for a large portion of refining products (75%). In order to change the petrol
and fuel oil percentages that, as already said, are on average predefined, according to
the quality of crude oil processed, and adjust them according to their demand, further
processing is necessary to obtain light hydrocarbons (petrol, made up of hydrocar-
bons containing 5–10 carbon atoms) starting from heavy hydrocarbons (diesel oil
and fuel oil, made up of hydrocarbons containing 12–30 carbon atoms).
Fig. 3.3 Diagram of a

distillation tower
This processing consists in the breakage of large molecules into small ones: this
processing is called ‘‘cracking’’, and can be either thermal or catalytic.
The main refining products include:
• Gas (in general LPG, liquefied)
• Petrol
• Kerosene
• Diesel oil
• Lubricant bases
• Fuel oil
• Bitumen
• Other products
It is important to recall that it is not possible to obtain one single distillate from
refining, since it produces all the different fuels at the same time.
The quantity of the different distillates can vary through subsequent processing
of:
• Cracking
• Alkylation
• Reforming.
From the energy viewpoint, the refining process efficiency can be defined as the
ratio between the energy content of fuel products alone (LPG, petrol, kerosene,
diesel oil and fuel oil, without considering those products destined to non-energy
use) and the energy content of crude oil. In this way, the efficiency of the distil-
lation process accounts for nearly 87%.
LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas)
LPG, one of the most widespread oil gases, is mainly made up of propane, butane
and their blends; it can be liquefied, under pressure, to facilitate its transportation
and storage. LPG can be used as fuel for domestic use and heating, as aerosol
propellant, and as fuel for vehicles. It should be noted that a relevant part of the
LPG presently in the market derives from methane production processes, and is
obtained through the purification of natural gas.8
At the liquid state and at a temperature of 40C, the absolute maximum vapour
pressure amounts to 16.5 bar. Density ranges between 0.508 and 0.585 kg/dm3 at
15C and the lower heating value amounts to nearly 46,100 kJ/kg.
Petrol
Mixture of hydrocarbons included in the distillation range between 20 and 215C,
used to fuel spark-ignition internal combustion engines for the propulsion of
vehicles.
Leaded petrol. Gasoline complying with UNI 20156 regulation, with a mini-
mum octane-level of 97 RON, whose maximum level allowed of lead compounds
shall not exceed 0.15 g Pb/1.
Lead-free petrol. Gasoline complying with European Regulation 228, with a
minimum octane-level of 95 RON, whose contamination with lead compounds
shall not exceed 0.013 g Pb/1
On average, density amounts to 0.74 kg/dm3 and LHV amounts to nearly
43,350 kJ/kg.
Kerosene
Blend of hydrocarbons included between the distillation range of 180 and 230C.
It is used as a propellant for jet engines and as heating and lighting fuel. In addition
to the aviation turbine kerosene (ATK), Deodorised kerosene provides, other
products such as:
• Domestic kerosene Product that, while burning, releases a limited amount of
smoke, has no odour emission, and is therefore suitable for domestic use and
heating purposes.
• Power kerosene Distillate with sufficient antiknock properties, used in special
internal combustion engines;
• Tractor kerosene Fuel for agricultural vehicles. In countries where tax benefits
are available for this class of products, it undergoes a specific colouring.
Density amounts to 0.8 kg/dm3 and the average lower heating value amounts to
nearly 43,200 kJ/kg.
8
Propane and butane are contained in natural gas (see Sect. 2.5.4.2).
Diesel Oil
Blend of paraffin and aromatic hydrocarbons that distil between 150 and 400C, is
obtained from the atmospheric distillation of crude oil and from processes
including cracking and hydrocracking. Its viscosity at 40C ranges between 2.0
and 4.5 mm2/s, an average density of about 0.83 kg/dm3 and a LCV of nearly
42,000 kJ/kg.
Engine diesel oil is used to fuel spontaneous ignition internal combustion
engines. It is characterised by a high number of cetane, a low-sulphur content
(0.005%, 50 ppm decreasing to 10 ppm and lower in many markets) and by a
distillation range which also provides for a limit at 95%. The limits relating to cold
performance must be met.
Heating diesel oil is used for heat and energy production in residential
buildings. It must comply with less strict constraints in terms of viscosity, distil-
lation, cold performance, ignition features and sulphur content (0.2% in weight).
Lubricant Bases
Blends of predominantly paraffinic hydrocarbons (C12–C50), at different degrees of

viscosity are obtained through solvent refining of distillates and vacuum residues.
They are used for the production of engine oils, industrial lubricants and lubri-
cating greases. The latter are obtained by adding suitable thickening agents to
lubricant bases.
Fuel Oil
Fuel Oil (HS) This term includes all those products, including blends, whose
viscosity exceeds 53 mm2/s at 50C, and with a maximum sulphur content of 4%
in weight.
Fuel oil (LS)–(SF) This term includes all those products and blends, whose
viscosity exceeds 53 mm2/s at 50C and with a maximum sulphur content of 1% in
weight.
On average, its density amounts to 0.83 kg/dm3 and its LHV to nearly
42,000 kJ/kg.
Bitumen
Blends of hydrocarbons (either saturated or aromatic [ C25), solid or highly vis-

cous at room temperature. They have a colloidal structure, thermoplastic charac-
teristics, adhesive properties and are obtained as residues from vacuum distillation.
Some of them undergo further processes.
Fig. 3.4 Coal transportation

and distribution chart
Other Products
Petroleum coke. Granular or needle-shaped substance mainly made up of coal and

obtained from the pyrolysis of heavy fraction. It may contain high-molecular-
weight hydrocarbons.
Paraffin and petrolatum. Solid or semi-solid substances at room temperature
obtained from the extraction through solvent of vacuum distillates (paraffin) and
vacuum residues (petrolatum).
3.5.2 Coal as Energy Vector
Among fossil fuels, coal is the one that shows the less favourable characteristics as
energy vector. In fact, since it is a solid fuel, its transportation is more burdensome
from the energy viewpoint, and, given the same energy stored, its storage involves
larger volumes than oil (coal: 68.24 dm3/GJ; oil: 28.10 dm3/GJ).
The long-range transportation of solid coal mainly takes place via water. In
many cases, in order to give coal the best possible characteristics for its trans-
portation, it undergoes several processes, the same already described in
Sect. 2.4.1.5 (Fig. 3.4), that is:
• Pulverisation
• Gasification and liquefaction
• Hydrocarbonisation
• Hydrogenation
• Fischer–Tropsch process
• Coal–oil
• Coal–water
The calculation of energy spending can be made similar to the case of oil,
considering that the average lower heating value of coal amounts to 29,308 kJ/kg
and assuming Rp = 0.9. These costs are shown in Table 3.4. They are expressed as
a percentage of energy transported along a distance of 1,000 km.
for coal transportation
Road 10.0
Railway 4.9
Sea 2.9
Fig. 3.5 Siberian gas

pipeline
3.5.3 Natural Gas as Energy Vector
As far as transportation and storage are concerned, natural gas shows intermediate
characteristics between oil (liquid) and coal (solid). It can be suitably transported
in gas pipelines (Fig. 3.5), but, although it is in a gaseous state, transportation is
more expensive from the energy view point. The strategic importance of this
vector encouraged the resort to the diversification of supply sources and tech-
nologies. In particular, the transportation via sea of liquefied gas (LNG) at cryo-
genic temperatures and its regasification at the delivery ports is a more and more
widespread practice. This solution is adopted for transportation via sea through the
so-called ‘‘methane tankers’’ or LNG tankers, ships endowed with cryogenic tanks:
liquefaction hugely reduces volume9 and this allows to transport natural gas in an
energy-efficient as well as safer way (natural gas is not inflammable at the liquid
state). Normally transportation takes place at atmospheric pressure at a tempera-
ture of nearly—163C (at atmospheric pressure, the boiling point is—161.4C),
and in some cases pressure tanks are used, therefore with higher temperatures.
Once arrived to the port, the gas, still liquefied, is transferred from the ship to a
storage tank inside the regasifiers. It is subsequently sent to a vaporiser, that acting
on temperature performs, gasification through gas expansion, with gas that goes
back to its natural state. Temperature variation generally takes place through
thermal exchange in tube bundles between liquid gas and seawater, which releases
9
The density of gaseous methane at 75 bar and room temperature amounts to 55.9 kg/m3,
whereas at the liquid state it amounts to 424.7 kg/m3.
its heat to the gas; pressure, on the contrary, is reduced through gas expansion in
suitable tankers.
Instead of unnecessarily dispersing the ‘‘cold’’ in the sea, regasifiers can be
associated to plants that envisage the use of low temperatures (for instance, food-
freezing facilities, typically present in ports), ‘‘recovering’’ in this way the freezing
energy with remarkable saving.
Natural gas is stored in a gaseous state at high pressure in cylinders or at low
pressure in gasometers. In many Countries, the use of natural gas as energy vector
is very much diffused also thanks to a widespread distribution network that reaches
an extremely high number of users, including residential users.
3.5.3.1 Transportation of Natural Gas
For the calculation of the energy spending related to transportation in gas pipe-
lines, the same procedure as oil transportation in oil pipelines applies. Then:
Lu ¼ DH þ DEp þ DEc þ J g D ð3:19Þ
In case of gas, the variation of potential energy can be neglected; therefore the
enthalpy variation relates to the adiabatic compression of gas:
DH ¼ cp DT ð3:20Þ
where cp is the constant pressure specific heat and DT is temperature variation due
to compression. In order to have an adiabatic compression, the following applies:
k1=k
T2 p2
¼ ¼ bk1=k ) T2 ¼ T1 bk1=k ð3:21Þ
T1 p1
where k is the ratio between constant pressure specific heat (cp) and constant
volume specific heat (cv):
cp
k¼ ð3:22Þ
cv
In case of high compression ratios, as in the case of compression of natural gas
for transportation purposes, compression takes place in several inter-refrigerating
stages.10 Indicating with n the number of stages, the compression ratio of the
single stage11 bs is:
pffi
bs ¼ ½nb ð3:23Þ
10
Between the exit of one stage and the access to the next, the liquid is cooled at constant
temperature. In this way the needed compression work decreases.
11
Considering the compression ratio as equal in the different stages.
Table 3.5 Polynomial coefficients for the calculation of constant pressure specific heat (kJ/kg)
Polynomial coefficients
Gas A B C D
Natural gas 1.57 9 10-8 2.22 9 10-5 6.74 9 10-3 2.68
Hydrogen 6.60 9 10-8 8.44 9 10-5 3.61 9 10-2 9.31
As an example, it is possible to consider a gas pipeline with a 1 m diameter

transporting gas at the pressure of 75 bar (assuming a compression in three in-
terrefrigerated stages) with a velocity of 10 m/s.
The constant pressure (cp) specific heat and the constant volume (cv) specific
heat and, therefore, k, depend on temperature; the calculation can be made, with a
good approximation, considering constant cp, cv and k with values calculated at a
mean temperature between the initial and the final one. In any case, also with this
simplification, it is necessary to know the final compression temperature. The
constant pressure specific heat can be expressed with a good approximation
according to temperature through a third-degree polynomial:
cp ¼ A T 3 þ B T 2 þ C T þ D ð3:24Þ
Table 3.5 shows the polynomial coefficients to calculate the constant pressure
specific heat (kJ/kg) for some gases.
The end-of-compression temperature12 is:
T2 ¼ T1 bk1=k
s ¼ 298 4; 220;15 ¼ 370 K ð3:25Þ
The ideal enthalpy variation (isoentropic compression) of the single stage is
DHs;i ¼ cp DT ¼ 3; 480 72 ¼ 247; 900 J/kg ð3:26Þ
The total enthalpy variation is obtained by multiplying for the number of stages:
DHi ¼ DHs;i n ¼ 743; 700 J/kg ð3:27Þ
It is also possible to take into account irreversibility (compression is not iso-
entropic) considering a thermodynamic compression efficiency gc defined as
follows:
DHi
gc ¼ ð3:28Þ
DH
12
The k value used concerns the average temperature between the initial and the final one. The
calculation can be made through the following procedure: a value of the end temperature is
hypothesised and the average temperature is calculated, followed by the calculation of the value
of k and the value of end temperature that is compared to the hypothesised one. If a marked
difference is obtained, the value of T2 is assumed as the one calculated, and the same procedure is
followed until the value hypothesised and the value calculated of end temperature coincide (or,
better, the difference is not limited to a given value considered as acceptable).
Assuming a thermodynamic compression amounting to 87%, the following

applies:
DHs;i 781; 717
DH ¼ ¼ ¼ 854; 840 J/kg ð3:29Þ
gc 0:87
The variation of kinetic energy is13:
1 102
DEc ¼ Dv2 ¼ ¼ 50 J/kg ð3:30Þ
2 2
As in the case of oil, the variation of potential energy is neglected. For loss loads,
Re = 50,827,273 is obtained, from which k = 0.00829 and J = 0,04228.
Considering a section of 1,000 km, the following is obtained: Lu =
743,700 ? 50 ? 414,778 = 1,158,528 J/kg.
In this case, the compression activity and the load losses for 1,000 km are of the
same order of magnitude. This compression is in any case convenient from the
energy viewpoint. It should be noted that, in transporting the gas at atmospheric
pressure, the load losses (always for a distance of 1,000 km) per kg of gas
transported would increase by over three times.
With considerations similar to oil in relation to concentrated losses and the
efficiency of pumping stations, the following applies:
DH J g 1; 2
Lu;eff;D ¼ þ D ð3:31Þ
gSP gSP
In a section of 1,000 km, Lu,eff,D = 3,490,803 J/kg is obtained. This value
includes over 7% of the energy content of gas transported. To offset the load losses,
compressor stations are planned every 100–150 km. These stations are fuelled by
the gas itself, therefore this consumption corresponds to gas consumption. In
practice, for a transportation distance of 1,000 km, nearly 90% of the gas initially
sent reaches its destination; the rest is consumed to supply compression stations.
Compression stations are mainly made up as follows:
• Compressor unit, normally centrifugal compressors activated by gas turbines,
equipped with own control systems.
• Pipes and the relevant mechanical equipment, for complete gas processing
(filters, valves, air-coolers etc.).
• Plant control systems, able to perform the entire management of turbo-com-
pressors and of the plant processing systems.
• Electric system, able to guarantee the necessary power supply according to the
various needs and priorities.
• Civil infrastructures, for plant-engineering use (switch room, control room,
etc.), personnel offices, workshop and storehouse.
13
It is evident how the variation of kinetic energy is negligible compared to the compression
work.
for the transportation of
natural gas Compressed Liquefied
(200 bar) (-163C)
Road 11.6 7.9
Railway 5.7 3.9
Water 3.3 2.3
The most famous gas pipelines presently used include:

• Bluestream It is one of the main international gas pipelines transporting natural
gas from Russia to Turkey, through the Black Sea, with a total length of
1,213 km (373 of which on the Russian territory, 396 offshore and 444 on the
Turkish territory). The maximum transportation capacity is nearly 16 9 109 m3
of gas per year
• Greenstream It is a gas pipeline connecting Libya to Italy. The quantity of gas
transported is 24 9 109 m3 per year. Its length amounts to 520 km and reaches
the compressor stations of Mellitah and the gas terminal in Gela after passing
through sea depths of more then 1,000 m (maximum depth: 1,127 m)
• Gasdotto Enrico Mattei It connects Italy to Algeria via Tunisia. The gas pipeline
originates in Hassi R’Mel, in the Algerian desert, and after crossing Tunisia, it
plunges in the Mediterranean Sea reaching the Sicilian coasts of Mazara del
Vallo. From here it sails up Italy and reaches the destination point of Minerbio,
in the Po Valley, where gas is stored in one of the largest storage centres in Italy.
Overall, its length exceeds 2,200 km, 370 km of which in Tunisia and 380 km
offshore in the Sicily Channel
In general, the gas transportation and distribution system is made up of pipes
with a diameter ranging between 25 and 1,200 mm, transporting pressure gas
(relative pressure14) between 0.5 and 75 bar besides the pumping stations and the
storage systems. In addition to the gas pipelines for international transportation,
there are also local networks (typically regional) and the networks for gas distri-
bution and delivery to end users.
Similarly to the descriptions in the previous chapters, it is possible to calculate
the energy spending for the transportation of natural gas as well through LNG
carriers in non-dedicated networks.
The lower heating value of natural gas amounts to 48,180 kJ/kg; considering Rp
as amounting to 0.47 for compressed gas at 200 bar15 and 0.69 for liquefied gas at
-163C16 the values shown in Table 3.617 are obtained.
14
Referred to atmospheric pressure (pr = pass–1 bar).
15
Gas density at 200 bar amounts to 159.5 kg/m3.
16
The density of liquefied methane gas at -163C amounts to 427.4 kg/m3.
17
The values shown relate to transportation only and do not consider the energy spending for
compression, liquefaction and regasification.
Table 3.7 Storage capacity Gas cylinder compressed at 75 bar

of a gas cylinder compressed
at 75 bar Storage capacity (% in weight) 4.7 %
Energy density in volume 2,062 kJ/litre
Energy density in mass 2,369 kJ/kg
The energy spending for the transportation of liquefied gas via sea accounts for
2.3% of the energy content of the gas transported; therefore, also considering the
energy spending for liquefaction and regasification (which, on the contrary, can be
recovered), this procedure is energy efficient.
3.5.3.2 Pressure Storage of Natural Gas
As described in the previous chapter, the energy spending for a 75 bar18 compres-
sion amounts to 855 kJ/kg. Considering the efficiency of electric engines moving
compressors amounting to 93%, it is possible to obtain a compression (electric) work
of 919 kJ/kg, corresponding to 1.9% of the energy content of the gas stored.
Besides the necessary energy spending, other relevant characteristics for the
storage systems include:
• Storage capacity It is the ratio (expressed as a percentage) between the mass of
the stored vector and the total mass of the storage system (including the vector).
• Energy density, in volume It is the energy stored per unit of volume of the
storage system;
• Energy density, in mass It is the energy stored per mass unit of the storage
system (including the vector)
A cylinder of a 40 l capacity contains 2.31 kg of gas19 (with an energy content
of 111,352 kJ), has a size of nearly 54 l and weighs 47 kg. On the basis of the
descriptions made, Table 3.7 shows the storage characteristics for natural gas.
3.5.4 Electricity as Energy Vector
The role of electric power and of its applications in the energy field is to be
considered as absolutely important from the Twentieth century onawards, in
consideration of the huge changes occurred in the social and productive activities
of the economic systems that availed themselves of the use of electricity. The use
of electric power spread in developed countries first, and subsequently in all the
others, permeating any form of individual and social activity.
18
The energy density (kJ/m3) of natural gas at 75 bar is similar to the one that hydrogen owns
(described in detail afterwards) at a pressure of 350 bar.
19
Gas density at 75 bar amounts to 57.9 kg/m3.
Fig. 3.6 Electric power

transportation and
distribution diagram
Thanks to the success of electric power, there was a progressive improvement

of living conditions (both from the sanitation viewpoint and from the perspective
of social relations, with the easy access to an increasing number of information,
culture and leisure sources), an increase in technological development and in the
related productive activities, as well as a reduction in manual activities.
Electricity has become a primary good and its strategic weight is destined to
grow, with electric services continuously increasing in terms of quantity and
quality as well as purposes. As concerns the electric grids of industrialised
countries, it is important to consider the huge importance of transmission voltage
that, in order to allow the service to be technically and economically feasible, shall
increase as the distance of users increases.
Electric energy shows some extraordinary characteristics as energy vector,
mostly thanks to its features in terms of ‘‘attitude to transport’’: in fact, it is possible
to transport electric power also for medium-long distances with a limited energy
spending. As far as storage is concerned, on the contrary, electricity cannot be
directly stored, but there are different types of indirect storage, some of which as
sufficiently efficient for applications of major interest and large market distribution.
3.5.4.1 Energy Transportation Through the Electricity Vector
The transportation20 of electric power, from production plants to users, takes place
at different voltages in the different sections of the pathway (Fig. 3.6).
20
Often, in relation to electric power, reference is made to transportation and distribution:
transportation means high or very high voltage transportation for long distances from the
production plants to the AT/MT transformation plants, whereas distribution means the medium–
low voltage transportation for limited distances from the MT/BT transformation plants to end
users.
In general, in order to minimise energy losses during transportation, it is nec-

essary to use high voltage: in fact, these losses are due to the Joule effect. Having
defined q as the specific resistance of the cable (X/m), V the voltage, I the current,
cosu the power factor,21 the energy lost (Q) per metre of electric cable is the
following
Q ¼ q I2 ð3:32Þ
The electric power PE is:
PE ¼ V I cos u ð3:33Þ
therefore
P2E
Q¼q ð3:34Þ
V 2 cos2 u
Considering the power factor (cosu) as constant, being q a characteristic of the
cable, the following applies
P2E
Q¼K ð3:35Þ
V2
The distribution and utilisation voltage is relatively low (100–120, 220, 380 V
according to the different cases and of geographical areas) for safety purposes as
well as for technical–economic reasons (low unit power requested by household
appliances), and makes it necessary a differentiation in the voltage levels, in the
production, transportation and utilisation phases, respectively.
It would be suitable to further increase the operating voltage of the electricity
transmission grid, but unfortunately there are practical limits due to the high cable
insulation costs, to the problems of mechanical instability of cables, as well as to
the presence of dissipative phenomena, typical of high voltage (corona discharge).
Furthermore, beyond a certain voltage threshold, the costs of foundations, trans-
formers, and of the other elements of the transmission line rapidly increase. It is
also necessary to recall that, since electric power cannot be stored in its form, the
excess electricity introduced in the grid and not immediately used is lost, with a
subsequent financial loss.
An important characteristic of electricity transmission grids is the creation of a
mesh scheme, hence allowing the continuity of power supply also in case of failure
in some lines.
As already said, the voltage of the main electricity transmission grids varies
according to production, transportation and utilisation needs. Generally, high-volt-
age lines for large distances are run at 220, 400 or at the so called ‘‘Extra high
voltage’’ of 765 kV (Fig. 3.7). The nodes of meshes include step-up transformers in
case of energy input from a power plant, and step-down transformers if energy is
21
Represents the phase shift between voltage and current.
supplied through regional or provincial dispatch grids. The latter, at a voltage of 60–
150 kV, supplies medium-voltage primary distribution networks (10–20 kV), whose
range does not exceed tens of km. Representing a maximum limit in rural areas. The
last transformation finally takes place in switching stations, in order to supply to users
electric energy at the voltage—in general—of 100-12, 220 and 380 V.
Due to its strategic role in the overall energy framework, the electric power
distribution grid shall comply with strict requirements in terms of continuity of
supply, reduction within close limits of frequency variations in the grid, as well as
minimisation of delays in the nominal voltage at the delivery point.
As far as frequency variations are concerned, they can produce oscillations in
the rotation speed of synchronous or asynchronous motors, whereas voltage dif-
ferences may cause voltage drops in various elements of the plant (lines, trans-
formers, etc.).
These requirements are suitably met by the mesh networks, endowed with great
flexibility in the management of faults to the lines and in the lack of uniformity
between electric production and consumption.
For instance, to prevent problem in case of a fault to the line or to a generator, it
is sufficient to oversize plants by 10%, in order to face the total load of the
network. Furthermore, at least two lines always converge to each node, hence
making it possible the overload of one line to face the demand in case of fault of
the other. There are then systems to automatically regulate the frequency and the
voltage, through which it is possible to obtain excellent supply standards. For
instance, the frequency oscillation of the large network interconnected all over
Western Europe is of 0.1 Hz only, for a nominal frequency of 50 Hz (0.2%).
The already mentioned technical problems have to be carefully analysed and
solved in the most cost-effective way, so as to reduce the environmental impact of
transmission lines. In fact, it is necessary to carefully analyse the clearance
between conductor and support, mainly linked to the likelihood of line discharge in
switching transients, and the clearance between conductor and ground, in order to
avoid discharges towards objects placed under the line. Conductors, furthermore,
will have to be chosen not only on the basis of losses due to the Joule effect, but
also according to the losses due to the corona discharge and radio interferences.
The technical–economic solution of these problems might entail huge advantages.
With a line of 1,050 kV it is possible to supply a power of 5,600 MW with a
corridor of 70 m rather than 280 m, necessary if a 380 V line was used (Fig. 3.7).
This extraordinary result can be obtained thanks to the higher power density that
can be reached through a voltage of 1,050 V (80 MW/m instead of 20 MW/m).
The characteristics of the distribution network vary according to the electric
standards in force in different Countries: in particular, the distribution system and
the voltage and frequency of electricity supplied to users vary, besides the type of
electrical outlet for civil/household use.
The distribution system can be:
• M: single-phase
• S: three-phase star with neutral
Fig. 3.7 Transmissible

power and size of
transmission lines
Table 3.8 Distribution characteristics for some countries

Country Distribution Household voltage (V) Frequency (Hz)
Italy S 230/400 230 50
United Kingdom S 240/415 240 50
Japan (East)22 D 100/200 100 50
Japan (West)23 D 100/200 100 60
China S 220/380 220 50
United States S 120/208 120 60
D 120/240
T 460
• D: delta with a fourth wire in the middle of a winding

• T: three-phase three-wire with eventual two-phase distribution.
Table 3.8 shows the distribution characteristics for some Countries.
Figure 3.8 shows the world map with electricity voltage and frequency in the
distribution plants for household use.
Therefore, given the same electric power transported, losses are inversely
proportional to squared voltage.
For these reasons, as already said, the transportation, until possible, takes place
at very high voltage, 220 and 380 kV or more; in case of distribution in urban
centres, for safety reasons the transportation voltage is lower (20 kV), whereas the
supply, exception made for large users, takes place at the utilisation voltage. In any
case, there is the attempt of minimising the distances covered with low voltage.
The percentage power lost (Pd%) during transportation is proportional to the
power transported and to the distance (D) of transportation:
22
Tokyo, Kawasaki, Sapporo, Yokohoma and Sendai.
23
Osaka, Kyōto, Nagoya, Hiroshima.
Fig. 3.8 Electricity voltage and frequency map in distribution plants for domestic use (sources
Standard elettrici nel mondo, http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_elettrici_nel_mondo)
Fig. 3.9 Power loss on the

HV electricity transmission
grid along 1,000 km
according to the power
transported
Q q
Pd% ¼ ¼ PE D ð3:36Þ
PE V 2 cos2 u
In case of copper cables, resistivity is q = 1.72 9 10-8 X/m
Considering an average power factor of 0.75, the power losses in the network
along 1,000 km are shown in Fig. 3.9.
Given all the same parameters (including the power transported) the ratio
between power losses amounts to the ratio of squared voltages; this explains the
different voltage transformations although they obviously entail power losses due
to the efficiency of transformers (Fig. 3.6). For instance, it is possible to consider
that, while transporting an electric power of 10 GW along a distance of 500 km,
the losses on the line at 380 kV (HV) amount to 0.1% of the power transported,
whereas at 20,000 V(MV) these losses amount to 38.2% of the power
transported.
3.5.4.2 Energy Storage Through the Electricity Vector
Electric power cannot be economically stored as it is, having considered its

intrinsically dynamic characteristic, also linked to an instability—difference in
voltage—primarily responsible for the existence itself of the electronic flow.
There are, however, different methods of indirect storage, namely through
transformation processes that allow to shift from electric power to a form of energy
suitable for storage that, when requested, restore electric power through the
opposite process as, for instance, accumulators and pumping plants.
Storage Through Electrochemical Accumulators
An extensively used technology for the indirect storage of electric power is rep-
resented by electric accumulators: these devices transform electric power into
chemical energy through an electrochemical reaction, and are also defined as type
II or rechargeable batteries to distinguish them from type I batteries (that are non-
rechargeable). In the latter, in fact, the discharge—and therefore during energy
release—irreversible phenomena take place which lead to a structural change of
chemically active materials or, in any case, to chemical transformations that do not
allow the system to return to the initial configuration any longer. In some cases,
then, although it is possible to trigger the recharge process, the energy to be
employed is such that the process would no longer be convenient (high
overvoltage).
In type II batteries, on the contrary, this energy can be newly transformed into
electric power through the opposite process; the efficiency of this storage process24
on average amounts to 85%.
The operating principle is rather complex. From the structural viewpoint, the
‘‘classical’’ accumulator can be described as follows: two electrodes are plunged in
an electrolytic fluid and act as poles, one positive and one negative, which can be
connected to the circuit to be powered or to a circuit they are powered from
(Fig. 3.10).
When the accumulator acts as a generator and provides direct current, it goes
out of the positive pole and goes back to the negative pole.25
It is generally said that accumulators are electrochemical generators of electric
power because when they release current, during the discharge phase, the chemical
energy available is transformed into electric power through electrochemical
reactions. Obviously, the opposite happens in the charging phase; the electric
24
Namely the ratio between the electric power available from the accumulator for use and the
electric power spent to charge the accumulator.
25
It is widely known, however, that positive charges are so called by convention; as a matter of
fact, it is negative charges that enter, electrons, and therefore the terms should be used the other
way around!
Fig. 3.10 Double operation

of the accumulator: charge
and discharge phases
power received from the grid is stored through the opposite electrochemical
reactions, under the form of chemical energy.
Therefore an accumulator is a voltaic cell whose structure is similar to that of a
battery and, as all the other electrochemical generators, it is able to supply part of
the chemical energy of its active matter in the form of direct current circulating in
the user circuit. The recharge of the accumulator is obtained through its connection
to a suitable generator of direct current.
As already said, an accumulator, in its simplest form, mainly includes two
electrodes, one positive and one negative, and an electrolyte. Besides the two
electrodes—containing the active matter—accumulators include other compo-
nents: ‘‘current collectors’’, carrying electric power from and to electrodes, and
separators (soaked with electrolyte), which prevent the two electrodes, the positive
and negative one, from coming into contact inside of the voltaic cell, causing a
short circuit.
An accumulator may consist of a single element, although usually it is formed
by several elements connected in series and, in this second case, it is called
secondary battery (commonly speaking, the word ‘‘secondary’’ is generally
omitted). The voltage between the battery clips is therefore determined, besides by
the electrochemical system used, also by the number of cells connected in series;
for instance, a common 12 V lead battery for automobiles is formed by six lead
cells, connected in series, each one of 2 V. More generally, the appliances to be
powered operate at different voltages and demand different power levels; the sizing
of an accumulator in terms of voltage and power supplied, is determined by
selecting both the electrochemical system to be adopted and the number of cells. In
principle, the capacity of an accumulator to supply electric power should not be
influenced by the number of charge and discharge cycles made. In practice, on the
contrary, in each charge and discharge cycle there are changes in the structure and
in the volume of electrodes that gradually reduce the performance of the accu-
mulator. For this reason, while designing each accumulator, it is necessary to take
this effect into consideration, and to offset it as much as possible.
In order to evaluate the performance of an accumulator, various parameters
must be considered: nominal voltage, capacity, energy, power, lifetime and
performance. Other parameters to be considered include: working voltage and final

discharge voltage.
Nominal voltage can be referred to each cell of the accumulator or to the entire
battery, made up of several cells connected in series.
The capacity is the quantity of electric charge that the accumulator can circulate
in the electric circuit during its discharge (in conditions that shall always be
specified). It depends on the mass of active matters and is generally expressed in
ampere-hour (Ah) representing the value of theoretical current intensity that the
accumulator might supply in the discharge if it lasted 1 h (a 100 Ah accumulator,
for instance, can supply 1 A for 100 h or 100 A for 1 h).
The specific capacity indicates the capacity of the accumulator per mass unit
(for instance Ah/kg) or per volume unit (for instance Ah/dm3).
The energy, that the accumulator is able to supply, is given by the capacity
multiplied by the average discharge voltage and is generally expressed in watt–
hour (Wh).
The specific energy indicates the energy that can be supplied by the accumu-
lator per mass unit (Wh/kg)
Energy density indicates the energy that can be supplied by the accumulator per
volume unit (Wh/dm3).
The power that can be supplied by the accumulator is given by the average
discharge voltage multiplied by the current and is expressed in Watt (W).
The specific power is expressed in Watt/kilogram (W/kg)
Power density is expressed in Watt/cubic decimetres (W/dm3).
As for efficiency, the following is considered:
• Amperometric efficiency (ratio between the number of ampere-hour through the
accumulator during the discharge and during the previous charge).
• Energy efficiency (ratio between the energy supplied during the discharge and
the one absorbed during the previous charge).
The lifetime mainly depends on the conditions of work of the accumulator, and
therefore can be indicated only for given charge and discharge steady states that
must be specified. In particular, when the accumulator is subject to consecutive
charge and discharge cycles, the cycle lifetime is considered, which indicates the
aptitude of an accumulator to resist to consecutive charge and discharge cycles; in
this case, the lifetime is generally indicated with the number of charge and dis-
charge cycles that originate a lowering in the capacity at a pre-determined per-
centage (generally 80%) of the original value.
The working voltage is the average voltage present between the two plugs,
positive and negative, when the accumulator supplies current.
The end voltage of the discharge is the working voltage at which, for either
technical and/or economic reasons, it is worth stopping the discharge.
Accumulators are classified according to the electrochemical system used and it
is therefore possible to identify different types of accumulators. The most diffused
industrialised systems today include:
• Lead batteries
• Alkaline batteries (cadmium–nickel or nickel–metal hydride)
• Lithium batteries
As regards applications, accumulators can be divided into fixed systems, trac-
tion, starting and portable accumulators.
Accumulators for Fixed Systems (Stationary Accumulators): are the accumu-
lators (lead or nickel–cadmium) for fixed or even floating systems, that are
installed for emergency power supply (lighting or other services) at electric power
stations, telecommunications stations, hospitals, etc.;
Traction Accumulators are destined to supply energy for the traction of electric-
driven vehicles (city centres factories, golf courses, railway stations and airports,
etc.) or for the propulsion of boats. Often, in these accumulators, the active matter
is contained in electrolyte-permeable pipes, grouped in a chassis. Their main
requirements include:
• Long discharge duration.
• Good resistance to mechanical stress.
Plate data shall include: nominal voltage and discharge capacity in 5 h.
Starting Accumulators (APU-Auxiliary Power Units); are used in vehicles for a
set of functions: starting and sparking of internal combustion engines, lighting and
auxiliary services.
Portable Accumulators; are characterised by a high compactness and a good
resistance to crashes and vibrations. Another fundamental requirement is tightness,
to prevent electrolyte leakage and the corrosion of the components of the equip-
ment in which the accumulator is included.
Lead–Acid Accumulators
Lead–acid batteries were the first secondary batteries that were commercialised,
and their production gradually increased as the demand for portable energy grew,
as well as its possible destination to different applications: from the sparking of
boats and aircrafts, to the power supply of the electrical system and the injection
system of these vehicles; from energy storage in electric power plants to unin-
terruptible power supply for emergency energy in general; from the use in com-
munications devices to the power supply to the memory circuits of computers.
Lead–acid accumulators, both for the simplicity of reactions, and for the eas-
iness of realisation, have been developed in different types and for several desti-
nations of use.
Their main characteristics include:
• Advantages
– Cheapness and easiness of production
– Various sizes, ranging from small one (1 Ah) to large size ([100 Ah)
– Good performance for high discharge velocity (starting)
– Good performance both at high and low temperature

– Good electric efficiency (*60%)
– High cell potential: 2.2 V (it is the highest among the various batteries using
aqueous electrolyte)
– Easy indication of the state of charge
– Good capacity retention for applications with intermittent charge.
• Disadvantages
– Moderate number of cycles
– Limited energy density (30–40 Wh/kg)
– Low charge retention (sulphation)
– The storage of batteries in discharged conditions may lead to irreversible
electrode bias
– Evolution of hydrogen and oxygen (explosive mixture).
The reactions in a Lead–acid accumulator are the following:
discharge
Negative electrode Pb þ HSO
4 PbSO4 þ Hþ þ 2e
charge
discharge
Positive electrode PbO2 þ HSO þ
4 þ 3H þ 2e

PbSO4 þ 2H2 O
charge
discharge
Global reactions Pb þ PbO2 þ 2H2 SO4 2PbSO4 þ 2H2 O
charge
As it can be seen, at the basis of electrode processes, both on the negative and
on the positive side, a mechanism is in place relating to the formation and dis-
appearance of the lead sulphate in which the sulphuric acid present in the elec-
trolytic solution is involved, and is consumed during the discharge through water
production.
The excessive formation of PbSO4 (sulphation) can produce rather large crusts
that are removed from electrodes, leading to the loss of active material in the next
charge.
The electrolyte (H2SO4) can be considered as a full active material as Pb and
PbO2 to such an extent that in some applications it can act as a limiting agent.
When the cell is close to be completely charged, PbSO4 is totally transformed
into Pb and PbO2 and the cell potential reaches high values (2.39 V), and water
electrolysis processes begin, that is to say:
Negative electrode 2Hþ þ 2e ! H2

Positive electrode H2 O ! 1=2 O2 þ 2Hþ þ 2e
Global reaction H2 O ! 1=2 O2 þ H2
In sealed batteries, this reaction is controlled so that the hydrogen and oxygen
that are formed react as follows:
Pb þ HSO þ
4 þ H þ 1=2 O2 ! PbSO4 þ H2 O
PbO2 þ HSO4 þ Hþ þ H2 ! PbSO4 þ 2 H2 O

As already said, this reaction only takes place during the charging phase and
only if the cell is sealed. As a matter of fact, these types of cells have a safety valve
that opens when the internal pressure reaches 4 bar.
The nominal potential of the cell is 2 V in open-circuit, although this depends
on the concentration of the electrolytic solution (for instance V = 2.125 V for a
cell whose solution has a specific gravity of 1.28 g/ml and V = 2.05 V when the
specific gravity is 1.21 g/ml). At the end of the discharge, if carried out at low-
current, it amounts to 1.75 V although it can reach a value of 1.0 V per cell in case
the discharge takes place at a high velocity and low temperature.
The cell potential depends on the concentration of the solution, and the choice
of the specific gravity is made according to the applications that the batteries are
destined to. In principle we can say that the concentration of the solution must be
such as to have a very good ion conductivity and to be neither too aggressive vis-à-
vis separators, nor corrosive for some components of the cell, as the metallic grids
supporting electrode materials.
The Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) for a lead–acid battery is a function of
temperature and of the concentration of the electrode solution, as expressed in the
Nernst equation:
RT aH2 SO4
E ¼ 2:047 þ ln ð3:37Þ
F aH2 O
where E is the open circuit voltage (V) of the cell, R is the gas constant (8,314 J/K
mole), T is temperature (K), F is the Faraday constant (96.490 C) and ai is the
activity (concentration) of the mixture (mole/litre).
Since the electrolyte concentration varies during the discharge, the relative
activity of H2SO4 in Nernst equation changes, and consequently the OCV of the
battery changes. Since the change in the concentration of the solution leads to a
proportional variation of its specific gravity, it might be possible to trace back the
OCV value when the density of the electrolyte is known. However, this is not
generally true for the different types of batteries.
The OCV is also more or less markedly influenced by temperature, and it can
even shift from a direct to an inverse proportionality according to the concentra-
tion of the electrolyte. For instance, the OCV temperature coefficient dE/dT is
positive for concentrations of the solution exceeding 0.5 M, whereas below 0.5 M,
the temperature coefficient is negative.
Normally, lead–acid batteries operate with concentrations exceeding 2.0 M
(corresponding to a density of 1,120 g/ml) and with a temperature coefficient of
nearly +0.25 mV/C.
The self-discharge rate (loss of capacity, or state of charge, when an external
charge is not applied) of the lead–acid cell is rather quick, but it can be
significantly reduced through manufacturing devices. The self-discharge rate

depends on different factors. Pb and PbO2 are thermodynamically unstable in the
sulphuric acid solution and, in an open circuit (accumulator not connected to the
charge as for instance accumulators stored in a warehouse), they react with the
electrolyte chemically and not electro-dynamically as it happens in the operation
with the charge. Oxygen is developed at the positive electrode, whereas
hydrogen is developed at the negative electrode, with a velocity that depends on
the overvoltage relating to the formation of the two gases as well as on con-
centration (the quantity of gas that develops increases as concentration
increases):
Positive pole PbO2 þ H2 SO4 ! PbSO4 þ H2 O þ 1=2 O2

Negative pole Pb þ H2 SO4 ! PbSO4 þ H2
In the first of the two reactions, the formation of PbSO4 through self-discharge
is slow, normally below 0.5% per day at 25C. As concerns the self-discharge
taking place on the negative electrode (the second reaction), it is generally quicker,
especially when the cell is contaminated by various metallic ions (for instance, the
antimony released by the positive grid due to corrosion). In fact, it can spread
towards the negative pole, where it settles, causing a local oxidation–reduction in
which cation Sb reduces and Pb oxidises, converting into PbSO4. Since H2SO4
reacts with electrodes forming (in both ones) PbSO4, on the one side the quantity
of active electrolytic material decreases (electrodes are ‘‘consumed’’) and on the
other side the concentration of electrolyte and its density decrease. In some bat-
teries, containing grids made with an alloy Pb–Sb, they lose nearly 1% of charge
per day at 25C, and the capacity loss increases when shifting to a factor 2 or 5 as
the battery gets older. Batteries with low Sb content lose less than 0.5% of charge
per day and do not get worse as they get old.
‘‘Sealed’’ batteries (or without maintenance), and charge retention batteries, in
which the self-discharge was minimised, use grids of low antimony or no Sb grids,
as for instance the grids made with a Ca–Pb alloy. In any case, since there are other
positive effects deriving from the use of alloys containing antimony (for instance
mechanical stability), this element was not banned from grids, but a useful com-
promise was found by using low Sb alloys.
Self-discharge also depends on temperature, in particular it increases as T
increases, but below –10C it remains rather constant with temperature. Self-
discharge can be reduced by keeping batteries in a range of temperatures between
5 and 15C.
NiMH–NiCd Batteries
NiMH batteries are an evolution of nickel–cadmium batteries (NiCd) and com-
pared to the latter, they have the advantage of a higher energy density by 30–40%
(Wh/kg or Wh/dm3), and they do not have the disadvantages due to the use of
heavy metals.
For NiCd, semi-reactions are:
Negative pole Cd þ 2OH , CdðOHÞ2 þ 2e

Positive pole 2NiOOH þ 2H2 O þ 2e , 2NiðOHÞ2 þ 2OH
Global reaction Cd þ 2NiOOH þ 2H2 O , CdðOHÞ2 þ 2NiðOHÞ2
For a NiMH accumulator, the charge electrochemical process, at the negative
pole, made up of a metal alloy of nickel and rare earth (for instance M = Nickel/
Lanthanum alloy—LaNi5), is conversely represented by the following reaction:
Negative pole MH þ OH , M þ H2 O þ e

Positive pole NiOOH þ H2 O þ e , NiðOHÞ2 þ OH
Global reaction MH þ NiOOH , M þ NiðOHÞ2
In particular, the metal alloys used are able to store and subsequently release a
quantity of hydrogen one thousand times higher than their volume. The electrolyte
used is a diluted solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) to which other chemical
compounds—although in lower quantities—are added to improve the battery
performance.
The separator between anode and cathode, which prevents any electric contact
between electrodes, although allowing a sufficient ion exchange, is made of a thin
nylon film. The construction of an NiMH (nickel–metal hydride) element is very
similar to NiCd elements (more precisely: elements with an alkaline electrolyte
nickel–cadmium system). The main difference lays in the structure of the negative
electrode. The metallic cadmium (in charge conditions) is replaced by a metallic
alloy able to absorb big quantities of hydrogen, without increasing pressure. While
the chemical processes at the positive electrode are the same for both types of
batteries, with the negative electrode things change.
In a NiMH battery, hydrogen atoms are stored in a metallic grid where, during
the charge, metal hydride is produced. Atoms move again outside of the grid
during the discharge, leaving the basic metallic alloy alone. In NiCd elements,
cadmium is conversely transformed into cadmium hydroxide during the discharge.
In both types of batteries, an oversized negative electrode (compared to the
positive electrode) prevents the damages to the element in case of total discharge
or overcharge.
Figures 3.11 and 3.12 show how the performance of batteries changes as
temperature and current change. In particular, as current intensity—expressed as
C-rate26—increases, the value of the discharge potential sharply decreases, and
even more markedly when temperature decreases. As regards capacity, tempera-
ture increase is generally positive, but this value shall not exceed the threshold
beyond which processes as decomposition, evaporation, degradation, etc. that
26
When current has the value of C (Ah), that is to say the value of capacity, the battery is
discharged after 1 h. If the value of current is 5C, the battery is discharged in 1/5 of an hour
(20 min), whereas finally if current amounts to C/10 the battery will be discharged in 10 ore.
Fig. 3.11 Discharge performance in Ni-MH cells at 20C (a) and 45C (b)
Fig. 3.12 Charge and

discharge characteristics of
Ni–Cd cells
influence the electrochemical process itself are triggered. Remarks on the capacity
are more evident in Fig. 3.14 concerning lithium–ion batteries.
Lithium–Ion Batteries
Lithium–ion batteries, put in the market in the 90s, have higher energy density,
number of charge–discharge cycles and discharge performance than the other
solutions described above, but also higher costs. The charge electrochemical
process at the positive pole, made up of graphite, is represented by the following
reaction (Fig. 3.13):
C þ yLiþ þ ye ) CLiy
during which lithium is inserted in the graphite layers, whereas at the negative
pole, made up of oxide mixed with lithium and cobalt, the following electro-
chemical reaction takes place:
Fig. 3.13 Scheme of an

electrochemical process in a
Lithium–Ion accumulator
LiCoO2 ) Li1y CoO2 þ yLiþ þ e

The cell global reaction therefore consists in the migration of lithium–ions
between the two electrodes; there is no metallic lithium in the system. The dis-
charge process obviously takes place the other way around, and the polarities of
electrodes are inverted.
When manufactured, these batteries are completely discharged; it is therefore
necessary to impose from the outside a suitable potential to transfer lithium from
one compartment (Lithium Cobaltite—LiCoO2) to the other (graphite) before
using it. These devices can easily lose their characteristics when both the discharge
potential and the charge potential are not suitably controlled.
This type of batteries can use two different families of electrolytes. The first one
made up of non-aqueous solutions with a high dielectric constant (propylene
carbonate, ethylene carbonate, dimethyl sulphoxide etc.) in which lithium salts are
dissolved (LiPF6, LiBF4, LiClO4 and LiAsF6) and subsequently other organic
compounds are added (tetrahydrofuran, diethyl carbonate etc.) in order to have low
viscosity and increase the ion conductivity of solutions. The second is made up of
lithium conductor polymers, obtained by immobilising lithium salt solutions in
suitable gelled polymeric matrixes.
The lithium–ion accumulator shows different interesting characteristics for
many applications:
• high voltage (3.6 V), amounting to nearly as much as the double of the voltage
present in the clips of alkaline batteries (Fig. 3.14);
• high mass and volume specific energy (particularly important in mobile phones
where the weight of the accumulator represents an important part of the total
weight);
Fig. 3.14 Discharge curve of Lithium–Ion cells
• a long life, in terms of number of charge and discharge cycles, with low capacity
loss from one cycle to the next one;
• low environmental contamination.
Having considered that the capacity of lithium-ion accumulators is lower than
the one obtained through negative electrodes in metallic lithium, researches were
launched on lithium accumulators using solid polymeric electrolytes.
In these accumulators, the anode is made of a metallic lithium film that is
applied on a thin layer of polymeric solid electrolyte, in turn with a metallic
contact with the cathode (formed by transition metallic oxides, as magnesium,
nickel or cobalt). The layer of polymer, with a very low ion conductivity, also acts
as a separator between anode and cathode.
In these batteries, electrodes are made up of a special lithium mixture. The
Li-Ion battery is activated when ions move between electrodes following the
charge–discharge process. Thanks to the special lithium compound, the battery
maintenance is easy.
The Li-Ion battery is characterised by a high performance, which makes it
useful in a wide range of applications. These batteries can be charged over 1,000
times and are free from the so-called ‘‘memory effect’’.
Energy density is very high as well: almost two times as much as higher than
the NiCd battery. Li-Ion batteries support considerably well overcharges.
The almost continuous charge that is necessary, for instance, for the battery of a
cordless telephone shows not problems for a Li-Ion pack, whereas many NiCd
packs do not survive more than a few months.
The loss due to self-discharge of these new batteries is nearly 50% lower than
NiCd and NiMH batteries, and automatically entails a longer storage time. Li-
Ion batteries, however, have a high voltage per cell (3.6 V), therefore they are
not compatible in voltage with dry batteries or NiCd batteries. Their main
application therefore takes place in battery packs, where each Li-Ion cell
replaces three NiCd.
Memory Effect and Lowering of the Discharge Potential

If a battery is repeatedly charged before it is completely exhausted, it ‘‘forgets’’ it
has further energy capacity in addition to the one provided until that moment. In
other words, if starting from a completely charged battery, only 70% of its energy
capacity is used and subsequently a recharge is made, the electrochemical device
becomes unaware of 30% of energy the potential that becomes at that point
unusable.
This phenomenon is generally detected in NiCd batteries only in some aero-
space applications; it is possible to exclude that it takes place in whatever other
land application, exception made for some extremely unusual circumstances.
This ‘‘real’’ memory effect is often confused with a more common and similar
one called discharging potential decrease, which can easily and usually occur in
NiCd and NiMH batteries.
In NiCd batteries, the discharging potential decrease is due to the increase in the
size of cadmium crystals. The material forming electrolytes is made up of small-
sized crystals. Until these crystals remain of a small size, electrochemical cells
work appropriately; when the size increases, a sharp reduction in the superficial
area of electrode materials occurs, with subsequent decrease in voltage and
therefore in the performance of the electrochemical device.
In case crystals increase excessively, it is also possible that their edges penetrate
through the separator and short-circuit the two electrodes. In these conditions, it is
even possible to see a self-discharge of the battery. The effect of the growth in the
size of crystals is more marked if the battery is charged for several days, or if it is
repeatedly discharged in a non-complete way. In order to avoid this effect, it is
necessary to cycle (charge and discharge) completely the battery at least once every
2 or 3 weeks.
The same phenomenon of growth (self-growth) of the size of crystals takes
place although the battery is not used for a long period of time.
In this case, to recover the initial characteristics it is necessary to have a very
low and deep discharge process able to completely remove the energy remained in
the electrochemical cell.
In NiMH batteries, the lowering of the discharging potential originates fol-
lowing an overcharge process that modifies the crystalline structure of the nickel
hydroxide from beta gamma shape; the latter has an electrode potential nearly
50 mV lower than beta. Also in this type of batteries the phenomenon can be
removed through a process of complete charge and discharge of the electro-
chemical device.
The most recent technology seems to have virtually eliminated this problem;
some manufacturers presently state the absence of any type of ‘‘memory’’ effect in
NiMH batteries. Lithium batteries do not have the inconvenient of the lowering of
discharging potential since during the charge and discharge process (intercalation
and deintercalation of lithium ions) there is no change neither in the size of grains
nor in the crystalline structure of electrode materials.
Table 3.9 Characteristics of the different types of accumulators

Characteristics Lead NiCd NiMH Li-Ion
Energy density Medium Medium Very high Very high
Cyclic behaviour Fair Excellent Good Excellent
Self-discharge Low Low Low Very low
Quick charge Fair Excellent Good Fair
High-current charge Good Excellent Good Fair
Reliability Excellent Good Good Fair
Costs Very low Low High High
Compatibility in voltage Fair Excellent Excellent Scarce
Environmental impact High Very high Very low Basso
Discharge voltage stability Fair Excellent Excellent Fair
Comparison Between Possible Solutions For Electrochemical Accumulators
On the basis of the above, it is now possible to make a comparison between the
performance expected for the main types of accumulators (Table 3.9)
The rating of a battery includes:
• Mechanical characteristics
– Size
– Material of the container
– Type of electrodes
– Metal alloy
– Vents
– Gaskets
– Handles
– Cable terminations
– Electrolyte
• Electric features
– Nominal voltage Un (V)
– Capacity: Cn (Ah)
– Nominal current: In [1 A (100 h of current)]
– Charge voltage: Vmax (V a 25C)
– Final charge voltage: Vmin (V a 25C)
– Limit temperature (range of operation in C)
– Recommended temperature (Range of operation in C)
– Self-discharge (in % per month)
– Minimum duration: (number of years—depends on temperature, on the dis-
charge cycles, and their intensity)
– Discharge allowed (in % of Cn)
– Maintenance (number of times per year—i.e.: filling-up)
Table 3.10 Characteristics of the different types of accumulators in numbers

Characteristics in numbers Lead NiCd Ni-MH Li-ion
Discharge potential (V) 2.1 1.2–1.0 1.2–1.0 3.7–3.5
Specific energy (Wh/kg) 30–40 60–85 80–100 90–120
Energy density (Wh/l) 75–100 140–180 240–300 300–380
Cost per cycle ($/cycle) 0.25 0.06 0.1 0.08–0.05
Cycles 500 1,000 450 600–1000
Self-discharge (%/month) 21 15 20 12
Power density (W/l) 210 1,000 800 500
Temperature interval -15, +40 -40, +45 -40, +45 -20, +50
Fig. 3.15 Supercapacitors
Tables 3.10 and 3.12 show how lithium batteries overall have the best per-
formance. As energy accumulators, they have the least self-discharge, nearly 12%
per month although, in absolute terms, this value always remains rather high. As
energy generators, they show the best performance, having a value of working
potential tripled compared to Ni–Cd and NiMH batteries, and nearly doubled
compared to lead accumulators. Their specific energy and energy density are the
highest ones, therefore as energy vector they own by far the best performance. The
number of cycles for lithium batteries is high, thence although they are more
expensive compared to the other batteries, the cost per cycle is low and this is what
matters from the economic viewpoint. From a general perspective it is therefore
possible to understand the market success of this type of batteries.
Storage with Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors (Fig. 3.15) store electric power in two supercapacitors in series

with an—eletrochemical double layer (EDL), without the chemical oxido-reduc-
tion processes that occur in accumulators (rechargeable batteries).
Supercapacitors are therefore ‘‘electrophysical’’ accumulators of electricity.

The simplest supercapacitor is made of two polarisable electrodes,27 a separator
and one electrolyte; the electric field is stored at the interface between electrodes
and the electrolyte.
The capacity C of a capacitor (F) with flat and parallel plates depends on the
surface of plates S (m2), their distance d [m] and on the dielectric constant of the
dielectric e (F/m) according to the following relation:
S
C ¼e ð3:38Þ
d
In case of capacitors with another type of geometry, the capacity of S, d and e
has another form, but the functional dependency is the same. Then, in general, it is
possible to state that to increase the capacity it is possible to act both on the surface
of electrodes—increasing it as much as possible—and on their distance—by
minimising it—and finally on the dielectric—which needs to have a high relative
dielectric constant er.28
This type of energy storage system is interesting for its high power density and
its durability; furthermore, energy storage is easier and more reversible when
compared to conventional batteries. The reverse of the medal of the physical
process resides in the fact that the quantity of charge storable in a supercapacitor is
limited and depends on the electrode/electrolyte interface surface. Supercapacitors
can be of different types, depend on the type of electrode or electrolyte.
Those that are mostly studied and marketed use electrolytes in aqueous or
organic solutions, as well as coal-based electrodes with a high superficial area; in
order to increase the superficial area of electrodes, materials containing carbon
nanotubes are being developed, and other researches target to obtain electrodes
made up of nanostructured carbon films. The presence of vacuums and furrows in
the grains of this film suggests the high porosity and the low density of the
material.
The high porosity of nanostructured carbon films stored in this way allows the
active surface available (1.400 m2/g) to reach the following values:
• specific capacity 75 F/g:
• maximum energy density 76 Wh/kg;
27
An ideally polarisable electrode is an electrode with an infinite polarisation resistance and, at
the same time, the curve in diagram i/V is a horizontal straight line. Conversely, for an electrode
ideally not polarisable, the polarisation resistance is null, and the line in diagram i/V is vertical. In
the former case the potential can be varied without having any current leaking in the circuit; in
the latter case, the potential cannot be shifted from the balance value for the very high current
values (infinite) that would be produced. In practice, polarisation resistance takes finished values
that can range from fractions of X to several MX.
28
The relevant dielectric constant indicates the number of times by which the electric field is
reduced between the plates of the condenser compared to the case of vacuum. For instance, water
is used (er = 80) as dielectric, between the plates there will be an electric field 80 times lower
than in the case of vacuum.
• maximum power density 506 kW/kg.

Compared to electrochemical batteries, double layer capacitors are not subject
to wear: they support over 500,000 charge/discharge cycles with a minimum
lifetime of 10 years, without any change in the capacity due to time.
Particularly important is their capacity to be charged and discharged at very
high current. For this reason, they represent a particularly attractive storage
solution for the so-called ‘‘regenerative braking’’ in hybrid-electric and battery
electric vehicles and for all those situations in which the charge and discharge at
high quantity of energy have to take place very quickly. In case of energy recovery
braking, or regenerative braking, the kinetic energy of vehicles is converted into
electric power, which is quickly stored and released when needed, in order to be
used again during the subsequent acceleration.
In urban traffic in particular, whose driving cycles are characterised by con-
tinuous accelerations and breakings, it is possible to recover in this way up to 25%
of the energy involved.
Similar saving potentials relate to railway local traffic, through which it is
possible to store the energy during braking in order to release it at the subsequent
restart. In considering the several stops and starts of these means of transport, the
energy that can be recovered is easily understandable. Appropriate systems are
already available in the market for these applications.
The most interesting solution among those used in the sector of mobility
concerns the devices made up of solid components, using—instead of the tradi-
tional liquid electrolytes—a polymeric solid electrolyte. In the medium term, this
device is expected to offer improved performance and higher safety and duration
than conventional systems.
Some applications for supercapacitors include:
• backup power supply, household appliances (pocket calculators, cameras, video-
cameras) to protect clocks, programme memories or functions while electrical
appliances are switched off. For instance: change of batteries, power output etc;
• main power, power button of household appliances, charging systems for
household appliances;
• alternative power, for combinations with solar cells, they are charged during the
periods of insulation and used as power pack during the night or in non-sunny
days.
Storage with Hydroelectric Pumping Plants

An indirect system that is very effective for the indirect storage of electric power is
represented by pumping plants.
In this case, several conversions apply; the electric power is converted into
mechanical energy through an electric motor and, in turn, into gravitational
potential energy through a pump that brings water from the after-bay reservoir
located at a certain height to a water basin at a higher height, as shown in
Fig. 3.16 Scheme of a

pumping plant
Fig. 3.16. In the opposite process, the potential gravitational power of water is
converted, within pipelines, into kinetic energy and then into mechanical energy
by a hydraulic turbine; this energy, in turn, generates electric power thanks to an
electric generator.
The overall efficiency29 of the process amounts on average to 75%.
Forms of Thermal and Magnetic Storage
Very encouraging results are recorded in this field. As regards the former, suc-
cessful tests were made with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) in the range of
temperatures between 100 and 150C, whereas as to the latter, the threshold of
superconductivity operation was increased, hence allowing to hope in a future
electric power storage in an electromagnetic field.
Forms of Kinetic Storage
Energy storage in this form is, on the contrary, a relatively ancient technology,
which is also widely used in combustion engines. In order to level out the diagram
of consumption, the installation of flywheels that can be mechanically or induc-
tively charged and discharged, is being increasingly considered when designing
energy systems.
29
Namely the ratio between the electric power produced by the potential gravitational energy of
a given quantity of water and the electric power spent for its storage.
The technical lifecycle expected is about 20–30 years, with a low level of
maintenance, and the duration and density of electricity storage do not substan-
tially depend on charge and discharge trends. This makes the flywheel particularly
interesting for those applications in which there is a slow charge and rapid dis-
charge cycle, or viceversa.
In consideration of these positive elements, several problems emerged, linked
to the dynamic balancing of rotating blades, to the lubrication of supporting
bearing and to the minimisation of power losses. A possible solution is represented
by magnetic-rotor suspensions, although their management is still very complex.
Different materials were tested, ranging from kevlar to nylon and to steel, but the
present trend goes towards composite materials due to their higher potential energy
density.
3.5.5 Hydrogen as Energy Vector
Hydrogen can be transported and stored in a gaseous, liquid or solid state, and in
particular it can be absorbed on special materials. Each form shows advantages
and disadvantages, and all of them, although mostly already used, demand sig-
nificant efforts in terms of research and development in order to be entirely reliable
and competitive from the economic and commercial viewpoint.
In case of transportation of gaseous hydrogen, it is possible to develop a system
similar to methane pipelines; some problems relating to the materials used have to
be solved, as well as the need for a higher compression energy (the lower heating
value in volume of hydrogen compared to methane30 demands a higher range for
the same quantity of energy, given the same operating pressure). The transporta-
tion in the liquid form shows more complex problems and, perspectively, it seems
to be convenient only for large quantities and high mileage.
Hydrogen distribution to users, in case of a more extensive use (i.e., in the
transportation sector), entails the problem of a suitable distribution network
infrastructure as well as the need for huge investments necessary for its
implementation. Storage technologies depend on the applications considered
and are decisive especially for the use onboard of vehicles, where a high
energy density is necessary. The present solutions (cylinders, hydrides, liquid
hydrogen) might not be able to ensure a large-scale distribution in the medium-
long term. Their further development, or completely new solutions, are there-
fore necessary, and are the object of several research and development pro-
grams all over the world.
30
Hydrogen: 10,692 kJ/Nm3; Methane: 34,535 kJ/Nm3.
Fig. 3.17 Standard cylinder

of compressed hydrogen at
200 bar (50 l)
3.5.5.1 Energy Storage with Hydrogen
The main hydrogen storage systems include:

• compressed gaseous hydrogen;
• liquid hydrogen;
• metal hydrides;
• carbon nanostructures;
• crystal microspheres;
• ammonia.
Storage of Compressed Hydrogen
New materials allowed the manufacturing of storage tanks able to keep hydrogen
at extremely high pressures, therefore decreasing weight and size (Fig. 3.17).
These aspects are fundamental for the applications in the sector of transports,
since they can be a cause of severe limitations in terms of autonomy and loading
capacity. The introduction of tanks with metallic or thermoplastic liners, rein-
forced with carbon, glass and aramid fibres, reduced the weight by 3–4 times
compared to common tanks, and allowed therefore to partly exceed the restrictions
linked to the use of traditional cylinders. These tanks are able to operate at
pressures up to 700 bar, therefore allowing to obtain energy storage densities
suitable to the use onboard of vehicles.
The compression work is given by:

1 p1 k1
L¼ b k 1 ¼ DH ¼ cp ðT2 T1 Þ ð3:39Þ
k 1 q1
where k is the ratio between the specific heat at constant pressure (cp) and the
specific heat at constant volume (cv) and b is the compression ratio
p2
b¼ ð3:40Þ
p1
As already seen for other applications, in case of high compression ratios as
with hydrogen compression for storage purposes, compression takes place in
several interrefrigerated stages.31 Indicating with n the number of stages, the
compression ratio of each single stage32 bs is:
pffi
bs ¼ ½nb ð3:41Þ
By proceeding similarly to natural gas for the calculation of cp, it is possible to
calculate k:
cp cp
k¼ ¼ ð3:42Þ
cv cp R
In considering isentropic compression, the following is obtained:
k1=k
T2 p2
¼ ¼ bk1=k
s ) T2 ¼ T1 bk1=k
s ð3:43Þ
T1 p1
At this point, the calculation of the enthalpy reaction is made (of the single
stage) in the ideal case, considering isentropic compression (reversible adiabatic
transformation):
DHs;i ¼ cp ðT2 T1 Þ ð3:44Þ
It is possible to take irreversibility into account by considering a thermody-
namic compression efficiency gc defined as follows:
DHs;i DHs;i
gc ¼ ) DHs ¼ ð3:45Þ
DH gc
By assuming, as it is allowed in first approximation calculations, that the input
temperature (and therefore also the output temperature) is the same for all the
stages, it clearly follows that also the enthalpy reaction is the same for all stages.
Therefore, the total enthalpy reaction is
31
Between the exit from one stage and the access to the next one, the fluid is cooled at constant
temperature. In this way, the total compression work decreases.
32
Considering the compression ratio as equal for the different stages.
Table 3.11 Hydrogen compression work

Storage pressure (bar) Work for different production pressures in % of the energy content stored
5 (%) 10 (%) 20 (%)
200 5.46 4.31 3.22
350 6.43 5.24 4.10
700 7.68 6.43 5.24
DH ¼ DHs ns ð3:46Þ
Considering an efficiency of electric motors gME activating compressors, it is
possible to calculate the work L for hydrogen compression:
DH
L¼ ð3:47Þ
gME
It is readily evident how the compression work depends, besides on the storage
pressure and the efficiency of the conversion process, also on the pressure at which
hydrogen is produced. For instance, many electrolysers available in the market
produce hydrogen at a pressure ranging between 5 and 20 bar; reformers produce
hydrogen at pressures that range between 8 and 30 bar according to their size.
Table 3.11 shows the hydrogen compression work for different values of the
storage pressure and of the pressure at which hydrogen is produced, considering a
compression in three stages, a compression thermodynamic efficiency of 87% and
an efficiency of electric motors of 93%.
Other relevant characteristics for storage systems include the following:
• storage capacity, that is the ratio (expressed as a percentage) between the mass
of the stored vector and the total mass of the storage system (including the
vector);
• energy density in volume, that is the energy stored per volume unit of the storage
system;
• energy density in mass, that is the energy stored per mass unit of the storage
system (including the vector).
As an example, let’s consider the cylinder in Fig. 3.17 that is able to contain
50 l of hydrogen at the pressure of 200 bar. Its unladen weight amounts to 44 kg, it
has an external diameter of 229.5 mm and a length of 1,435 mm.33 Hydrogen
density at 200 bar at a room temperature (25C) is 14.0534 kg/m3, therefore the
33
Blugas: http://www.blugas.com/prodotti-bombole-acciaio.php
34
Calculated through the Van der Waals equation. At high pressures, since the effects of
interactions between the gas particles and the volume of particles themselves are not negligible
(being both considered as null in the ideal gas law) the ideal gas law is not applicable, since it
originates significant errors (hydrogen density at 200 bar and 25C calculated with the ideal gas
law is 16.16 kg/m3).
Table 3.12 Storage capacity Hydrogen cylinder compressed at 200 bar

of a hydrogen cylinder
compressed at 200 bar Storage capacity (% in weight) 1.5 %
cylinder contains 0.702 kg of hydrogen, corresponding to an energy content of

84,240 kJ. The characteristics of said cylinder are summed up in Table 3.12.
Storage of Liquid Hydrogen
By condensing gaseous hydrogen in a liquid form, through cryogenic techniques

and the reaching of low and very low temperatures (in the case of hydrogen
-253C), it is possible to obtain storage characteristics far better than in the case
of compressed hydrogen. At the liquid state hydrogen has a density amounting to
0.071 kg/l (namely 71 kg/m3, against 14.66 and 23.60 kg/m3 of compressed
hydrogen at 200 and 350 bar, respectively) and therefore a lower heating value of
8,515 kJ/l. Comparing it to other liquid fuels, is to be considered that the lower
heating value of petrol amounts to nearly 31,700 kJ/l.
Liquefaction processes use a combination of compressors, heat exchangers,
expansion motors and butterfly valves to obtain the cooling desired. The easiest
liquefaction process is the Linde process or the Joule–Thompson expansion pro-
cess. Through this process, the gas is compressed at room temperature and then
cooled in a heat exchanger before passing through a valve in which it undergoes
the Joule–Thompson expansion process, producing a liquid. Once the liquid is
removed, the gas goes back to the compressor passing through the exchanger, as
indicated in Fig. 3.18.
These processes are based on temperature variation in the ‘‘free’’ expansion
(meaning without exchange of heat and work, thence DH = 0) of real gases35: this
variation is expressed through the Joule–Thompsoncoefficient, a function of
pressure and temperature, defined as the change of temperature compared to the
change of pressure in a Joule–Thompson process:

oT ð2 a=R T Þ b
lT;p ¼ ¼ ð3:48Þ
op H cp
where a and b are the Van der Waals constants, R the universal gas constant and cp
the molar specific heat at constant pressure. The temperature variation corre-
sponding to a given pressure variation is
DT ¼ l Dp ð3:49Þ
35
In ideal gases, in a free expansion, temperature remains constant.
Fig. 3.18 The Linde process
Since in the expansion Dp \ 0, it is evident that in the expansion itself the gas
cools if l [ 0 that is to say if the cycle operates at temperatures lower than the so-
called inversion temperature36 of the cooled gas.
Different gases have an inversion temperature higher than room temperature
(nitrogen, oxygen); others, among which hydrogen, have much lower inversion
temperatures.
The inversion temperature is obtained, by definition, by considering l = 0.
From Eq. (3.48) it follows:
ð2 a=R T Þ b 2a 2a
lT;p ¼ ¼0, b¼0)T ¼ ð3:50Þ
cp R Ti Rb
It is evident how hydrogen, having an inversion temperature much lower than
room temperature, cannot be liquefied by using the Linde process, or better, the
Linde process can be used to liquefy hydrogen only after it was cooled at
36
For all gases a temperature exists, called reversal temperature, below which the Joule–
Thomson coefficient is positive, whereas in case of higher temperatures it is negative.
Fig. 3.19 Outline of the

hydrogen liquefaction cycle
temperatures lower than the inversion temperature. The hydrogen liquefaction

process includes, then, two different phases:
• cooling in a heat exchanger up to a temperature lower than the inversion
temperature;
• liquefaction through the Linde process.
This process is schematically shown in Fig. 3.19. Hydrogen is cooled with
liquid nitrogen37 (which can be obtained through the Linde process) at a tem-
perature of nearly 78 K before passing through the expansion valve. Nitrogen is
subsequently retrieved and recycled in the continuous refrigeration cycle.
The difference of free energy DG (therefore, the minimum theoretical liquefac-
tion work), between gaseous hydrogen at room temperature (300 K) and liquid
hydrogen at 20 K amounts to 11,640 kJ/kg (9.7% of hydrogen energy content) [2].
The real energy consumption largely varies according to the size of the liquefaction
plant: it ranges from nearly 50 MJ/kg (over 40% of the liquefied hydrogen energy
content, with an efficiency38 of the system amounting to about 23%) for medium-
size plants (capacity of 200 kg/h of liquid hydrogen) to nearly 30 MJ/kg (amounting
to about 25% of the liquefied hydrogen energy content, with an efficiency close to
39%) for large-size plants (capacity of 12,000 kg/h of liquid hydrogen) [3].
In order to keep these temperatures, double-walled tanks were fine-tuned,
with a cavity in which vacuum is created (‘‘dewar’’ tanks). This technology is
37
Other gases as helium can be used as well.
38
Considered as the ratio between the minimum liquefaction work of hydrogen (DG between
gaseous hydrogen at 300 K and liquid hydrogen at 20 K) and the energy actually spent.
Fig. 3.20 Liquid hydrogen tank by BMW 750hL—Linde
Table 3.13 Storage capacity Liquid hydrogen tank

of a liquid hydrogen tank
Storage capacity (% in weight) 6.6 %
well-established in Germany, where BMW has been using it for over 15 years in
hydrogen cars with internal combustion engines. The tank shown in (Fig. 3.20) can
contain nearly 8 kg of liquid hydrogen (957.600 kJ) and its unladen weight is
about 100 kg. Table 3.13 shows the storage capacity of this tank.
The tank is made up of a double-walled structure made of two stainless steel
plates with a 2 mm thickness, and one vacuum super-insulating layer (thermal
conductivity of 10-4 W/m K) of 30 mm thickness, which separates the external
tank from the internal one. The insulation system is used to keep liquid hydrogen
at a pressure of 3–5 bar and at a constant temperature of nearly –250C in the long
term. The period expected for the complete emptying of a half-full hydrogen tank
is nearly nine days. But also in this phase, the car is still able to cover about 20 km
(12 miles) with the remaining hydrogen stored in the tank. The accumulation in the
liquid form is perhaps the technology that apparently better meets the automotive
needs although showing some limits. Among the cons of liquid hydrogen there is
the higher complexity of the system, not only onboard the vehicle, but also in
terms of distribution and refuelling, and the higher related costs. Also the energy
cost of liquefaction is considerable, since it amounts to about 30% of the fuel
energy content, against a value between 4 and 7% for compressed hydrogen.
For hydrogen conservation at the liquid state, the phenomena linked to elec-
tronic spins39 of hydrogen atoms must be considered. Hydrogen molecules are
made up of two electrons and two protons; the combination between the two
electronic spins leads to the formation of a molecular bond only in case of anti-
parallel spins. This entails the existence of two different types of hydrogen mol-
ecules, according to their total nuclear spin:
• I = 0 with anti-parallel nuclear spin;
• I = 1 with parallel nuclear spin.
When I = 0 hydrogen is indicated with ‘‘para’’, whereas when I = 1 it is
indicated with ‘‘ortho’’.
At room temperature (300 K), 25% of hydrogen is in the para form, whereas
75% in the ortho form. By cooling hydrogen, the concentration of ortho-hydrogen
varies, shifting from 75% (at room temperature) to 50% at 77 K, up to 0.2% at the
liquefaction temperature (21 K). The conversion reaction from ortho to para is
exothermic and the conversion heat depends on temperature: at 300 K the con-
version heat amounts to 270 kJ/kg and increases at 519 kJ/kg at 77 K. In case of
lower temperatures, the conversion enthalpy remains rather constant and
amounting to 523 kJ/kg. This value is higher than the latent heat of hydrogen
vaporization (451.9 kJ/kg) at 21 K; therefore, in storing non-converted liquid
hydrogen from ortho to para, the conversion enthalpy causes hydrogen evapora-
tion. It is therefore necessary to preventively convert ortho hydrogen into para40
[2]: this conversion can be catalysed by active surfaces (activated charcoal) and by
paramagnetic species (chromium oxide and gadolinium); in this way, nuclear spins
can be converted without causing the breaking of the H–H bond.
Hydrogen Storage in Metal Hydrides
Different pure or bonded metals can be combined with hydrogen, producing metal
hydrides. These compounds are able to trap hydrogen at relatively low tempera-
tures. Hydrogen penetrates the crystal lattice of the metal, and occupies the
interstitial spaces.
Hydrogen can be stored in the form of hydride, at low pressures, with a higher
density compared to simple compression, similar (according to literature data,
even higher) to liquid hydrogen. The use of this storage system, safe and efficient,
39
Electrons own an intrinsic angular phase, associated to a magnetic phase. This property is
defined as electronicspin and can have two different stages, characterised by a magnetic quantum
number of spin, ms, which can have two values only: +1/2 or -1/2.
40
Theoretically speaking, the conversion process from ortho to para is spontaneous, but very
slow: the time to halve the conversion is over one year at 77 K. This means that, considering the
cooling times, this conversion de facto does not take place. Furthermore, from the energy
viewpoint, it is convenient to carry out the conversion at high temperatures since the conversion
enthalpy increases as temperature decreases.
Fig. 3.21 Hydrogen storage

in metal hydrides
Fig. 3.22 Palladium

isotherm at different
temperatures
is linked to the identification of a metal with sufficient absorption capacity oper-

ating at appropriate temperature intervals.
Potentially, the storage volume is reduced by 3–4 times compared to com-
pression, hence allowing the use of these systems in cars, whereas specific energy
also depends on the specific gravity of the base metal. The percentages in weight
of hydrogen, out of the total weight, range between 1 and 12.7% (LiH). By way of
comparison, in case of normal cylinders, this percentage is slightly higher than l%,
and therefore these storage systems are potentially very promising.
A weak point of this technology is represented by the total weight of these
storage systems. In the sector of transports, giving the same weight, the vehicle has
an autonomy three times lower than the one obtainable with liquid or compressed
hydrogen with advanced tanks. There are, on the contrary, undoubted advantages
in terms of convenience, compactness, storage stability and intrinsic safety.
The process of hydrogen storage in hydrides is schematically shown in Fig. 3.21:
molecular hydrogen dissociates on the surface of the metal and therefore migrates
(in an atomic form) to interatomic spaces. It is necessary to supply a certain quantity
of energy to dissociate the molecule, but the reaction is globally exothermic.
Hydrogen absorption and release take place by varying temperature and/or
pressure. Figure 3.22 shows the absorption of hydrogen in palladium hydride
according to the pressure at different temperatures. The ideal situation occurs when
hydrogen absorption and release take place at room temperature, driven ‘‘only’’ by
pressure.
Table 3.14 Characteristics of simple metal hydrides

Metal Hydride Capacity T (8C) PROS CONS
(% weight) (@1 bar H2)
Palladium PdH0,77 0.72 147 Low temperatures and High cost
working pressure
Titanium TiH1.97 3.98 643 Low cost High working
pressure
Vanadium VH2 3.81 12 Low temperatures and High cost
working pressure
Table 3.15 Characteristics of some binary hydrides of light metals

Hydride Capacity T(8C) PROS CONS
(% weight) (@1 bar H2)
LiH 12.7 894.000 High capacity High working temperature
NaH 4.2 421.000 High working temperature
MgH2 7.6 287.000 Low cost Absorption and release kinetics
CaH2 4.8 1.074 High working temperature
The thermodynamic aspects of the formation of hydride from gaseous hydrogen

are described by the LHV (Pressure-composition isotherms) curves of the type
shown in Fig. 3.22. They are obtained as follows. At a given temperature and in
the presence of low pressure hydrogen, the host metal initially dissolves hydrogen
in solid solution (phase alpha), after the dissociation of molecule H2 into atomic
hydrogen at the surface of the material. As pressure increases, the concentration of
hydrogen in the metal undergoes slight increase, and consequently the local
interactions between hydrogen atoms and the atoms of the host lattice become
increasingly important, until the nucleation process and the growth of the hydride
beta phase begin. Until the solid solution and the hydride coexist, isotherms
(hydrogen pressure at a given temperature according to hydrogen concentration in
the material) show a plateau, whose length indicates the quantity of hydrogen that
can be reversibly stored at that temperature with slight pressure variations. When
the alpha , beta transition is completed, the hydrogen pressure suddenly increases
with the concentration. The two-phase region ends in a critical point Tc above
which there is a continuous transition between phase alpha and beta. The equi-
librium pressure (position of the plateau) strongly depends on temperature, and is
connected to enthalpy reactions DH and entropy variation DS according to the
following Van’t Hoff equation:
DH DS
lnðPeq Þ ¼ ð3:51Þ
RT R
Different types of hydrides can be used for hydrogen storage:
• simple metal hydrides (MHx);
• complex metal hydrides;
• light metal hydrides.
Table 3.16 Characteristics of some complex hydrides of light metals

Hydride Theoretical capacity Release Temperature (8C) Capacity (% weight)
(% weight) at minimum temperature
Tmin Tmax
LiAlH4 10.6 100 150 6.40
NaAlH4 7.5 180 250 4.30
LiBH4 18.3 75 330 0.46
NaBH4 10.7 240 400 0.69
Table 3.17 Fundamental classes of hydrides for hydrogen storage

Hydrides for hydrogen storage
AB(LaNi5H6.5,LaNi4.7Al0.3 H6.5) Low capacity (max 2%/w), good cycle
AB(FeTiH2) Low capacity (max 1.9%/w), loss in cycles
AB2 (ZrV2H5.5) Low capacity (max 3%/w), need to activate
A2B (Mg2NiH4) 3.6%w, slow kinetics, high absorption T, need to activate
MgH2 7.6%w, slow kinetics, high absorption T, need to activate
Lamellar phases Ca Al X (X = Si), 5%w, not reversible.
Complex hydrides High capacity, little reversible
Table 3.14 shows the main characteristics of some simple metal hydrides.
Compared to simple metal hydrides, complex hydrides show a similar perfor-
mance (or better performance) than palladium in hydrogen absorption and release;
lower costs, but a good storage capacity. Table 3.15 shows the absorption features
of some binary hydrides of light metals, whereas Table 3.16 shows the main
features of some complex hydrides of light metals; they have high theoretical
storage capacity, and the main problem with their use is represented by a difficult
rehydrogenation.
Hydride technology (Table 3.17) is under study in the US, in Europe and in
Japan, where automotive manifacturers fine-tuned special titanium alloys in the
framework of their programme envisaging the introduction of fuel cell vehicles.
Interesting results were obtained with magnesium alloy, light, and with a high
hydrogen storage capacity (7% in weight, Tdesorb: 300C).
As concerns the storage capacity, the Series HBOND 1,500 tank can be con-
sidered as an example; its main features are shown in Table 3.18, from which it is
possible to easily calculate the storage characteristics of this tank (Table 3.19).
As regards energy for storage purposes, please refer to the enthalpy of hydride
formation: in the case in point, at 21C.41
This enthalpy amounts to 30.1 kJ/mole of absorbed hydrogen, corresponding to
nearly 12.5% of the energy content of the hydrogen stored.
An important role in storage is played by the dynamic behaviour of hydrides; in
particular, the kinetics of adsorption and desorption must be considered. In
practice, besides in a maximum value of the flow of hydrogen instantly available—
41
The formation enthalpy varies with the temperature.
Table 3.18 Characteristics Hydride tank series HBOND 1500

of the hydride tank Series
HBOND 1500 Storable hydrogen (Nm3) 1.5
Height (mm) 284
Diameter (mm) 145
Weight 13 kg (including 10 kg
metal hydride)
Material: aluminium alloy type ENAA-6063
Internal exchanger Tube: diameter 10 mm,
length 6 m
Safety valve (bar) 20
Charge temperature 20C
Discharge temperature 10–50C
Table 3.19 Storage capacity Hydride tank series HBOND 1500

of hydride tank Series
HBOND 1500 Storage capacity (% in weight) 1.0 %
Fig. 3.23 Maximum hydride 1.600

min
holding time 1.400
1.200
1.000
800
600
400
200
-
- 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00 12,00
Nl/min
this leads to a decrease of the hydrogen actually supplied by the hydride42 as the
flow requested increases.
In this connection, Fig. 3.23 shows the maximum maintenance time of hydride
according to the flow requested.43 From the chart it is possible to define, besides
the maximum flow available (nearly 10 Nl/min), the dynamic behaviour of the
hydride. Let us consider, for instance, the values of the hydrogen flow requested
amounting to 1.5 and 6.5 Nl/min. In the former case there is a maximum
42
Similarly to what happens in other accumulators.
43
This phenomenon depends on the temperatures and conditions of thermal exchange. The
diagram in the figure refers to tests made at 50C and with an internal heat exchanger (described
in Table 3.18): this mode of thermal exchange is more efficient than the one of a temperature
bath, in which the thermal power is supplied through the external wall of the tank.
Fig. 3.24 Percentage of 100%

hydrogen really desorbed 90%
compared to the nominal 80%
capacity of the tank 70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
- 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00 12,00
Nl/min
maintenance time of 900 min (meaning that the quantity of hydrogen actually
desorbed amounts to 1,350 Nl), whereas in the latter case the maintenance time
amounts to 40 min (the quantity of hydrogen really desorbed amounts to 260 Nl).
Therefore, in real operation conditions, hydride is not able to desorb the entire
quantity of hydrogen adsorbed, and the quantity of hydrogen actually desorbed
varies with the flow requested, decreasing as it increases. Figure 3.24 shows the
percentage of hydrogen actually desorbed compared to the normal capacity of the
tank according to the flow requested.
The chart shows how, for low values of the flow requested, the percentage of
desorbed hydrogen is constant and amounts to nearly 90%. As the flow increases,
this percentage hugely decreases (around 20%) and is kept rather constant (it
slightly decreases); beyond a certain value of the flow (maximum flow available),
it sharply drops.
In practice, with the use of hydrides it is necessary to consider their behaviour
that is, to say it is necessary to check that the tanks used are able to provide the
flow requested by users, beyond the storage capacity of tanks themselves.
Hydrogen Storage in Carbon Nanostructures
Carbon nanostructures (carbon nanotubes and nanofibres) might show good

hydrogen adsorption capacity, with results in some cases surprising.
Researches on these materials are being carried out by several workgroups,
but the results obtained, often contrasting, in many cases are not comparable
since they are referred to samples of materials of different types, tested in very
different pressure and temperature conditions, and measured with non-compa-
rable testing procedures. Pressure range varies from a few bar up to some
hundreds of bar, temperature ranges between 80 and 800 K, the weight
adsorption percentages apparently obtained range from values lower than 1% up
to an incredible 60%.
Figure 3.25 shows the different structures of carbon nanotubes: armchair (a),
zigzag (b) and chiral (c). Nanotube diameters range between 0.6 and 3 nm.
Fig. 3.25 Different types of

carbon nanotubes: armchair
(a) zig–zag (b) and chiral (c)
Fig. 3.26 Possible

arrangement, with relevant
size, of carbon nanotubes
Fig. 3.27 Hydrogen storage

in a structure of carbon
nanotubes
Figure 3.26 shows a possible arrangement, together with the relevant size, of
carbon nanotubes. In this arrangement, hydrogen can be stored, also with high
density and low pressures.
Figure 3.27 shows the ‘‘positions’’ that hydrogen can have inside of a carbon
nanotube: hydrogen can occupy the interstitial spaces (between one tube and the
other inside of the structure), the internal spaces (inside of the tube), an external
channel (between one tube and the other on the external surface of the structure)
and the external surface.
A huge research commitment is necessary to confirm the results obtained and to

assess the technical and economic feasibility of this technology, which potentially
proposes itself as the most suitable technology for hydrogen storage onboard of
vehicles.
As regards nanotubes, maximum percentages of 20% in weight are reported
(nanotubes doped with lithium), with subsequent very high values in terms of
specific energy and energy density, amounting to 6.66 kWh/kg and 6 kWh/litre,
close to those of petrol (8.5 and 8.75, respectively), and in the case of nanofibres,
the indicated value is 60%.
Hydrogen Storage in Crystal Microspheres
They consist of small crystal spheres, empty, with a diameter ranging between 25
and 500 lm and a thickness of 1 lm only. Microspheres are processed and
commercially transported in the form of fluid powder. They can be used on large
bases to store high pressure hydrogen.
Hydrogen encapsulation is made through the heating of a bed of empty
microspheres in a hydrogen-dense environment. Hydrogen is introduced in spheres
through the thin external crystal sheath, permeable, thanks to the temperatures at
which the process takes place (from 200 to 400C). This process ends when
hydrogen, inside of the spheres, reaches the same external pressure. The bed is
finally cooled and the non-encapsulated hydrogen is either released or kept for
other applications. Therefore the process efficiency depends on the values of some
parameters, including: hydrogen pressure, bed temperature and volume, size and
chemical composition of microspheres. Once cooled at room temperature, the
spheres withhold hydrogen, and are subsequently covered, stored in low-pressure
tanks and transported in the form of thin powder. The extraction of hydrogen from
microspheres takes place through their heating, and subsequently they are again
covered and recycled for other encapsulations. The release of hydrogen can also be
caused by the breaking of spheres, entailing; however, the disadvantage of not
being allowed to reuse them any longer. The thermal energy necessary to this end
can be supplied by an electric heater powered by a small hydrogen cell or by a
battery, recharged through a mechanical generator.
Hydrogen Storage in Ammonia
The use of ammonia as a hydrogen storage system clearly entails the production of
ammonia starting from the hydrogen to be stored and its decomposition at the
moment of hydrogen demand.
Ammonia represents a good example of hydrogen storage at the liquid non-
cryogenic state, which consists in the use of liquids with high hydrogen content
from which extracting this element on-demand that is, to say when users demand
it. This solution has its main points of strength in the stability of liquids, partly in
Fig. 3.28 Storage capacity

for different systems and
DOE’s goals for 2020
Table 3.20 Examples of ammonia cylinders presently available in the market

Capacity Dimensions Nh3 Cylinder Storage Energy density in Energy density in
[l] [l] (kg) weight (kg) Capacity volume (kJ/l) mass (kJ/kg)
(%)
1 1.5 0.4 1,5 3.7 2,893 2,224
5 9.1 2.5 10 3.5 2,909 2,112
20 31.1 10 27 4.8 3,401 2,855
40 54.0 20 47 5.1 3,910 3,153
the storage conditions that in general are not particularly prohibitive as concerns
temperature and pressure, but mostly in the density of storable hydrogen, which
can be even higher than liquid hydrogen. Other liquids are useful for the same
purpose, but ammonia has such characteristics that allow it to be one of the few
energy vectors that, exception made for fossil fuels, in line with the DoE’s goals
for 2020, as shown in Fig. 3.28 [4].
Other advantages to take into consideration include the possibility of performing
the decomposition reaction without any additional reagents (which might lower the
real energy density of the liquid, as it happens for instance, with methanol, whose
decomposition needs water), the absence of carbon atoms in its molecule (which
excludes the presence of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide among the reaction
products); the fact that it is by now a fundamental product in chemical industry
(which eliminates the critical aspects relating to the marketing and distribution,
typical of those cases in which there is the will to extend the use of new materials
outside of laboratories). The most interesting characteristic consists therefore in the
high density of the storable hydrogen (in fact, its hydrogen content accounts for
17.6% in weight), which is even higher than the one obtainable by pure hydrogen.
If gaseous ammonia and hydrogen are considered at the conditions of 25C and
1 bar, then the densities of nearly 0.771 and 0.09 g/l are obtained, respectively.
Since the molecular weight of the two species is respectively 17 and 2 g/mole, then
ammonia has a hydrogen density amounting to 1.5 times the same pure hydrogen:
qNH
H2
3
0:136 gl1
1; 5 ð3:52Þ
qH2 0:09 gl1
Also as concerns the real gravimetric and volumetric density of the devices
used for storage purposes, the advantage of ammonia compared to hydrogen is
huge, since it is distributed in the liquid form, because its liquefaction temperature
is relatively low (the atmospheric pressure amounts to -33.4C). Furthermore,
cylinders do not demand high pressurisation, since it amounts to the tension of the
saturated vapour of the substance (and, for instance, varies from nearly 4 bar at 0
up to nearly 20 bar at around 50C).
Table 3.20 shows the examples of cylinders available in the market for the
distribution of anhydrous ammonia.
Note how the higher the capacity of the containers considered, the higher the
percentage of weight of ammonia and hydrogen contained, obviously corre-
sponding to a higher energy density; for commercial purposes, the cylinders
presently used are the same type as those used for the storage of hydrogen at
200 bar. Ammonia is at the liquid state and the pressure inside of cylinders is the
pressure of ammonia vapour saturated at the temperature of the cylinder: nearly
4 bar at 0C up to nearly 20 bar at around 50C. It is evident that the cylinders
used are oversized and, therefore, the use of ad hoc cylinders would allow to
reduce volume and weight (given the same ammonia contained) and to increase
the storage capacity and energy density in volume and in mass.
As already said, the use of ammonia as a hydrogen storage system clearly
entails the production of ammonia itself, starting from the hydrogen to be stored
and its decomposition at the moment of hydrogen demand. The synthesis and
decomposition reactions of ammonia are the following:
Synthesis 3H2 þ N2 ! 2 NH3

Decomposition 2NH3 ! 3H2 þ N2
In the synthesis phase, the energy necessary is the one needed to take gases to
the working conditions (pressure and temperature at which the synthesis reaction
takes place), the reaction enthalpy and the energy to liquefy ammonia. It is then
necessary to add the energy spending for nitrogen production.
During the decomposition phase, the following must be considered: the energy
necessary to take liquid ammonia to the gaseous phase, the energy to take gas to
the decomposition temperature, the decomposition enthalpy, and an energy
spending that will depend on the conditions of hydrogen use (pressure and
temperature).
As a matter of fact, energy waste strongly depends on the peculiar character-
istics of each production and utilisation plant, and therefore it can be more realistic
to evaluate energy spending according to a ‘‘black-box’’ scheme starting from the
consumption of the system itself.
As concerns the production process, at an industrial level it is presently eval-
uated mainly through the Bosch-Haber process or similar ones (Fauser, Casale,
Claude, NEC, Mont-Cenis) that over the time turned out to be more convenient
than other processes as the distillation of hard coal or the hydrolysis of calcium
cyanamide CaCN2. In practice, the procedure entails the direct synthesis of
Table 3.21 Pressure and temperature conditions as well as reaction enthalpy for the processes of
synthesis and decomposition of ammonia
Reaction T (C) P (bar) DH (kJ mol-1)
3 H2 ? N2 ? 2 NH3 400–600 200–300 -92.4
2 NH3 ? 3 H2 ? N2 700–800 9–36 66.5
hydrogen and nitrogen at the gaseous state, with different pressure and temperature
conditions according to the processes used (which de facto differ for the synthesis
plants), but in most of cases range between 200 and 300 bar and between 400 and
600C. An exothermic reaction occurs, but it shows a very high activation energy
(of nearly 230–420 kJ mol-1 [5]), for which reason it is necessary to use catalysts
made of nickel–alumina, iron, ruthenium, without which it would be necessary to
work at much higher temperatures.
As regards the decomposition process, it is generally considered as the inverse
process of synthesis, although the working conditions are not identical in the two
reactions. Decomposition is an endothermic reaction that needs higher tempera-
tures than synthesis, of nearly 700–800C and prefers low pressures [6]. However,
it must be underlined that also in this case the use of catalysts allows a huge
reduction of the working temperature and improves the percentage of ammonia
produced. Based on data in the literature, catalysts can reduce working conditions
at pressures and temperatures between 9 and 36 bar and 400–600C. Table 3.21
shows the working conditions of the synthesis and decomposition process, as well
as the relevant enthalpy variations.
For the calculation of the energy spending, it is possible—as an example—to
consider a facility powered through a 50 MW wind farm: 45 MW are used for
hydrogen production through water electrolysis, 2 MW for air liquefaction and
nitrogen production, 3 MW for the Haber–Bosch synthesis process, with a daily
production of 24 tons of H2 (and 196 tons of O2), 112 tons of nitrogen and
136 tons of ammonia [7]. To analyse the cost to store hydrogen in ammonia, it is
necessary to start from hydrogen availability and consider the energy spending for
the production of nitrogen plus the one needed for the synthesis process. In con-
sideration of the above, the following energy spending applies:
Nitrogen synthesis 37:0 kJ=mole of N2

Ammonia synthesis 32:4 kJ=mole of NH3
Total production of ammonia 50:9 kJ=mole of NH3
Considering that a mole of ammonia (NH3) contains 1.5 mol of hydrogen (H2)
the energy spending referred to the mass unit of the hydrogen contained in
ammonia amounts to nearly 16,967 kJ/kg, corresponding to 14.1% of the energy
content of the hydrogen stored.
As concerns the decomposition process, since a system of preferential use has
not been identified yet, then the field of testing is still open.
Table 3.22 Reaction of Ammonia Decomposition inside of a SOFC

ammonia decomposition
inside of a SOFC Anode 2NH3 þ calorie ! 3H2 þ N2
3H2 ! 6Hþ þ 6e 2
Cathode 3 2
O þ 6Hþ ! 3O
2
3O þ 6Hþ ! 3H2 O þ calorie
Global reaction 2NH3 þ 32 O2 ! N2 þ 3H2 O
As an example, consider the use of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), powered
by ammonia on the anode and by air on the cathode, inside of which the
decomposition reaction of ammonia into nitrogen and water takes place
(Table 3.22) [8]:
The energy spending for the ammonia decomposition phase amounts to
11.25 kJ/molH2 that is, to say 5,625 kJ/kg of hydrogen (accounting for 4.4% of
hydrogen energy content). The value shown does not consider the possible
recovery of the heat produced at the anode that would significantly increase the
overall efficency.
On the basis of the examples made, the overall energy spending (synthesis and
decomposition of ammonia) amounts to 22,592 kJ/kg of hydrogen, corresponding
to 18.8% of the energy content of hydrogen itself.
A further possibility found in the literature is the use of ammonia at the solid
state (Solid State Ammonia Storage - SSAS), meaning by this not the solidification
of pure ammonia, but rather the production of ammonia-based chemical com-
pounds that, at room temperature and pressure, appear at the solid state, similarly
to hydrogen storage through complex hydrides.
This solution is considered as suitable in terms of size and safety, although in
the literature data relating to production and use are not yet available.
Other Methods for Hydrogen Storage

In the framework of chemical processes, a system was tested that allowed to keep
hydrogen in small spheres of sodium, potassium or lithium compounds. If released in
water, they combine by releasing hydrogen and originating compounds, in turn
recyclable, as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, etc. The US company Power
Ball tested this system using spheres covered with a plastic sheath that allows
hydrogen release when demanded, through a process that divides spheres one at the
time. Another technique, presently still in an experimental stage, assumes the use of
powdered iron and water. At high temperatures, their reaction produces rust and
hydrogen. This process is inexpensive and has a 4.5% efficiency. The only need is
iron retrieval through the elimination of oxygen in order to allow its recycling. The
disadvantage of this technique consists in the huge quantity of iron needed. Fur-
thermore, systems similar to metal hydrides are under study, with the use of par-
ticular hydrocarbons or chemical products (methanol, liquid methane and ammonia)
as metal replacement, as well as the use of sodium borohydride (NaBH4 powders.)
Table 3.23 Energy spending for hydrogen transportation

Transportation System Energy spending (%/1,000 km)
Compressed (200 bar) Liquefied (-163C)
Road 31.4 8.1
Railway 15.5 4.0
Sea 9.0 2.3
Hydrogen Transportation and Distribution

As regards hydrogen transportation in non-dedicated networks, considerations
similar to the considerations made in Sect. 3.5.1, and Table 3.2 apply.
The lower heating value of hydrogen amounts to 120,000 kJ/kg; considering Rp
values amounting to 0.07 for hydrogen compressed at 200 bar44 and 0.27 for liquid
hydrogen at -353C45 the values shown in Table 3.2346 are obtained.
For the transportation in dedicated networks (hydrogen pipelines47) it is pos-
sible to use most of the tested technologies used for the transportation of natural
gas in gas pipelines, with some key adjustments in materials used.
For the calculation of energy spending, the same procedures used for natural
gas apply. By analogy, the same conditions in terms of diameter of pipelines are
considered: 1 m, pressure 75 bar. Given the same energy transported, the velocity
of hydrogen shall be three times as much as higher than natural gas, that is to say
30 m/s. With these hypotheses, it is possible to obtain Re = 19,708,520, from
which k = 0.0086 and J = 0.39465. Considering a section of 1,000 km it is
possible to obtain Lu = 1,402,200 ? 450 ? 3,781,538 = 5,184,188 J/kg.
With similar considerations as those seen for natural gas on concentrated losses
and the performance of the pumping stations, it is possible to obtain:
DH J g 1:2
Leff;D ¼ þ D ð3:53Þ
gSP gSP
For a section of 1,000 km it is possible to obtain Lu,eff = 13.185.470 J/kg,
corresponding to nearly 11% of the energy content of the gas transported.
For uniformity purposes, the values of energy spending for hydrogen trans-
portation are set for a distance of 1,000 km, similarly to what was done for oil,
coal and natural gas. In this connection, it is suitable to underline that, while the
fossils mentioned are originally primary sources and the distances of transportation
are linked to the location of the resource and of the demand—and, de facto, these
vectors really have to be transported along thousands of kilometres—hydrogen is
44
The density of hydrogen compressed at 200 bar is 14.2 kg/m3.
45
The density of liquefied hydrogen at -253C is 71 kg/m3.
46
The values shown refer to transportation only and do not consider the energy necessary for
compression and liquefaction.
47
All over the world (USA, Japan, France, Germany, Italy, etc.) some thousands of kilometres
of pipelines are nowadays used for the transportation of hydrogen.
Fig. 3.29 Liquid (a) and gaseous (b) hydrogen distribution unit
not a primary source and, therefore, it has to be ‘‘produced’’. Obviously, this

production can occur on-site where needed and, therefore, the distances of
transportation that can be considered are those relating to a distribution at an
industrial district or city district level, amounting to a maximum of about one
hundred kilometres.
Also as concerns distribution, hydrogen can be distributed both in a liquid and
in a gaseous form (Fig. 3.29). Today there are already some experimental
hydrogen filling stations for both types. Figure 3.29 shows the filler for the supply
of liquid and compressed gaseous hydrogen.
3.5.6 Synthetic Fuels as Energy Vectors
Synthetic fuels are obtained through the processing of biomasses (in that case, we
refer to biofuels or renewable fuels) or fossil fuels as natural gas and coal.
The main synthetic fuels include:
• Biodiesel
• Ethanol
• Methanol
• Syngas
• Biogas
3.5.6.1 Biodiesel
Biodiesel is obtained starting from agricultural products such as soya, rape and
sunflower, but also from animal fat, original or waste vegetable oil and fat, such as
waste edible fat and oil (exhausted frying oil). The seeds of the crops mentioned
above represent the basic material: they are pressed to obtain a vegetable oil,
which then reacts with methanol in the presence of alkaline catalyst, to form
methyl ester and, as a secondary product, raw glycerine. There can be different
production procedures but, in all the cases, through this chemical procedure called
transesterification, it is possible to obtain a blend of fatty acid methyl ester, which
is called biodiesel.
3.5.6.2 Ethanol
Ethanol is a short-chain alcohol, also known as ethyl alcohol or spirit of wine; its
chemical formula is CH3CH2OH.
At room temperature, it appears as a colourless liquid with a typical smell. It is
basically volatile and extremely inflammable.
It is completely soluble in many organic solvents—for instance chloroform—
and in water, with which it forms in a proportion of 95:5 a low-boiling-point
azeotrope that makes it impossible to obtain by simple distillation an ethanol with
a higher purity.
Pure ethanol at 100%, or absolute or anhydrous ethanol can be obtained by
removing water from the azeotrope through the addition of benzene and sub-
sequent fractional distillation, or by using metallic magnesium that, when added to
the water/ethanol azetrope, quantitatively reacts with water and originates
hydrogen, which is separated by the solution through degassing, and magnesium
hydroxide through the distillation of absolute ethanol. In this way, the remaining
water is completely eliminated.
Bioethanol is ethanol produced through a fermentation process of biomasses
that is, to say farm products rich in sugar (glucides) such as cereals, sugary crops,
starchy products and marcs.
In the energy sector, bioethanol can be used as a component for petrol or for the
preparation of ethyl tertiary buthyl ether (ETBE), a high-octane derivative. It can
be used blended in petrol with percentages up to 20% without modifying the
engine, or even in higher quantity or even pure in so called Flex Engines.
The production of bioethanol occurs through the anaerobic fermentation of
glucose; the theoretical reaction is the following:
C6 H12 O6 ! 2CH3 CH2 OH þ 2CO2
On the basis of this reaction, from 1 kg of glucose it is possible to obtain
0.51 kg of ethanol and 0.49 kg of carbon dioxide. As a matter of fact, what is
obtained is an aqueous solution with an ethanol content ranging between 5 and
15% according to the type of biomass and to the processes used.
Alcohol retrieval from the aqueous solution occurs through distillation, which is
the most energy-consuming phase of the entire process.
Bioethanol can also be produced starting from synthetic gases (syngas48), gases
rich in hydrogen also containing CO. Bioethanol, using syngas alone, can be
produced according to the reaction:
48
See Sect. 3.5.6.4.
2CO þ 4H2 $ C2 H5 OH þ H2 O
Another possibility is using methanol with syngas; in this case the reaction is:
CH3 OH þ CO þ 2H2 $ C2 H5 OH þ H2 O
3.5.6.3 Methanol
Methanol is the simplest among alcohols, also known as methyl alcohol or wood
spirit, and its chemical formula is CH3OH.
At room temperature it appears as a colourless liquid with a typical smell. It is
highly volatile and extremely inflammable. The methanol flame is invisible.
It is completely soluble in many organic solvents, such as chloroform and
water.
Methanol is toxic and causes damage to the optic nerve and to the retina. A
lethal dose for a human being ranges from 0.3 to 1 g/kg of body weight.
Methanol can be produced from natural gas, coal and biomasses.
From the energy viewpoint, the balance of methane transformation into
methanol is negative, although the same transformation is convenient as far as the
transportation of natural gas in the form of methanol is concerned.
Given the lower heating value as well as the toxicity characteristics of methanol
against ethanol, the latter is usually indicated as preferable as fuel.
3.5.6.4 Syngas
The syngas deriving from gasification processes is mainly made up of carbon

monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water vapour and methane, to which adding,
in case of gasification with air, nitrogen in the following percentages:
• H2: 9–60%
• CO: 14–50%
• N2: 0–50%
• CO2: 9–20%
• H2O: 5–30%
• CH4: 1–7%
The lower heating value ranges between 5,400 and 11,300 kJ/Nm3.
Besides these substances, there are always compounds, mostly unwanted, as
particulate (solid particles contained in gas), sulphur compounds (H2S and COS)
and nitrogen compounds (NH3 and HCN), halogenated compounds (HCl), tar (a
complex of oxygenated compounds produced during the pyrolysis and that
undergo transformations in the subsequent phases of the gasification process),
alkali (KOH, KCl), phenols and others.
The sulphur and nitrogen present in the biomass, in fact, are mainly converted
into H2S and in NH3, but in the biomass used in gasification processes, contents in
S and N are extremely low (\0.3%). Biomass is made up of over 95% of carbon,
oxygen and hydrogen, in addition to percentages of sulphur, nitrogen and other
elements depending on the type of soil and water, as well as on the type of
fertilisers and parasiticides used.
3.5.6.5 Biogas
Biogas is a gas mixture whose composition varies according to the conditions at

which it is obtained. Its calorific value is lower than methane and ranges between
18.81 and 27.17 MJ/Nm3. In any case, this mixture is mainly made up of methane,
carbon oxide and dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, besides lower percentages of
hydrogen sulphide and other gases. As a rule, the percentages are the following:
• CH4: 50–80%
• CO2: 30–40%
• H2: 5–10%
• N2: 1–5%
3.5.6.6 Energy Efficiency Considerations for Synthetic Fuels Production
Energy efficiency means the ratio between the useful energy and the energy spent
in the production process. It is important to underline that useful energy (Eu) is,
besides the energy content of the fuel produced, also the energy deriving from the
possible energy use of other products of the supply chain. The energy spent (Es),
using biomass as primary resource includes, in general, the energy used for
farming, the energy spent for the production of the biomass used, starting from the
cropped plant, and the energy of the processes carried out to obtain biofuels:
Eu
RE ¼ ð3:54Þ
Es
When energy efficiency is lower than 1, reference is made to negative energy
efficiency: this means that the energy spent for fuel production is higher than the
energy content of the fuel itself. In case of energy efficiency higher than one,
reference is made to positive energy efficiency.
It is important to make some considerations on the meaning of energy efficiency
so defined from the viewpoint of the sustainability of energy systems.
Besides the above, sustainability must be considered; in this sense, it is neces-
sary to underline that fuel can be obtained from a renewable source. In this case,
although the value of energy efficiency, defined as seen above, was lower than 1
(negative energy efficiency) there would be in any case the advantage of producing
a fuel (that would replace fossil fuels in end use) without any consumption of non-
renewable energy. Therefore, it is probably more appropriate to distinguish the kind
of energy spent in producing the energy vector and to better relate energy efficiency
to the consumption of non-renewable energy, and say that a negative energy effi-
ciency is obtained if the consumption of non-renewable energy for its production
exceeds the energy content of the fuel produced: this means that it appears as
necessary to consider as energy spent (3.54) only non-renewable energy.
The calculation of energy efficiency demands a detailed analysis of all the
processes involved (from farming to the entire fuel cycle) and the knowledge of all
the sub-processes involved in order to correctly quantify the useful energy pro-
duced and the energy spent in the processes.
For instance, biodiesel can be produced (always through the transesterification
of biomasses) starting from the cropping of sunflowers: this process provides
biodiesel, as a single product that can be used from the energy viewpoint. In this
case, the energy spent for production purposes also has to include, besides the
energy for the production process itself, also the one relating to the cropping of
sunflowers. Another system to produce biodiesel includes the use of pomace
(a sub-product of olive-oil production process) and this process allows to supply,
besides biodiesel, also pellets and syngas. In this case, the energy spent is only the
one dealing with the production process itself, and while calculating useful energy,
the energy contained in pellets and/or in syngases must be considered as well.
In the case of production of bioethanol from sugar cane, finally, all the energy
spent (bioethanol production process and cropping of sugar cane) shall be ascribed
to the production of bioethanol. Furthermore, in calculating useful energy, one
must consider that from other parts of the same plant it is possible to produce
syngas.
Apart from the energy efficiency of the single processes (that in any case play a
fundamental role as far as energy efficiency is concerned), it is evident how it is
possible to obtain very different energy efficiencies according to all the processes
and sub-processes somehow related to fuel production process. Obviously, as
already mentioned, energy efficiency is also influenced by the technologies used:
for instance, biomasses suitable for thermochemical processes (defatted pomace in
the case of production of biodiesel from pomace and bagasse and leaves in the case
of production of bioethanol from sugarcane) can be used in different ways: directly
(or upon pre-processing obtaining pellets) as renewable solid fuels, or, indirectly,
producing syngas through gasification.
3.5.7 Heat-Transfer Fluids as Energy Vectors
3.5.7.1 Heat Transportation
Energy can be transported and stored in the form of heat. As regards transport, the
heat energy vector is only suitable for short distances, since in case of long
distances energy losses would be excessive. An example of heat transport is
represented by the systems for room heating: in this case, the distance covered by
heat depends on the type of system used. Options include the independent heating
Fig. 3.30 Operation scheme

of a heat accumulator
system, with minimum distances, limited to heat distribution in the single apart-
ment, up to the case of district heating, in which the heat produced through a
central heating system at the district (or small city) level, is distributed to all the
users in a district for distances reaching some kilometres, passing through the
condominium heating systems. In all these cases, the heat-transfer fluid is water:
temperature amounts to nearly 70C for the use in radiators, whereas in case of
district heating, superheated water at nearly 120C49 is used. In general, on the
basis of specific needs, a gas (hot air, CO2, dry water vapour, etc.) is preferibly
used as heat-transfer fluid.
3.5.7.2 Heat Storage
For storage purposes, water is often used (electric boilers, water heaters) or
alternatively other fluids with suitable physical characteristics; when heat must be
stored at high temperatures, solid vectors are used as in the case of heat storage in
solar plants for the production of electricity or hydrogen (still in an experimental
phase). In this case, the storage system is schematically made up of a thermally
insulated container of a suitable size, filled with small spheres (pebbles) or other
solid objects of an appropriate shape, compactly distributed (packed bed), so that
49
In this case, the fluid used for (primary) transport is not the same that reaches the radiator
(secondary); the former releases heat to the latter in a heat exchanger; therefore, it is necessary to
have a fluid at a temperature markedly higher than the end use on, in order to allow heat
exchange.
Fig. 3.31 Fluid compression F

scheme T11,p
,p11 ,v
,v11
L1
F
T2 ,p2,v2
L2
gas can pass through them. The thermal conductivity of the whole set is very low
(which minimises heat dispersion), but the thermal contact between the gas and the
‘‘pebbles’’ is excellent (which guarantees a good heat exchange with the heat-
transfer fluid). The operation is schematically shown in Fig. 3.30 [9].
3.5.8 Mechanic Energy as Energy Vector
The storage and transport of mechanic energy can mainly take place in the ways
described below:
• pressurised fluids (transport and storage);
• flywheels (storage alone);
• springs (storage alone);
• shafts and mechanical transmission systems (transportation alone).
3.5.8.1 Pressurised Fluids or Pressure-Transfer Fluids
One way for storing mechanic energy envisages the compression of elastic fluids.
Referring to Fig. 3.31, the work made by force F on the fluid is stored in the
compressed fluid of the force itself.
As it is well-known, in closed systems the reversible work of fluid
compression is:
Z2
L¼ pdV ð3:55Þ
1
If the compression transformation can be considered as adiabatic,50 this work

can be expressed according to the initial state and the final state of the fluid:
50
Since heat transmission is a ‘‘slow’’ phenomenon, quick transformations can be considered
with a good approximation as adiabatic.
" # " #
1 p1 q2 k1 1 p1 p2 k1=k
L¼ 1 ¼ 1 ð3:56Þ
k 1 q1 q1 k 1 q1 p1
where k is the ratio between the specific heats at constant pressure (cp) and at
constant volume (cv):
Therefore, once the initial conditions of the fluid and the mechanic energy to be
stored are known (L12), the final conditions of the fluid itself can be calculated:
k=k1
k 1 q1
p2 ¼ L þ1 p1 ð3:57Þ
k p1
From adiabatic equations it is also possible to see that:
k1=k k1=k
T2 p2 p2
¼ ) T2 ¼ T1 ð3:58Þ
T1 p1 p1
And from the equation of state:
p2 p2
¼ R T2 ) q2 ¼ ð3:59Þ
q2 R T2
Obviously, in allowing the fluid to expand from the new conditions to the
previous conditions, the work spent in compression is given back after deducting
the compression and expansion losses:
" #
1 p2 p1 k1=k
Le ¼ 1 ¼ L ð3:60Þ
k 1 q2 p2
These losses can be taken into account through the compression (gc) and
expansion (ge) efficiency: the storage efficiency (gs) is therefore the outcome of the
two efficiencies
gs ¼ gc ge ð3:61Þ
If the compressed fluid is stored for longertime, it is necessary to consider that,
due to the unavoidable thermal exchanges with the outer part, the temperature of
the fluid decreases (going back, at most, to the initial value T1) and, therefore, the
‘‘energy content’’ of the fluid decreases, as well as the energy stored. In fact, in
considering the borderline case mentioned above (T3 = T1 \ T2), since heat
exchange is an isochoric process (at a constant volume), it follows that:
p3 p3 p2 T1
¼ ¼ ) p3 ¼ p2 \p2 ð3:62Þ
T3 T1 T2 T2
And the reversible work obtainable in the expansion is therefore:
Fig. 3.32 Transportation of

mechanic energy with
F2
pressurised fluids
2
F1
" #
1 p3 p3 k1=k
L0e ¼ 1 \Le ð3:63Þ
k 1 q2 p1
According to the same principle, it is possible to transport mechanic energy

from one point to another through pressurised fluids. In fact, in a container with
pressurised fluid, the fluid itself exercises the same pressure in all the points and in
all directions. As regards Fig. 3.32, by exercising force F1 in section 1 the work
L made by such force can be given back by the fluid (always, obviously, minus
losses) in section 2. If the fluid is a liquid (incompressible), then reference will be
made to hydraulic drives; if it is a gas (compressible) then the definition of
pneumatic drives shall apply.
Having defined A1 and A2 the surfaces of sections 1 and 2 and s1 and s2 the
movements of said surfaces, for energy conservation there will be, after deducting
losses:
9
A1 s 1 ¼ A2 s 2 >
=F
1 F2
F1 ¼ p A1 s 1 ¼ s 2 ) F1 s 1 ¼ F2 s 2 ð3:64Þ
>
;p p
F2 ¼ p A2
If A1 = A2, then s1 = s2 and F1 = F2 and there is only transportation of

mechanic energy, from sections 1 to 2. Conversely if A1 = A2 then s1 = s2 and
F1 = F2, in addition to transportation there is also a transformation of mechanic
energy, since characteristics change.
3.5.8.2 Flywheels
Flywheels are quite commonly used to lower the degree of periodical irregularity
by alternative storing and releasing kinetic energy. Having defined x angular
velocity (rad/s), the kinetic energy E (J) stored by a flywheel with a moment of
inertia I (kg m2) is:
1
E ¼ I x2 ð3:65Þ
2
The moment of inertia I (which expresses the capacity to store energy) of a

mass cylinder m and radius R is:
m R2
I¼ ð3:66Þ
2
The mechanic energy spent to bring the flywheel from an angular velocity x1 to
x2 [ x1 by applying a torque C is stored by the flywheel, in the form of a moment
of inertia, and is ‘‘returned’’ in the moment in which the torque stops (or
decreases).
3.5.8.3 Springs
Springs can store mechanic energy in the form of elastic potential energy. The
elastic potential energy Ep,el stored by deforming a spring, having defined P the
applied force and f the arrow, is:
1
Ep;el ¼ P f ð3:67Þ
2
After deducting losses, the mechanic energy spent for deformation is stored in
the form of elastic potential energy and is ‘‘returned’’ by taking the spring back to
its free configuration (unchanged).
3.5.8.4 Shafts and Mechanical Transmissions
Shafts and the different types of mechanical transmissions (cogwheels, belts,

chains, crank mechanisms, etc.) are mechanisms that allow the transportation of
mechanic energy for very short distances. The ‘‘energy spending’’ of this trans-
portation is linked to the friction losses typical of mechanical transmissions. In
many cases, besides transportation, there is also a transformation of mechanic
energy, changing the characteristics of motion (torque, angular velocity) or the
type of motion (for instance from, reciprocating to rotating).
3.5.9 Radiant Energy as Energy Vector
As already said, energy transportation—and not storage—can take place in the

form of electromagnetic radiations: for instance, solar energy reaches the earth and
the bodies exchange energy by radiation. As concerns the solar energy reaching
the earth, dispersions (that is to say the energy ‘‘cost’’ of transportation) are due to
the crossing of the atmosphere and depend on the length of the atmosphere crossed
(therefore on the relative position earth-sun) and on weather conditions.
3.6 The Era of Energy Vectors
The future of energy depends on the energy vectors that human intelligence will be
able to develop and to integrate in its development systems. After the era of oil, it is
not realistic to wait for the era of another primary source; the next era is the era of
vectors. It is an era characterised by the capacity of energy systems to use different
primary sources in the different places and for different local socio-economic
conditions, but also to be able to standardise applications, energy conversion and
transformation systems, in order to identify the most flexible energy vector, the one
that shows the highest production potentials and the lowest utilisation problems.
The success of each energy vector is in fact linked to its appropriateness,
adaptability and integrability with the local and global energy system. The most
important characteristics for the penetration of energy vectors in the modern
energy system, besides their suitability for storage and transportation, is the pos-
sibility of their production from different energy resources and the possibility of
their end use with the lowest possible level of waste and the minimum impact on
the environment. In both cases, with the highest possible efficiency.
The integration of vectors in the energy system, from the primary source to end
use, always entails costs in terms of energy spending, conversion and transfor-
mation. These costs can be fully repaid, and can even lead to advantages when at
least one of the following conditions applies:
1. Acceptability of the energy spending: if the energy spent for the production of
the vector wouldn’t be otherwise used for environmental, technological or
socio-economic reasons;
2. Transportation or storage needs: if energy transportation or storage wouldn’t
be possible without the passage through the conversion or transformation in the
vector identified for environmental, socio-economic or technological reasons;
3. Restrictions for end-use: if the energy end use wouldn’t be possible without the
passage through the conversion or transformation in the vector identified for
environmental, socio-economic or technological reasons.
In the analysis of modern energy systems, and even more by considering future
ones, it is possible to realise that at least one of the conditions mentioned above is,
and will increasingly be, present.
In case of option 1 (acceptability of energy spending), it is possible to easily
note that it always occurred when the source is available in places or times dif-
ferent from those relating to the use (this is the case of fossil fuels, but also of
energy production centralised in large or very large size plants with a level of
production scarcely adjustable as in the case of nuclear power), or its exact
availability cannot be foreseen (and this is the case of many renewable energies).
In the case of option 2 (transportation or storage needs), it is evident how the
real availability of huge quantities of energy is increasingly linked to the char-
acteristics of the vector selected, in terms of availability, energy spending and
transportation and storage.
3.6 The Era of Energy Vectors 175
In the case of option 3 (restrictions for end-use), the characteristics of envi-

ronmental compatibility and standardisation of utilisation technologies clearly
indicate how energy vectors with specific characteristics are increasingly requested
by users, with particular and growing attention paid to the possibility of the vector
of being used in technological solutions able to provide the useful effect desired
with minimum or zero polluting emissions and with the widest range of possible
uses (electricity in this case is the glaring example).
Therefore, if the need to integrate energy vectors in the global energy system is
clearly destined to grow—since the three conditions provided have more and more
frequently occurred at the same time in most of real situations—the new and
important challenge against the world of energy with the growing era of energy
vectors is not that much linked to ‘‘whether’’ integrating one or several vectors at
any level of analysis or design of an energy system, but rather ‘‘which’’ vector is
suitable to choose to perform such an integration. The choice of the vector, merely
from the energy viewpoint, would only be possible with the consideration of the
energy spending needed for its production, transportation, storage and end use.
This pathway always has to be followed since it is evident that the good planning
of the energy system minimises its waste and therefore maximises the energy that
can be really used by end users compared to the one available at the moment of
accessing the primary resource in order to make it available.
The only analysis of the efficiency of the chain of transformations and con-
versions that can provide the energy and power demanded is however already
insufficient today to meet the real users’ needs. Some characteristics of energy
vectors and the possibility of their exploitation in technologies able to guarantee
the qualitative levels requested and the meeting of the increasingly strict condi-
tions will be more and more important for the technologies and commercial the
increasingly success of a vector compared to another one. It is therefore important
to take into consideration these characteristics, and according to them to select
those vectors that allow to meet them at the lowest energy cost.
3.6.1 Possible Production from Different Primary Sources
The age of energy vectors begins as a response to the growing scarcity of non
renewable primary energy sources due to the problems linked to their natural
availability, but also for the unforeseeable economic–political conditions of many
areas of our planet. The energy vectors destined to be the protagonists of the new
era must therefore guarantee the possibility of production from several different
sources, also allowing the passage from one source to another over the time, as the
availability conditions change.
Among the vectors analysed in this chapter, certainly electricity, synthetic fuels
(either liquid or gaseous), heat-transfer fluids, and hydrogen show the highest
potential as concerns their possible production starting from different sources.
These four energy vectors shall therefore be taken in due consideration while
conceiving present and future energy systems able to provide the necessary
flexibility of the primary source. The achievement of the results in the field of
technological research and development for the production, transportation, storage
and the most efficient end use of these vectors has a strategic value.
3.6.2 Environmental Compatibility During Use
The environmental compatibility of energy solutions is a condition increasingly

influencing the choices of policy makers, businessman, managers and, most of all,
consumers and regulators. The emission of substances that are harmful for human
beings and for the environment due to energy conversion processes is less and less
tolerated at any level of the global system, and this is absolutely clear at the end-
use level.
Environmental compatibility while using the energy vector with which the
energy is made available at the point of demand is therefore a characteristic to be
considered as a necessary condition for the economic success and the social
acceptability of any solution. In closed environments, for portable applications,
and increasingly also for all urban use, the useful effect in terms of mechanical,
thermal, electric and light energy has to be provided at zero emissions. The same is
happening for the markets of tourism or as concerns locations with a high envi-
ronmental and architectural interest, involving wider and wider target customers
and that can be somehow associated to mass market.
The capacity of a vector of being used in zero emission energy conversion
systems is therefore a crucial characteristic for the selection of the vectors to be
focused upon. The concept itself of ‘‘zero emissions’’ is becoming more and more
important: the potential possibility for a neutral balance in terms of carbon dioxide
emissions, relevant for all emission reduction considerations and actions con-
cerning climate change, is certainly very much interesting and allows the success
of all vectors that can be produced from renewable resources and nuclear power,
that is to say, once again, electricity, synthetic fuels (liquid or gaseous), heat-
transfer fluids and hydrogen.
However, the most evident characteristic that can be immediately detected by
end users is the absence of any type of polluting emissions at the point of use, not
only CO2. This limits further the group of vectors that show the highest possi-
bilities of being proposed for zero emission applications, with a large evidence
relating to electricity, heat-transfer fluids and hydrogen.
3.6.3 Conversion Efficiency
The remarkable economic, energy and technological expenditure necessary for the
production, transportation and storage of vectors with all the characteristics
3.6 The Era of Energy Vectors 177
mentioned above—that is to say electricity, heat-transfer fluids, hydrogen and

synthesis fuels—makes it particularly important to achieve higher efficiency levels
in the different conversion and transformation processes are necessary to access
the needed quantity and quality of energy at the end use.
The efficiency of conversion systems, especially small ones used by end users,
therefore becomes an even more important characteristic for an energy system that
still resorts to abundant sources and that does not need many and complex con-
version processes to make the final energy vector available (especially if it is of a
fossil origin).
The availability of high performance technologies is therefore another crucial
characteristic for the selection of the right energy vector in a complex system. The
characteristic requested confirms electricity as a main candidate to keep and
increase its primary role in the landscape of future vectors, thanks to the high
energy performance of the technologies that allow its use and of the transportation
systems, as well as the indirect storage systems.
In analysing the level of energy performance of the technologies used, also
hydrogen confirms its very high potential. Fuel cells, in fact, since not linked to
thermodynamic performance thresholds, can allow levels of global efficiency
(electric ? thermal) very close to the unit.
References
1. ENEA, Rapporto energia e ambiente (2010); also: European Environment Agency (2008),
Energy and Environment Report 2008, Rep 6/2008, ISBN 978-92-9167-980-5.
2. Zuttel A (2004) Hydrogen storage methods. Springer, Heidelberg
3. Innocenti L, Il consumo energetico nella produzione, stoccaggio e distribuzione dellı idrogeno,
http://didattica.dma.unifi.it/website/pub/Energetica/EMT1_05_matdid/Idrogeno.pdf
4. Zamfirescu C, Dincer I (2008) Using ammonia as a sustainable fuel. J Power Sources
185(1):459–465
5. Modak JM (2002) Haber Process for ammonia synthesis. Resonance, 7(9):69–77 DOI:
10.1007/BF02836187
6. Holladay JD, et al (2009) An overview of hydrogen production technologies. Catalysis Today.
139(4):244–260
7. Gruhn S, Sackett B (2008) Wind to NH3: Freedom fertilizer - Green fertilizer and fuel for the
future, the 5th Ammonia Fuel Conference; Minneapolis
8. Zamfirescu C, Dincar I (2007) Ammonia as a green fuel and hydrogen sources for vehicular
applications, Elsevier
9. Maccari A, Vignolini M (2001) Progetto di massima di un impianto pilota per la produzione di
2000 m3/giorno di idrogeno solare basato sul processo UT-3. ENEA Report, Rome
Chapter 4
Energy Conversion and Transformation
Plants
4.1 Overview
The energy necessary for end-use has different forms (mechanic, luminous,
electric, thermal); it can be of different origin, and there are different processes that
make it available.
The primary sources directly available in nature are not always conveniently
and efficiently usable in the processes from which the most suitable form of energy
for end-use can be obtained. For this reason, in almost all cases, primary sources
undergo conversion or transformation processes, whose outcome is indicated by
the so-called secondary sources.
Conversion processes are characterised by a passage from one energy form to
another (for instance from electric power to mechanic power, as it happens in
electric motors), whereas in transformation processes the form of energy remains
the same although with different characteristics (as it happens, for instance, in
electric transformers, which vary in terms of current intensity and voltage, keep-
ing—net of the losses—the same power; or in heat exchangers in which only
energy flow characteristics, like temperature, vary, but not the form of energy).
4.2 Energy Conversion Plants
As already mentioned, energy production processes include the set of single

energy transformation and conversion processes that allow to transform/convert
the resource used in the desired energy form. According to the technology adopted,
these processes can be higher or smaller in number and of different types. For the
production of electric power, for instance, conversion plants can be classified
according to the number and type of conversion and/or transformation processes
used (Fig. 4.1).
180 4 Energy Conversion and Transformation Plants
Fig. 4.1 Electric power

production processes
In the so-called conventional systems (thermo-electric power plants) the

chemical energy of fuels is converted into heat through a combustion process; such
heat is converted into mechanical energy, through a thermodynamic1 cycle, which
is in turn converted into electric power by on electric generator.
In the so-called dynamic systems the resource used is available in the form of
mechanic energy (i.e. water kinetic energy in hydroelectric power plants and wind
kinetic energy in wind power plants), transformed to obtain mechanical power on
a shaft, which can in turn be converted into electric power by a generator.
In static systems (owing their name to the fact that they have no moving com-
ponents), as magneto-hydrodynamic, thermoelectric and thermionic, the chemical
energy of the fuel is converted into heat2 that is directly transformed (without the
intermediate passage in the form of mechanical energy) into electric power through
the electromagnetic, thermoelectric and thermionic conversion processes.
Finally, direct systems directly convert the resource exploited in electric power:
these types of systems are the photovoltaic plants, which directly convert solar
radiations into electric power through a photoelectric process, and the fuel cells,
that convert the chemical energy of a fuel (generally hydrogen) directly into
electric power through an electrochemical process.
All the systems mentioned above can also envisage other transformation pro-
cesses such as mechanical variation systems (either reduction or increasing), for
instance introduced in order to obtain a suitable number of revolutions of the rotor
of the generator starting from the number of revolutions of the turbine shaft, and
systems for the transformation of the voltage and frequency of the electric power
produced in order to obtain the suitable utilisation characteristics.
This paragraph contains the description of the most common conversion plants
used for the production of the main energy vectors: heat, electricity and hydrogen.
1
This introduces a thermodynamic limit to the conversion process efficiency, the so called
Carnot efficiency.
2
These plants can also be powered with solar, nuclear, or other types of energy.
4.2 Energy Conversion Plants 181
Table 4.1 summarizes the systems under consideration with the relevant
conversion.
4.2.1 Mechanical Energy-to-Electric Power Conversion Plants
4.2.1.1 Hydroelectric Plants
Plant Cycle and Layout
The cycle for the production of electric power through hydropower plants can be
summarizes as follows: due to the effect of the solar energy, the water of seas, rivers
and wet surfaces evaporates. The masses of damp air, transported by winds,
encounter favourable condensation conditions and originate rainfalls. The water
that falls on mountains has a potential mechanic energy that generally disperses
through friction by flowing downstream; by limiting this waste by means of suitable
pipes, such energy, instead of being dissipated in the form of heat, is transformed
(unless unavoidable losses occur) into usable kinetic energy; through a hydraulic
turbine, then, the kinetic energy of water is transformed into mechanic work.
Basically there are two plant layouts: run-of-river plants, that use the flow rate
of the river by following its natural variation, and reservoir plants, which allow to
fill reservoirs with volumes of water hence making them available according to
energy needs, clearly within the volume limits of the reservoir itself. The works
that are necessary for the construction of a hydroelectric power plant include:
• Weirs: normally, in reservoir plants, intake works consist of dams, whereas in
run-of-river works there are simple weirs. Dams are taller since, besides inter-
cepting the water flow, also create a reservoir that is useful to regulate flow
rates. Weirs, on the contrary, are works of moderate height that generally limit
the level of water upstream within the line of the riverbed.
• Intake works: which allow to transport water from the weir to the plant. They are
made up of an intake work (endowed with grids and interception devices)
followed by a diverting channel that can be either free-surface or a pressure
pipeline. Free-surface channels generally have a trapezoidal section and can be
dug into the ground and endowed with a concrete coating; pressure pipelines, on
the contrary, have a round section and are made with steel pipes.
• Adduction and transportation work at the plant: these pipes begin from the
forebay reservoir or from the surge tank and bring water to the machines of the
plant; they are heavily inclined and made of round steel plate. They always have
head and foot valves that allow to prevent the passage of water when needed.
• Disconnection work: at the end of the diversion channel is located a forebay
reservoir if the diversion is an open channel, or a surge tank in case of a pressure
derivation. The disconnection aims at reducing the effects of the sharp changes
in the flow rate caused by the regulation of the power to be produced,
Table 4.1 Some energy conversion plants

Conversion Plant Conversion and transformation
From To
Mechanical Electric Hydroelectric power plants Transformation of the potential energy of
water into kinetic energy
Transformation of kinetic energy into
mechanical power on a shaft
Conversion from mechanic energy into
electric power
Wind power plants Transformation of the kinetic energy of the air
into mechanic power on a shaft
Conversion from mechanic energy into
electric power
Radiant Electric Photovoltaic plants Direct conversion
Chemical Electric Thermoelectric plants (gas, Conversion of the chemical energy of a fuel
steam and combined gas- into thermal energy (combustion)
steam plants) Conversion of thermal energy into
mechanic energy (thermodynamic cycle)
Conversion of mechanic energy into
electric energy
Fuel cells Direct conversion
Chemical Mechanic Internal combustion engines Conversion of the chemical energy of a fuel
into thermal energy (combustion)
Conversion of thermal energy into
mechanic energy (thermodynamic cycle)
Chemical Electric MHD (Magneto Hydro Conversion of the chemical energy of the fuel
Dynamics) into thermal energy of a plasma
conversion of thermal and mechanical
energies og the plasma into electric one
Radiant Thermal Flat-plate collectors Direct conversion
Concentrators Direct conversion
Thermal Chemical Chemical reactorsa Direct conversion
Electric Chemical Electrolysers Direct conversion
Radiant Chemical Photoelectrolysis Conversion of radiant energy into electric
energy
Conversion of electric energy into
chemical energy
Electric Thermal Compression heat pumps Conversion of electric energy into mechanic
energy (refrigerant fluid compression)
Conversion of mechanic energy into
thermal energy (heat flow)
Peltier effect heat pumps Direct conversion
Electric Radiant Incandescent lamps Conversion of electric energy into thermal
energy (Joule effect)
Conversion of thermal energy into
luminous radiant energy
Discharge lamps Direct conversion
a
‘‘Direct conversion’’ is referred to the only water thermolysis chemical plant that uses heat for the
scission reaction. According to the heat production procedures, the plant as a whole operates a trans-
formation of chemical energy (in case heat is produced from the combustion of fossils) or a conversion
from radiant energy to chemical energy in case heat is produced in concentration solar plants.
Table 4.2 Criteria for the construction of hydroelectric power plant

Function of the work Reservoir plant Run-of-river plant
Weir Dam Weir
Intake Pressure Free-surface
Transportation Pressure tunnel Open-air or tunnel
Disconnection Surge tank Forebay reservoir
Adduction at the plant Pressure pipeline Pressure pipeline
Energy production Open-air or cavern Outdoor
Drain Outdoor or tunnel Outdoor
introducing at the end of the diversion channel a tank that can either temporarily
absorb the overflow or provide additional overflow in case of need. These works
also aim at reducing the effects of pressure variations (water hammers) in water
channels because of the manoeuvres on the machines of the plant.
• Plants: they can be open-air with the building above the ground, sunken or in a
vertical shaft, underground or as caverns. They include the turbine, the electric
transformer and all the auxiliary components.
• Outlet works: they are made up of an open channel or a pressure channel that
gives back the water flow used in the watercourse, hence bringing water from
the plant to the watercourse.
The criterion at the basis of the construction of these works varies according to
the type of plant made as shown in Table 4.2.
A Brief Mention on Hydraulic Machines

The type of turbine to be installed in a hydroelectric plant depends on the head
available and on the flow rate. Figure 4.2 shows the diagram relating to the use of
the three most widespread turbines: Pelton, Francis and the bulb-type turbine or
Kaplan. Following the principle of similitude, the two parameters, head and flow
rate, define the characteristic velocity or the specific speed, a parameter that
characterises ‘‘hydraulically similar’’ machines. This parameter can be expressed
with the following formula3:
pffiffiffiffi
n N
Ns ¼ 5=4 ð4:1Þ
Hm
where Ns is the characteristic velocity, n the nominal speed of the machine, N the
nominal power and Hm the hydraulic head.
3
It can also be expressed according to mass flow rate Q, instead of power N, that is to say:
pffiffiffiffi
n Q
Nsq ¼ 3=4
Hm
Fig. 4.2 Graph showing the 1000

Pelton
Pelton
Pelton
utilisation of Pelton, Francis H
and Kaplan turbines
Francis
Francis
Francis
according to the flow rate and 100
the hydraulic head
Kaplan
Kaplan
Kaplan
10
1
0,01 0,05 0,1 0,5 1 5 10 50
Q
Table 4.3 Characteristic Turbine Nsq

number for the different types
of turbines Pelton 5–22
Francis 20–100
Kaplan 100–300
The characteristic velocity has an important practical meaning since, given the
same hydraulic head and power, it is proportional to the rotation speed of the
machine, and since the weight of the machine (and thence its cost) decreases as
speed increases, machines are developed with the highest possible characteristic
velocity. Table 4.3 shows the indicative values of the characteristic velocity of the
most commonly used hydraulic turbines4 [1].
The Net Head

The net head of a hydraulic turbine is the difference of hydraulic loads, i.e. of the
mechanic energy owned by the liquid, between two conventional sections imme-
diately upstream and downstream the machine. These sections are chosen with
operational criteria for the different types of turbines.
Indicating with Hi and Ho the hydraulic loads, with zi and zo (in m) the heights
(as compared to an arbitrary reference), with pi and po (in kg/m2) pressures, and
with Vi and Vo (in m/s) the speeds corresponding to the input and output sections of
the machine mentioned above, the net head expressed in meters is:

pi Vi2 po Vo2
H ¼ H i H o ¼ zi þ þ zo þ þ ð4:2Þ
c 2g c 2g
where c is the specific gravity of water (in kg/m3).

The reference chart is shown in Fig. 4.3: z is the geometrical height, p/c is the
static head and V2/2 g is the velocity head.
4
The values shown are obtained by expressing n in revolutions/min., Q in m3 and Hm in m.
Fig. 4.3 Layout of a

hydroelectric plant
In case of impulse turbines5 (Pelton) the impeller completely rotates free in the
air, hit by one or several jets, therefore the outlet pressure is the atmospheric
pressure, namely po = pa. Furthermore, the outlet velocity is to be considerated as
null, considering calculations in the corresponding energy (kinetic) dissipated in
the turbine (the turbine is charged with a loss that as a matter of fact is not related
to it). Therefore in case of impulse turbines, the following applies:
pa
Ho ¼ zo þ ð4:3Þ
c
As an outlet section, the height of the touching point of the jet axis at the
average diameter of the wheel is considered; in case of horizontal axis two-jet
turbines, the average of the heights of the touching points defined above is con-
sidered. In case of multi-jet turbines, the height of the plane containing them is
taken into consideration. As an inlet section, the connection flange between the
pressure pipeline and the machine is considered. By replacing (4.3) in (4.2), it
follows that the net head for impulse turbines is:
Vi2 pi pa
H¼ þ þ zi zo ð4:4Þ
2g c c
In reaction turbines (Francis and Kaplan), the outlet pressure is different from
atmospheric pressure due to the presence of the diffusion-aspiring pipe. This
allows not to lose the net head corresponding to the height of the outlet section of
the machine at the discharge canal. As concerns Fig. 4.4 by applying the
5
In general, action (or impulse) turbines are those in which there is no pressure difference in the
operating period between inlet and outlet from the impeller, whereas in reaction turbine the outlet
pressure is lower than the one at the inlet of the impeller.

hydraulic turbines diffuser
Bernoulli’s principle (with no losses) between the outlet section of the machine
(o) and the discharge section (d), it follows that:
Vo2 po V 2 pd
þ þ zo ¼ d þ þ zd ð4:5Þ
2g c 2g c
At the discharge, velocity can be considered as null and pressure is the atmo-
spheric one, therefore (4.5) it becomes:
Vo2 po pa
þ þ zo ¼ þ zd ð4:6Þ
2g c c
From which, bearing in mind (4.2), it is possible to write the equation of the net
head for reaction turbines:
Vi2 pi pa
H¼ þ þ zi zd ð4:7Þ
2g c c
To determine the expression of the hydraulic head according to the height of the
intake reservoir, of the discharge canal and of the machine, as regards Fig. 4.5 by
applying the Bernoulli equation between the intake section (in) and the inlet
section to the machine (i), it is possible to obtain:
Vin2 pin V 2 pi
þ þ zin ¼ i þ þ zi ð4:8Þ
2g c 2g c
In the intake section, velocity can be considered as null and pressure is the
atmospheric one, therefore (4.8) becomes:
pa V 2 pi
þ zin ¼ i þ þ zi ð4:9Þ
c 2g c

hydroelectric plant with
impulse and reaction turbine
Fig. 4.6 Pelton turbines
By replacing (4.9) in (4.4) and in (4.7) the expressions of the net head for
impulse turbines (Himp) and reaction turbines (Hreact) are obtained:
H ¼ zin zo ð4:10Þ
H ¼ zin zd ð4:11Þ
It is therefore possible to see how in impulse turbines the net head corre-
sponding to the height of the outlet section from the machine is lost compared to
the discharge canal.
Field of Application and Efficiency of Hydraulic Turbines

It is now possible to state that the Pelton turbines are suitable for the highest net heads
(impulse turbines, Fig. 4.6), the Francis reaction turbines are used for intermediate
heads (Fig. 4.7), whereas for small heads the Kaplan reaction turbines are used
(Fig. 4.8). The fields of application, in general, are those shown in Table 4.4 [1].
In case of not-too-high heads, it is economically convenient to use the Francis
reaction turbines, even when it would be possible to use the Pelton ones. With the
Fig. 4.7 Francis turbines
continuous fine-tuning of the fluid-dynamic design of blades and with the expe-
rience acquired in the solution of problems related to high heads, as well as the use
of high discharge heads, there is a continuous trend by Francis turbines to trespass
the Pelton turbines’ field of application. As the head increases, however, the
economic convenience of the Francis turbines decreases, due to the worsening of
seal and cavitation problems.
In case of small heads with large flow rates, Kaplan turbines are used: with
them, the adjustable blades allow not only to keep a good efficiency in terms of
adjustment, but also a good operation in case of variations of the net head—
including considerable ones.6 For this reason, despite of the construction com-
plexity and, therefore, of high costs, the Kaplan turbines tend to trespass the
Francis turbines’ field of application.
As concerns efficiency, Pelton and Kaplan turbines are endowed with an
adjustment system (variation of the jet section with Pelton, variation of the pro-
peller-blade angle with Kaplan) that allows to keep a good efficiency for wide flow
6
For small heads (i.e. 10 m), head variations, although limited in absolute terms, entail
variations that from a percentage viewpoint are relevant for the head itself.
Fig. 4.8 Kaplan turbines
Table 4.4 Fields of Turbine Hm (m)

application of hydraulic
turbines Pelton [500
Francis 70–500
Kaplan \70
rate variations (given the same hydraulic head and power); the Francis turbine has
no adjustment systems and its efficiency markedly decreases for flow rate varia-
tions—including limited ones.
Pumped-storage Plants
One particular feature of hydraulic plants is that demand of they allow the con-
struction of pumping plants, which, in the situations of low electricity, use electric
power to pump upstream the water.
These devices are typical of pondage installations in which a pump (Francis
turbines are reversible, they can work both as a turbine and as a pump, and
therefore in some cases there is one machine only) takes water from the basin
downstream back to the basin upstream, consuming electric power (usually in the
night lower demand). The alternator, being a reversible engine, while pumping
works as an electric motor. It is obvious, while considering efficiency, that the
electric power consumed in the pumping phase is higher than the one produced
during generation, and therefore the entire process wastes part of the electric
power globally produced. However, some considerations are needed. The pumping
process allows not to drastically intervene, interrupting the water flow and
therefore the production of electricity in some cases. This interruption would entail
management problems as well as energy waste higher than the energy spending
entailed by the pumping plant. And, what is more important, this process makes
the conversion requested to thermoelectric plants more efficient, since their per-
formance are very much influenced by sudden variations of loads than in the case
of hydroelectric plants.
In case of not too high hydraulic heads (up to 600 m) it is possible to use the
Francis turbine that, since it is a reversible machine, during the pumping process,
in rotating inversely, can also act as a pump. This solution, which only includes a
hydraulic machine, is more convenient from the economic viewpoint.
If the head is higher, it is necessary to use two different hydraulic machines: one
Pelton turbine and one pump. The Pelton turbine, working as an impulse turbine, is
always above the level of the afterbay reservoir, whereas the pump, in order to
avoid cavitation problems, must be placed below the level of the lower basin; in
this way the two machines are located distant from one another, and this entails
construction problems linked to the length of the shaft connecting the two
machines. This solution is more expensive than the previous one.
An alternative solution that allows to eliminate the problem of the length of the
shaft (excessive lengths may entail problems linked to shaft vibrations, at the point
of making the work practicably impossible), consists in the creation of two sep-
arate plants in overlapping caves, one at a higher height with Pelton-alternator
groups, the other one at a lower height with pump-electric motor groups. The cost
of these plants heavily exceeds the one of single-cave plants.
Another solution, successfully tested and implemented consists in making a
multistage pump working as a turbine by making it turn in the opposite direction.
The adoption of particular profiles of the impeller allows to obtain a good effi-
ciency both in terms of generation and pumping. This type of machines allows to
adopt binary groups (i.e. groups with one hydraulic machine only) for high heads
(600–1,300 m) and high power (larger then 150 MW) [2].
One limitation for multistage reversible groups is the impossibility of adjusting
the power supplied since the hydraulic machine has no diffuser and works ‘‘all or
nothing’’.
General Classification of Hydroelectric Plants

The power of hydraulic plants varies from some tens to thousands of kW. Obvi-
ously there are different construction criteria for the different sizes; the following
categories of plants can be identified:
• Micro-hydraulic up to 100 kW.
• Mini-hydraulic from 100 kW to 1 MW.
• Small-hydraulic from 1 to 3 MW.
• Hydraulic over 3 MW.
Fig. 4.9 Main components

of a wind turbine
Larger hydroelectric power plants (small-hydraulic and, most of all, hydraulic)

need a long construction time and remarkable initial investments, especially due to
the civil engineering works that are necessary. The construction costs for this type
of plant is very high, whereas the cost for the production of the electric power
supplied is among the lowest ones in the different types of plants.
The potential energy-electric power conversion efficiency amounts to nearly
80% and is mainly determined by the efficiency of turbines (about 90%), by energy
waste in pipelines (1–2%) and by the efficiency of the alternator (around 90%).
The utilisation depends on the type of plant: in run-of-river plants, the variation
of the power supplied follows the natural course of the flow rate available and the
number of hours of operation per year is, on average, 5,000. In basin plants, on the
contrary, it is possible to adjust the power supplied according to the demand and
reach the highest number of hours of operation per year (nearly 5,800).
4.2.1.2 Wind Power Plants
Overview
Wind power plants convert the kinetic energy of moving air masses into mechanic
energy of blade rotation. The set of blades represents the rotor of the wind turbine,
the nacelle contains all the other elements that are necessary for energy conver-
sion, and the tower acts as a support (Fig. 4.9).
In general, the mechanic energy linked to blade rotation can be exploited in two
different ways:
• As mechanic energy, for instance to operate a pump (windpumps).

• Transforming it into electric power (aero-generators, also commonly called
wind turbines).
Having considered the remarkable and growing importance that the latter
machines have taken in world market, further on in this chapter reference is
exclusively made to wind power plants destined to the production of electric
power.
Apart from this first distinction, wind turbines are subject to several classifi-
cations, that are shown below.
Classification of Wind Turbines

A first classification divides wind machines on the basis of the position of the
rotation axis of blades; it is possible to find horizontal axis turbines and vertical
axis turbines. Vertical axis turbines, as the Darrieus turbine, have had little fortune
until today, despite of some evident advantages as the possibility of working at
very low wind regimes and the automatic alignment with the instantaneous
direction of the wind. Their main limit is represented by a lower conversion
efficiency compared to horizontal axis turbines.
As concerns the position of the rotor and of the nacelle, wind turbines can be
placed upwind or downwind.
The almost universally adopted solution is upwind, in which moving air
‘‘encounters’’ the rotor and subsequently the nacelle and the tower. This position
allows to minimise the disturbance of the tower and the nacelle against the wind
before it encounters the blades.
The downwind configuration is exclusively used in particular cases, for some
small-sized yaw turbines, since the nacelle passively aligns to the direction of the
wind. This choice, however, shows the huge disadvantage of the interference of
the tower and the nacelle with the air flow, entailing the following consequences:
• Increase of the oscillating forces acting on the machine;
• Lower conversion efficiency;
• Increase of acoustic emissions.
Wind turbines can be employed to feed isolated individual users, or to simul-
taneously supply electric power to the electricity grid. When a wind turbine has to
be connected simultaneously to the electric network (which is the most frequent
case nowadays), it is necessary that the energy produced has strict quality features
in terms of voltage and frequency. Assuming to generate electric power through an
alternator connected to the rotor of the turbine, it must be considered that the
rotation speed of the alternator depends on the frequency through:
60 f
n¼ ð4:12Þ
p
where n is the rotation speed of the alternator (revolutions per minute), f is the
mains frequency7 (Hz) and p is the number of polar couples of the generator.
The number of polar couples is limited, due to their size and to the cost of the
generator, to a maximum of 3. Therefore, in case of a frequency of 50Hz it is
possible to obtain the rotation velocity of 3,000 rpm (1 polar couple), but also
1,500 rpm (2 polar couples) and 1,000 rpm (3 polar couples). If we consider, for
instance, a rotation speed of 1,000 rpm and a turbine with a diameter of 40 m, the
peripheral speed of the tip of the blade amounts to over 2,000 m/s. It is evident that
such a speed would entail an overstress for the blades. It is therefore necessary to
differentiate the rotation speed of blades from the speed of the generator.
Many manufacturers solve this problem by inserting a reduction gear with a
ratio of about 1:50. This is a configuration with a direct connection to the mains
and entails a constant rotation speed for the rotor of the wind turbine. The con-
sequence of this option is a non-suitable behaviour whenever conditions differ
from those of the design.
An alternative option is to use axial flux permanent magnet slow generators. A
generator with 30 poles, for instance, rotates with a speed of 200 rpm. This
rotation frequency entails a peripheral speed that is still acceptable for small-sized
turbines (some tens of kW), due to the small standard radius. For instance, a
turbine of 10–20 kW, with a diameter of 8 m, would have a speed at the blade tip
of nearly 84 m/s corresponding to a rotation frequency of 200 rpm. Thanks to this
configuration, it is possible to make a direct coupling between rotor and generator,
avoiding the presence of the reduction gear, hence with a huge saving in terms of
weight, cost and energy losses.
The most frequently adopted configuration to avoid the use of the reduction
gear, however, is the one of the indirect connection to the grid. In such a con-
figuration, a synchronous generator (alternator), directly connected to the rotor,
produces electric power in multifrequency alternating current (since the rotation
speed varies); this current is transformed into direct current by a rectifier, and
subsequently transformed again into constant-frequency alternating current
through an inverter.
The disadvantages of this configuration are linked to the additional cost of
transformation devices. The advantages include the possibility of avoiding the
presence of the reducion gear and to obtain a variable rotation speed for blades,
with the subsequent optimisation of efficiency for a wide range of wind speed.
The tip speed ratio, k, is defined as the ratio between the maximum peripheral
speed of the blade (that is to say the speed at the tip of the blade, vp), and wind
speed (v):
vp x r
k¼ ¼ ð4:13Þ
v v
7
50 or 60 Hz (see Sect. 3.5.4.1).
Fig. 4.10 Power coefficient

as k varies
Furthermore, the power coefficient, cp is defined as the ratio between the energy
transferred to the rotor and the one contained in the wind current. Please note that
cp is proportional to the efficiency of the machine, although it takes on higher
values since it considers neither the mechanical loss in the other components (for
instance the reduction gear), nor the electric ones in the generator.
The power coefficient of a wind turbine varies with k, reaching a peak whenever
a given value applies. Figure 4.10 shows the qualitative trend of the power
coefficient according to k.
Fixed rotation speed turbines, for which k necessarily varies as wind speed
changes, operate at optimal k only for a particular value of wind speed. Variable
speed turbines, on the contrary, operate at optimal k in a wider field of wind speed
values, since they are able to adapt their rotation frequency to the instantaneous
velocity of the wind, therefore keeping the value of k constant. The result is that
the variable rotation speed allows an increase of average efficiency. The choice of
the optimal number of blades for a wind turbine is linked to the k ratio. The
turbines with a high number of blades have a low value of the optimal ratio of
peripheral speed (k = 1) and are therefore characterised by a low number of
revolutions, given the same wind velocity. They show, however, a remarkable
starting torque, and this is the reason why they are used for water pumping or for
other purposes in which mechanic energy is directly necessary. The high torque
demands a great strength for the rotor and therefore a high number of blades.
Conversely, the turbines with a lower number of blades are used for electric
power generation and are characterised by a high rotation speed and a high value
of k (5 7 8).
Nowadays, turbines with k [ 8 are not manufactured, since the level of noise,
approximately proportional to the peripheral speed of the blade, would reach
inacceptable levels.
The large-size turbines that are presently used for electric power generation are
almost exclusively manufactured with three blades. The need for blades with a
large diameter, in fact, entails high peripheral speeds at the tip of blades, given the
same wind velocity. This means, in practice, a high value of k. Three-blade tur-
bines are then preferred, since they operate at the highest efficiency with high
values of k. The recent trend to manufacture turbines with two or even one blade is
linked to the cost reduction that could be obtained. All the large-size turbines
Fig. 4.11 Power supplied

according to wind speed
belonging to the first generation were endowed with two-blade rotors. Nowadays a
different approach is followed, according to which a three-blade rotor is preferred,
given its more uniform weight distribution in the area swept out. This circum-
stance entails a higher uniformity of the stress on the structure and also a lower
visual impact during the rotation of blades.
According to the present regulations for the certification of wind turbines, the
resistance of components must be tested with less frequent and strong winds
(between 50 and 70 m/s). It is readily evident that it is not convenient to design a
machine able to operate at such values of wind speed, since the additional cost
would be huge, while the increase of additional energy production negligible,
having considered the low frequency of very strong winds. For this reason,
designers prefer to adopt measures that reduce the power absorbed by a wind
turbine as the wind speed increases, and put it ‘‘out of use’’ in case such velocity
becomes excessive. According to international regulations, this operation includes
two braking systems, one for operation and one for emergency. Namely, a power
regulation is carried out. This operation consists of dispersing excess energy,
besides a given value of wind velocity, in order to prevent damages to the plant.
Usually, there are four running speeds relating to wind turbines:
• Standstill rotor
• Partial load operation
• Adjustable nominal power operation
• Stop.
In order to characterise the operation of wind turbines, a series of values for the
speed of the wind hitting the rotor are defined (Fig. 4.11).
Until the wind reaches a minimum speed, called ‘‘cut-in’’, the energy transferred
to the blades is not sufficient to overcome the inertia of the rotor and of the
generator, and the turbine cannot then be started up. Subsequently, the nominal
speed is defined, as the one at which corresponds the rated power of the machine.
Between the ‘‘cut–in’’ and the nominal speed, the machine operates at a partial
load. In case of values higher than the nominal one, the turbine works in a power
control speed, until reaching the ‘‘cut-out’’ speed, at which the machine is not
exposed to the wind action any longer, in order to avoid structural damages. In any
case, the resistance of the machine up to the survival speed is guaranteed. The
indicative values of the speeds described for a modern turbine are summed up
below:
• ‘‘Cut-in’’ speed: 3.5 m/s
• Nominal speed: 13 m/s
• ‘‘Cut-out’’ speed: 25 m/s
• Survival speed: 70 m/s.
The most widespread methods for power regulation are the following:
• Pitch control allows to vary the pitch of blades by rotating them around their
longitudinal axis, so as to ‘‘take them out’’ of the wind. Thanks to this control, in
case of speed values exceeding the nominal one, the power remains constantly
as the rated power. The pitch variation allows a mild control of power, although
demanding a blade rotation mechanism as well as an active control of output
power that controls the implementation of the pitch.
• Stall is based on the homonymous phenomenon. Stall consists in the detachment
of the fluid vein from the surface of the blade as the wind speed increases.
Following this detachment, the lift force decreases due to the rotation of blades,
and the excess energy is dispersed in the form of vortexes. Compared to the
control for pitch variation, the ‘‘passive’’ use of the stall phenomenon requires
neither a mechanism of blade rotation around their longitudinal axis, nor a
control mechanism. The stall, on the other hand, needs a high-level aerodynamic
design and also leads to the development of vibrations on the wind machine.
• Yaw: the rotor is ‘‘taken out’’ by the wind through a rotation around the vertical
axis.
• Tilt variation: the rotor is ‘‘taken out’’ by the wind through a rotation around the
horizontal axis.
Normally, high-power turbines are controlled by stall or pitch variation,
whereas small-sized ones by yaw or by tilt variation.
As a matter of fact, the yaw mechanism is used in all turbines to point the nacelle
towards the direction of the prevailing wind, as this direction varies in time. This
variation can be carried out passively, by means of a weathercock, or through an
active control operated by an anemometer. The signal of the anemometer records
the wind direction and transmits this information to the yaw system. The use of
weathervanes is allowed for rotors with a diameter up to 10 m, because in case of
larger turbines it would be too large to be economically convenient.
The power produced by wind turbines, as already underlined, depends on wind
speed. The nominal power is the one that corresponds to the nominal speed for a
given machine. The energy actually produced by a machine in a given period of
time, normally 1 year, cannot be simply calculated by multiplying the nominal
power by the number of operations hours, since speed varies in time.
Fig. 4.12 Photovoltaic cells in single-crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous crystalline

silicon
The producibility of a wind turbine is therefore strongly related to the speed

distribution of the site and can be expressed in equivalent hours, meaning the
hours of operation at the nominal power that usually reach a maximum number of
3,000 per year. From an economic viewpoint, the use of wind turbines to generate
electric power becomes convenient in those sites in which the equivalent hours of
operation per year range at least between 1,500 and 2,000.
4.2.2 Radiant Energy-to-Electric Power Conversion Plants
These plants are based on the ‘‘direct’’ conversion of solar radiant energy into
electricity as a consequence of the photovoltaic effect.
4.2.2.1 Photovoltaic Plants
The Photovoltaic Cell
The element at the basis of photovoltaic devices is the photovoltaic cell

(Fig. 4.12). It is available is different sizes and can be made of different materials.
The most widespread cells are in crystalline silicon (monocrystalline and poly-
crystalline) and in amorphous crystalline.9 A typical form is squared, with a sur-
face of nearly 100 cm2, although larger cells can be manufactured.
The curve describing the trend of the current of the cell according to its voltage,
called characteristic curve, shows the behaviour of the cell both in the dark and in
the light (Fig. 4.13).
By applying a potential difference in the dark, there is a flow of current only if
the value exceeds a given threshold.
9
Other materials (for instance organic materials) are being studied.
Fig. 4.13 Typical curve I–

V of a photovoltaic cell
Fig. 4.14 Variation of curve I–V with the temperature of the cell and with the solar radiation
intensity
On the contrary, by exposing the cell to the light electric power is generated in
any case; if the junction is in short circuit (V = 0) a maximum current is generated
(Isc), whereas in case of open-circuit (I=0), a maximum voltage is determined on
the two sides (Voc). In the case of standard silicon cells (10 9 10 cm), Icc is nearly
3 A, whereas Voc amounts to about 0.6 V. Having considered that the power of a
generator is the product of its voltage by the current generated, in the two cases
described above the power will be null, and from the characteristic curve it is
possible to identify the point in which the system provides the maximum power.
The characteristic curve of a cell depends, besides its intrinsic properties (the
material), also on two important parameters: the intensity of luminous radiation
and the temperature of the cell itself (Fig. 4.14). It is evident, therefore, that at the
maximum power it takes different values as I and V vary; the corresponding values
of current and voltage are called current (Ipmax) and maximum power voltage
(Vpmax).
Temperature increase cause a decay in the electric performance of the photo-

voltaic device. In a silicon cell, for instance, whilst the short circuit current
undergoes a negligible variation, the voltage of the open circuit decreases as
temperature increases (nearly 2 mV/C). The heating of a photovoltaic cell entails,
therefore, an overall decrease of its performance.
Since photovoltaic system are powered by a variable source and since, as just
analysed, their performance are linked to the characteristics of solar radiation. In
order to quantify the performance of a photovoltaic cell (and more generally of
whatever photovoltaic device), it is necessary to refer to precise conditions, known
as standard conditions:
• Radiation intensity 1.000 W/m2
• Cell temperature 25C
• Solar spectrum AM1, 1.5 (correspong to a solar zenith angle 4819).
The rated data of the power generated by a photovoltaic cell is expressed in
Watt peak (Wp); the peak power is the one generated in the standard conditions
mentioned above. The conversion, efficiency is the ratio between the electric
power P, provided by the cell and the radiation power that strikes the frontal
surface, expressed as a product of the density of incident radiation I (W/m2) and
the area of the surface exposed A (m2):
P
g¼ ð4:14Þ
IA
The nominal conversion efficiency is calculated in standard conditions:
therefore the density of incident radiation I is 1,000 W/m2 and by indicating with
Pn the peak power of the cell:
Pn
gn ¼ ð4:15Þ
1; 000 A
The nominal efficiency of monocrystalline silicon commercial cells also
reaches 18%; those in polycrystalline silicon do not exceed 14%, whereas those in
amorphous silicon reach nearly 8%.
The power generated in operation is almost always different from the maximum
nominal power. Two important factors influence, in fact, the output of a photo-
voltaic generator: radiation intensity and temperature of the photovoltaic cell
(Fig. 4.14).
The first factor influences the short circuit current and subsequently the current
generated at maximum power. One can approximately say that the short circuit
current proportionally decreases as radiation decreases.
The second factor, on the contrary, acts on the open-circuit voltage and therefore
also on maximum power. In this case as well it is possible to assume that the
maximum power voltage undergoes a linear decrease with temperature increase.
The result is that the operating power decreases if compared to the reference
value (maximum power or peak power).
The Applications of Photovoltaic Technology

There are many possible applications of photovoltaic technology and range from
the power devices of very few hundreds of Watt (mostly pocket calculators and
watches) up to plants of several MWp.
In the past, having considered the prohibitive costs that characterised these
systems, mainly small-size applications were developed since they did not require
burdensome investments. However, as the cost of modules decreased, larger and
larger applications gained ground until reaching the 90s with photovoltaic plants.
They showed that high quantities of electric energy can be easily produced with
photovoltaic technologies, and that the only limitation to their development is cost.
If prices decrease to levels that allow to compete with electricity production from
traditional sources, there will be no more barriers to its spreading. The constant
decrease of the cost of modules led the sector’s operators to perform a careful
evaluation of those costs that are not directly depending on the photovoltaic
module. Thanks to this new approach, the attention of scholars and designers
shifted from large size power plants (high costs for bearing structures) to smaller
integrated systems in buildings, which represent the most promising solution for
photovoltaic systems.
The Photovoltaic Plant

Starting from finished cells it is possible to constitute modules, by adapting the
voltage and the current of the group of cells to users’ needs. The voltage of a single
cell, in fact, is on average low for all materials (around 0.5 V), whereas, by
connecting cells in series, the desired potential difference is obtained, which is the
sum of the various potentials. Several panels, electrically connected in series,
constitute a string whose voltage will be the sum of the voltage of the different
panels forming the string itself, whereas the current will be the same as in a single
panel. Several strings, electrically connected in parallel, make up the photovoltaic
field: the voltage of the field is the same as one of the strings, and the current is the
sum of the current of the stack.
Another component of photovoltaic plant is the maximum power point tracker
(MPPT). The MPPT allows working current and voltage to be the maximum power
ones at any operating (incident solar radiation, temperature) and load condition.
The other components of plants vary according to the following types of plants:
• Stand-alone systems
• Grid-connected systems.
Stand-alone systems envisage a storage system that guarantees current supply
even in the hours of lower lighting or of dark. The elements making up a stand-
alone system include the photovoltaic field, the charge controller, the battery and,
in case the equipment must be powered through alternating current, an inverter.10
10
Device converting the inlet direct current into alternating one.
The storage system is normally electrochemical (electric accumulators); the

choice is between lead–acid batteries, the most widespread ones, nickel–cadmium
and nickel–metal hydride batteries, lithium batteries which are more expensive.
The charge controller acts as a protection of accumulators. In fact, according to
the type of batteries selected, some precautions must be made on the voltage at
which the charge and discharge phases are carried out. In case the threshold
voltage is exceeded, the charge controller interrupts the current, and it allows
current to flow again only when voltage decreases below the threshold value.
This type of plant is used in those cases in which the electric grid is absent or
hardly accessible (i.e. remote houses, mountain refuges, pumping systems, tele-
communications systems, repeater stations, mark buoy, etc.).
The systems connected to the grid release the excess of energy generated in the
hours of sunshine and take it in the hours in which the generator is not sufficient to
meet the overall demand. They necessary include an inverter that transforms the
direct current produced by a photovoltaic generator into an alternating current as
similar as possible to the one supplied by the grid. However, the type of periodical
function that represents the current trend over time have a perfectly sinusoidal
trend, differently from the inverters in stand-alone applications, which almost
always can provide a square wave signal (low-quality of the signal) without cre-
ating any problems to the equipment they supply. In this case it is necessary to
obtain an output signal with a high degree of purity. It is also necessary that the
current injected in the grid is ‘‘in-phase’’ with the grid itself. Quite often, gride-
connect system—for either simplicity, or feed-in tariff advantages-supply all the
produced electricity to the grid even when integrated in buildings.
Energy Produced by a Photovoltaic System

Since the nominal power (peak power) of a photovoltaic plant is only a reference
value, it is fundamental to evaluate the actual quantity of energy that the plant
itself is able to actually produce in a given period of time.
Besides the nominal characteristics of the plant itself (number and efficiency of
panels), such quantity of energy depends also on other parameters such as:
• The insolation conditions in the installation site: the incident solar energy (kWh/
m2 year);
• The position of modules in space: tilt, azimuth and eventual shadings;
• Balance of system (BOS) efficiency: the efficiency of all the other systems of the
plant (inverters or accumulators), the losses in connection cables, etc..
Once the site characteristics (latitude, altitude and horizontal radiation) and the
position of panels (tilt, azimuth and eventual shadings) are known, it is possible to
calculate the incident specific energy Hp (kWh/m2), on panels (Fig. 2.9): once the
useful surface of panels A (m2) is known, the total incident solar energy on panels
is calculated. The electric power (in direct current) Edc (kWh) produced by the
photovoltaic field is:
Edc ¼ Hp A gp ð4:16Þ
Such energy shall be converted into alternating current and then transferred to
users, and in these operations part of the energy is lost. The BOS efficiency
measures the amount of said losses11. The useful energy Eu produced by the plant
is, therefore:
Eu ¼ Edc BOS ¼ Hp A gp BOS ð4:17Þ
By referring to the surface unit and assuming gp = 16% and BOS = 90%,
(4.17) becomes:
Eu ¼ Ecc BOS ¼ Hp 0:144 ð4:18Þ
that is to say the useful energy accounts for 14.4% of the incident solar radiation.
In considering, as an example, Hp = 1.800 kWh/m2 year12 it follows that with
1 m2 of panels it is possible to produce nearly 260 kWh/year.
Equation 4.17 can be written according to the nominal power of the plant Pn
(kW). By definition of the nominal efficiency of the panel13:
Pn
gp ¼ ð4:19Þ
A
By replacing (4.19) in (4.17) it follows that:
Eu ¼ Hp Pn BOS ð4:20Þ
As regards the nominal power unit, the useful energy is a fraction (equal to
BOS) of the specific incident solar energy. The product of Hp by BOS represents
the equivalent hours for the photovoltaic panel. On the basis of the hypotheses a
1 kWp plant produces nearly 1.600 kWh/year.
Costs and Sizing General Criteria

The sizing of a photovoltaic system can follow different approaches, according to
whether a stand-alone or a grid-connected plant is taken into consideration.
A stand-alone system, in fact, must in any case guarantee to users the meeting
of the consumptions envisaged. The entire set of the photovoltaic system and of
11
As a matter of fact, the definition of BOS efficiency often includes other factors of loss that are
not linked to other parts of the system, but still to the module and in particular to some of its
peculiar operating conditions. These are the losses due to the effect of temperature, losses due to
reflection on the frames of modules, etc. In the case of isolated systems, the battery charge and
discharge process entails an additional loss, which can be estimated as amounting to nearly 10%
of energy.
12
Solar radiation in Rome with a tilt of 30, azimuth equal to 0 and without shading.
13
Standard conditions provide for an incident radiation of 1 kW/m2.
Fig. 4.15 The ideal Joule

cycle
storage batteries must therefore be able to meet the entire electric power needs,
and sizing is consequently strictly related to consumption.
In case of grid-connected systems, on the contrary, there is not any new con-
straint, since users can be directly supplied through the electric grid, which acts as
an almost unlimited storage capacity. The starting points for sizing can therefore
be different from consumption and, in particular, they can be linked to the surface
available or to the initial investment budget, as well to feed-in tarrif rules.
The cost of photovoltaic modules is obviously different according to the size of
the plant to be developed, and is continuously evolving. Photovoltaic modules are
presently sold ‘‘on a power basis’’, meaning that, for instance, several polycrys-
talline modules are sold at the same price as a minor quantity of single-crystalline
modules provided that the nominal power of the two groups is the same.
Prices are continuously evolving, also in consideration of the incentives in
force, and the present trend indicates a progressive reduction of prices.
4.2.3 Chemical Energy-to-Electric Power Conversion Plants
4.2.3.1 Gas Turbine Plants
Thermodynamic Cycle
The basic reference cycle is the Joule cycle (Fig. 4.1514) made up of two adiabatic
processes (compression and expansion) and two isobaric processes (heating and
cooling).
14
Considering air, a perfect gas is H = cpT and being cp constant H and T only differ for a scale
factor, therefore the cycle has the same form on planes H–S and T–S.
As a matter of fact, in widespread plants the cooling process does not exist since
these are open-cycle plants; at the end of expansion, air is released into the
atmosphere.
Air, taken from the atmosphere and compressed in an axial compressor
(transformation 1–2), is then sent to the combustion chamber where its tempera-
ture is increased at a constant pressure (transformation 2–3); this is followed by the
expansion in the turbine (transformation 3–4) and the release into the atmosphere.
Specific Work and Efficiency

Since, as already said, the open-cycle plant is an internal combustion plant, it is
necessary to note that the cycle has a variable mass, since a given quantity of air
mass is compressed in the compressor and, together with the fuel introduced in the
combustion chamber, it expands in the turbine. Having defined a as the ratio
between the air mass and the fuel mass, and LHV the lower heating value of the
fuel, it follows that:
LHV Hi
Q1 ¼ ¼ cp ðT3 T2 Þ ) a ¼ 1 ð4:21Þ
aþ1 T3 T2
Let’s consider, as an example, the following values of the characteristic
parameters:
LHV = 10,000 kcal/kg (gasoil)
T3 = 1,300 K
T2 = 549 K (T1 = 27C, b = p2/p1 = 9)
cp = 0.26 (mean value between T3 and T2).
From (4.21) it is possible to obtain a = 53.8 which means that to each kg of air
react with 0.0186 kg of fuel; therefore the constant mass can be approximately
accepted.
Here it is recalled that compression 1–2 (1–20 in the real case) and expansion 3–
4 (3–40 in the real case) originate, respectively, compression work Lc and
expansion work Lt, with regard to Fig. 4.16. The efficiency of the ideal cycle15 is:
Lt Lc cp ðT3 T4 Þ cp ðT4 T1 Þ
gl ¼ ¼
Q1 cp ðT3 T1 Þ
ð4:22Þ
T4 T1 T1 T4 =T1 1
¼1 ¼1
T3 T2 T2 T3 =T2 1
Taking into consideration the status equations and processes, the result is:
k1
T1 P2 k T4 v4 T3 v3 v3 v4 T4 T3
¼ ; ¼ ; ¼ ; ¼ ) ¼ ð4:23Þ
T2 P1 T1 v1 T2 v2 v2 v1 T1 T2
15
In the ideal cycle, the reversible isentropic compression and expansion transformations are
considered.
Fig. 4.16 Ideal (dashed line)

and real (continous line)
Joule cycle
Subsequently, since the compression ratio b and the parameter e are defined as
follows:
p2
b¼ ð4:24Þ
p1
k1
¼e ð4:25Þ
k
By replacing (4.23), (4.24) and (4.25) in (4.22), the ideal efficiency gi is
obtained:
1
gi ¼ 1 ð4:26Þ
be
Indicating with gc the efficiency of the compressor and with gt the efficiency of
the turbine, the real specific work of cycle Lr is:
cp
Lr ¼ Ltr Lcr ¼ cp gt ðT3 T4 Þ ðT2 T1 Þ ð4:27Þ
gc
After adimensionalising, dividing by cpT3 (T3 is fixed at a maximum value for
technological reasons), and considering
T3
s¼ ð4:28Þ
T1
through a procedure analogous to the previous one, it is possible to obtain:

Lr s 1
¼ gt s e ðbe 1Þ ð4:29Þ
cp T1 b gc
The trends in efficiency and in the specific work according to b are shown in
Fig. 4.17. The respective maximum values are obtained for different values of the
Fig. 4.17 Specific work and

efficiency of the gas cycle
according to the compression
ratio
compression ratio. Assuming T3 = 1.300 K, T1 = 300 K, k = 1.38, gc = 0.88

and gt = 0.9, the maximum specific work is obtained with b = 8.4
(L = 1.0231 kJ/kg and g = 0.3454), whereas the maximum efficiency is obtained
with b = 20 (g = 0.388 and L = 859.4 kJ/kg). Considering that the trend of the
efficiency curve near the maximum level is flatter than the specific work, inter-
mediate values of the compression ratio are adopted, although closer to the opti-
mum of the specific work: b = 10 7 12 (with b = 12 it is possible to obtain
g = 0.3716 and L = 996.3 kJ/kg).
As already mentioned, the maximum temperature of the cycle is imposed by
technological factors that concern the resistance of the blades of the turbine to high
temperatures: mechanical strength, creep, corrosion. By using cooled blades, the
maximum temperature presently achievable is 1,300–1,350C. With T3 = 1,350C
the maximum specific work is obtained with b = 12.9 (L = 2,147.4 kJ/kg and
g = 0.4088) whereas the maximum efficiency is obtained with b = 38
(g = 0.4605 and L = 1,777.8 kJ/kg).
Thermal Regeneration
With the values of maximum temperature of cycle T3 and of the compression ratio
b mentioned above, it is possible to obtain a temperature T2, & 320C at the end
of the compression and T40 & 500C at the end of the expansion. Having con-
sidered T40 [ T20 thermal regeneration is therefore possible. It consists in using the
heat of flue gases at the discharge of the turbine (corresponding to area CF40 D in
Fig. 4.18) to preheat the air before accessing the combustion chamber. Taking into
consideration the thermal gradients that are necessary for thermal exchange, it is
not possible to perform a ‘‘complete’’ regeneration; the heat that is actually usable
to preheat the air is the one corresponding to area C0 F0 40 D in Fig. 4.18 that will
take the air before accessing the combustion chamber at temperature TP0 (in the
ideal case of complete regeneration, the temperature TP would be reached). In this
connection the degree of regeneration R is defined:
Fig. 4.18 Joule cycle with

thermal regeneration
Fig. 4.19 Gas cycle

efficiency regenerated
according to the compression
ratio, on the basis of some
values of the degree of
regeneration

cc T40 TF0
R¼ 0 ð4:30Þ
cp T4 TF
The quantities of heat Q1 and Q2 that the fluid exchanges with the outside
become:

Q1R ¼ cp T3 T40 þ ð1 RÞcp T40 T20 ð4:31Þ
0 0
Q2R ¼ cp T2 T1 þ ð1 RÞcp T4 T20 ð4:32Þ
Consequently, the efficiency, according to the characteristic parameters and to
the degree of regeneration, is:

1 g g
c t 1 1
b e 1sðbe 1Þ
gR ¼ h i ð4:33Þ
gc g 1 1e ð1 RÞ g 1 1e 1 þ 1 be 1 þ 1
t b t b s gc
The efficiency trend is plotted in Fig. 4.19 against b by varying R. As the degree
of regeneration increases, also the maximum value of efficiency increases, and that
Fig. 4.20 Scheme of an

open-cycle gas plant
value is obtained for lower values of b. As a matter of fact too low compression
ratios would penalise the specific work; for this reason, also considering that costs
and size of heat exchangers increase as the degree of regeneration increases, values
of R not too high are adopted, that is: 70–75% (with b = 8; R = 0.7 gR = 0.4189,
with R = 0.8 gR = 0.4332, with R = 0.9 gR = 0.4486). Regeneration entails the
presence of a heat exchanger that would otherwise be absent in gas plants.
The Open-Cycle System

Since open-cycle gas turbine plants are internal combustion systems, combustion
products enter into contact with the blades of turbines; this prevents the use of
‘‘poor’’ fuels. Whatever the fuel used, there are two types of limits of tolerability
of ‘‘contaminants’’: solid particles that exceed some sizes and cause erosion, and
chemical contaminants (vanadium, sodium, potassium, lead, nickel, calcium) that
cause corrosion. The problem of corrosion and erosion of turbine blades remains
in any case among the most severe ones for these systems.
One of the attractive peculiarities of these plants is their relatively simple
construction. In its simplest form, the plan of the system is shown in Fig. 4.20.
The turbine, the compressor and the alternator are assembled on the same shaft:
the compressor and the alternator are operated by the turbine. In order to be
injected in the combustion chamber, the fuel must be at a given pressure, normally
amounting to nearly 20 bar.16 The pressure at which gas is supplied varies
according to the type of gas distribution network; in any case, there is usually no
guarantee of a constant pressure of supply.
In the decompression station, gas decompression usually takes place (normally
the supply pressure is nearly 35 bar) or, when the supply pressure drops below
16
At the usual values of the compression ratio, nearly b = 12, the air is in a combustion
chamber at the pressure of nearly 12 bar. In those cases in which high compression ratio values
are adopted, b = 30, obviously a higher pressure for natural gas, nearly 35 bar, is necessary.

closed-cycle gas plant
some given values, a compression is performed, hence guaranteeing a constant

pressure at the entry point of the combustion chamber.
At the starting of the plant, the turbine is boosted by a suitable starting engine
(usually a Diesel one) that feeds it until fuel supply begins, and the ignition with
suitable sparking plugs follows. Subsequently, the fuel capacity is increased
according to a well-defined time law, in order to avoid thermal overloads. How-
ever, any start-up causes a stress to the plant that for the effects of ageing, costs
several hours of operation at full capacity.
The Closed-Cycle System

As already said, in general the plant is an open-cycle system. It is however pos-
sible, as in the case of gas power plants, to implement the closed-cycle system
(Fig. 4.21). This entails undeniable advantages as far as the cycle efficiency is
concerned:
• By regulating the pressure at the entry of the compressor, and therefore the flow
rate, it is possible to have a wide variation of the load at a rather constant
efficiency;
• There is the possibility of choosing the working fluid with convenient physical
characteristics;
• It is possible to work, given the same compression ratio, with pressurised fluid,
at a higher average pressure of the cycle, and therefore with a higher specific
work given the same other electric parameters;
• The system would be an external combustion plant, and therefore the fluid enters
the turbine ‘‘clean’’, sharply reducing the problems of blade corrosion, and
whatever type of fuel could be used.
On the other hand, in the closed-cycle plant, two heat exchangers are neces-
sary—one hot and one cold—that were not present in the open-cycle, and therefore
the plant is far more complex and more expensive. Furthermore, a certain avail-
ability of refrigerated water for the cool exchanger is needed, necessary in the
open-cycle solution. Considering that the system simplicity is among the main
strengths of turbogas systems, it is easy to understand why almost all of them are
open-cycle. For the same reason, also the convenience of thermal regeneration
must be evaluated for each single system at the moment of construction.
Further Improvements
Further measures to improve the performance of turbogas plants have been
studied. Besides the already-mentioned thermal regeneration, there are two main
improvements introduced:
• Intercooled compression
• Fractioned expansion with reheating.
Power Regulation
The regulation of the power supplied occurs by varying the initial expansion
temperature T3 acting on the fuel flow rate.17
Having considered that the conditions of the fluid vary, and since the rotation
speed must remain constant (at least in case of electric energy production, to
mantain grid frequency synchronous speed), the efficiency of the turbine, and
therefore of the cycle, heavily decreases while departing from the conditions
provided for in the plan. However, taking also into account that around 2/3 of the
power supplied by the turbine are absorbed by the compressor and nearly 1/3 by
the alternator, and that the fluid conditions at the beginning and at the end of the
compression do not vary (therefore the power absorbed by the compressor remains
unchanged), the decrease in the power supplied by the turbine is highly lower than
the reduction of electric power that is intended to be obtained.18 This allows rather
wide regulations of the electric power supplied without excessively damaging
efficiency.
A plant solution that allows regulations of the power supplied with limited
decrease of efficiency is represented by two-axle plants. In these plants there are
two different shafts: one moves the alternator, the other moves the compressor.
Obviously, a turbine must be mounted on each shaft, and therefore expansion must
be divided into two machines with power ratios produced approximately as 2/3 (for
the compressor) and 1/3 (for the alternator).
In this way the rotation speed of the compressor is not related to the one of the
alternator, and it is possible to assign to the compressor, as the load varies, the
speed that allows the maximum efficiency for that load value. The two turbines can
operate either in series or in parallel.
17
From (4.21) it is readily evident that by decreasing the fuel flow rate, T3 decreases.
18
For instance, to halve the electric power supplied, it is necessary to bring the power supplied
by the turbine at nearly 83% of the nominal value.
Fig. 4.22 Hirn cycle on the enthropic (T–S) and on the enthalpic level (H–S)
General Characteristics
The considerable technological development of gas turbines in the last decades,
with the introduction of the several improvements mentioned mentioned above,
entailed huge increases in the efficiency of gas plants: from 25–27% during the
1970s to 32–35% of modern plants. A peculiar characteristic of these plants is their
significant flexibility; very short transients (from the still position, the plant
reaches the maximum steady-state condition in a few tens of minutes) allow to
quickly adapt the power supplied to the demand. These characteristics make it
suitable to cover the top side of the load diagram, that is to say to provide the
power requested by the grid in the periods of highest consumption. In a plant there
are several turbogas groups; the power supplied is regulated by acting on the
number of groups operated simultaneously besides regulating the supply of each of
them in an interval that ranges from the operation at full capacity to 50% of the
nominal power. The hours of operation per year are 4,000–4,500. Compared to
steam plants, gas plants generally have a lower power, from less than hundred of
kWe, to some hundreds to MWe.
4.2.3.2 Steam Power Plants
Thermodynamic Cycle
The basic reference thermodynamic cycle is the Hirn Cycle (Fig. 4.22) envisaging
two isothermobaric (water evaporation (2–3) and vapour condensation (3–6)), one
isobaric (steam superheating) and two adiabatic (water compression (6–1) and
steam expansion (4–5)) transformations (3–4).
Water evaporation occurs in the steam generator. In a first phase (economiser)
water is brought to temperature T2; this process is obtained by recovering the
residual heat (transformation 1–2). In the second phase (vapouriser) the evapo-
ration occurs by exploiting the heat produced in the burner through combustion
(transformation 2–3) and finally the steam superheating occurs in the superheater
up to the maximum temperature allowed (transformation 3–4). At this point,
saturated and superheated steam expands in the turbine (transformation 4–5) and
reaches the condenser. Here, at constant pressure and temperature, by exchanging
heat with the cooling water, it condenses (transformation 5–6). Pumps bring water
back to the steam generator and increase its pressure (transformation 6–1).
As regards Fig. 4.22, the efficiency and the specific work of the cycle are,
respectively:
H5 H1
g¼1 ð4:34Þ
H4 H1
L ¼ H4 H5 ð4:35Þ
In a steam power plant, in order to improve efficiency, it is convenient that
condensation takes place at the lowest possible pressure. The reason for the
importance of a vacuum pushed in the condenser is that work $dp/q is higher,
given the same Dp, with low values of density q, namely with low pressures. Being
steam saturated, pressure depends on temperature; therefore the pressure inside of
the condenser is determined by the temperature of the refrigerant: normally
working temperature is around 35C and therefore 0.05 bar is the working pres-
sure. In the condenser, besides condensation, steam outgassing occurs through
extractors connected to the coldest areas. The choice of outgassing in the con-
denser is due to the fact that at the conditions therein existing, air solubility in
water and air density is more than double than dry saturated steam, and therefore
the quantity of steam inevitably removed together with air will be limited.
Once the conditions at the condenser are set, the cycle performance depends on
the fluid conditions at the outlet of the steam generator. The search for optimal
conditions is carried out by setting in advance the superheating temperature
(maximum temperature of the cycle): this is set as a compromise between ther-
modynamic needs (Carnot effect) that demand values as high as possible, whereas
technical–economic reasons impose some limitations. In consideration of these
elements, the superheating temperature is typically set at 550–600C. At these
temperatures, the pressures corresponding to optimal conditions exceed the critical
pressure of water (218 bar); as a matter of fact, although supercritical plants exist
(in the case of large-size groups), in the vast majority of cases the outlet pressure
of the steam generator is 100–180 bar. This is because the efficiency gain Dg/g
decreases as pressure increases, and it is therefore necessary to evaluate the
convenience in pushing maximum pressure beyond some values to the detriment
of costs, safety and easiness of management.
From the steam conditions mentioned above, an increase in the specific volume
of over 1,000 times is reached during the duty cycle. For this reason turbines are
divided into three bodies (high, medium, and low pressure ones) so that a limited
Fig. 4.23 Hirn cycle with

thermal regeneration
increase of the specific volume occurs in each of them. The low-pressure bodies
are often divided into several elements (usually two) placed in parallel.
The cycle described until now is the reference basic cycle, to which some
typical changes are made in order to improve its efficiency, mainly thermal
regeneration and repeated superheating.
Thermal Regeneration
Thermal regeneration consists of using the heat, Q, avaible during the steam-
condensation before the end of expansion (CEFD area in Fig. 4.23), in order to
preheat the water coming from the condenser before entering the steam generator
(area A12B).
Thermal regeneration through heat subtraction, however, is not convenient
since the steam fraction at the end of expansion (point F) would be too low,
endangering the integrity of the turbine or, at least, its efficiency.
The same regenerative effect can be obtained by removing steam from expan-
sion rather than heat and mixing such steam with the water to be preheated. In this
way the steam removed directly gives its thermal content to the liquid during the
heating phase, whereas the steam in the turbine continues its expansion undis-
turbed. In fact, practical thermal regeneration takes place through a given number
of bled-steam during expansion: the number and the position of this bleeding is
fixed according to technical–economic optimisation criteria.
The regeneration degree R is defined as the ratio between enthalpy variation by
mass unit conferred to the liquid through regeneration (hx1 – h0) and the total one
(h1 – h0):
h x1 h 0 h x 1 h 0
R¼ ¼ ð4:36Þ
h1 h 0 k
Fig. 4.24 Efficiency gain according to the number of bleedings
where:
k ¼ h1 h 0 ð4:37Þ
Indicating with z the number of steam bleedings, the maximum efficiency value
is obtained for:
z
R¼ ð4:38Þ
zþ1
With these assumptions, the efficiency increase (Dg/g) is plotted against z in
Fig. 4.24 As z increases, the efficiency gain increases to a lower rate; besides a
given value it is not convenient anymore to add other bleedings, hence further
complicating the plant without a valuable increment of efficiency increase. The
value of z for large installed powers is 8–10.
Repeated Superheating (Reheating)

In the past, the low superheating temperatures as well as the other high pressures
for the optimisation of specific work and efficiency, led to wet steam, with too low
steam fractions at the end of the expansion phase and the presence of water was an
erosion caus for the turbine blades. To prevent this, the procedure of repeated
superheating was developed. After expansion 40–30 (Fig. 4.25), steam is super-
heated at a constant pressure (transformation 30–40) up to a temperature equal to
or slightly lower than T4. Although developed to solve the problems related to a
too low steam fraction at the end of expansion, the double superheating has
advantages also from the merely thermodynamic viewpoint: by increasing the
portion of heat released at high temperatures, on the basis of the multiple-source
theory, overall efficiency increases. For this reason, although present superheating
Fig. 4.25 Steam cycle with double superheating on the anthropic and enthalpic level

multifuel steam plant with
double superheating
temperatures do not entail any low-fraction problems, the double superheating

remains a very widespread practice.
The Power Plant

Figure 4.26 shows the diagram of a steam power plant with double superheating
and bled-steam (with mixing S).
In steam plants it is possible to use whatever type of fuel, including nuclear one;
the most commonly used are fuel oil, coal and natural gas. Modern plants are
multifuel, that is to say they have a boiler whose combustion systems allow to use
different fuels without distinction. This solution offers a huge flexibility that allows
to vary the fuel used according to market needs or to product availability.
Heat exchange between bled-steam and the liquid to reheat can take place in
mixture regenerators or in surface regenerators.
Fig. 4.27 Diagram of the

combined plant
Mixture regenerators, although efficient from the thermal exchange viewpoint,

show, however, different plant disadvantages. They are bulky and heavy, but most
of all require the accelerator pump PR, necessary to introduce the liquid—in the
form of cold condensation—in the downstream regenerator, which is at a higher
pressure. Therefore, by using mixture regenerators, z accelerator pumps (as many
as bleedings) would be necessary, besides sump pumps; the capacity of these
pumps would be close to the one feeding the steam generator.
To avoid these complications, surface regenerators are used, in which thermal
exchange takes place through the walls of the tube bundles containing the water to
be heated and externally lapped by the condensing steam. In these regenerators,
the two areas between which heat exchange takes place are entirely independent
and therefore nothing influences the pressures therein existing. It follows that a
single pump can push the main condensation to the various regenerators, in a
cascading distribution.
The condensations of the bled-steam flows can be sent from each regenerator to
the one immediately upstream (through a flow-rate regulation valve), or to the
regenerator downstream (at a higher pressure) through a pump that should only
process the flow-rate of condensation relating to the bled-steam, that is to say a
very limited capacity, differently from the case of mixture regenerators. The
solution normally adopted is the one that provides for condensation to be sent to
the upstream regenerator.
Despite of the advantages of surface regenerators, a mixture regenerator is
always included in plants. The fact that it entails the insertion of a pump is not a
problem, since it takes on the function of feed pump, in order to allow the feed
pump and the sump pump to share the task of taking the liquid from the very low
pressure in the condenser to the very high pressure in the boiler.
Furthermore, the mixture regenerator, if operating in balanced conditions,
brilliantly performs the task of degasser, which is very important in steam plants,
especially the high-power ones, and that condensers alone cannot satisfactorily
perform. For this reason, the pressure in the only mixture regenerator (degasser) in
the plant, performs its role in terms of balancing the condensation temperature of
the bled-steam. Such pressure must exceed atmospheric value to favour the
spontaneous outburst of bases from the water-steam system.
The Cooling Circuit of the Condenser

If a sufficient water flow is available, the circuit is open. With this type of circuit,
water—after the thermal exchange—is reintroduced in the water body of origin.
Conversely, if the continuous water flow available is not sufficient, then the closed
circuit is used, where the cooling water, after the thermal exchange, is cooled in
suitable cooling towers.
In the cooling towers, a close contact is established between water and an
airflow; the latter absorbs heat both by convention and through the increase of its
fraction (the outlet air fraction is close to one unit), following the evaporation of a
small portion of cooled water.
Water is injected at a certain height of the tower and dropped on a stacking of
elements in plastic, wood or zinc-coated plate, in order to be dispersed in drops or
in thin layers, increasing in this way the surface of contact with the air, and
subsequently be collected in a tank of cold water. On the contrary, the air comes
from the bottom, covers the tower up to the top, meets water as a counter flow and
outgoes from the top.
Air circulation can be either natural or forced.
In natural-draught towers, the air flows due to a chimney effect, which implies
huge heights and large sections; the upper dimpling of the tower causes a decrease
in speed and in air temperature and, therefore, the condensation of a part of water
contained in it, with subsequent drop and recovery. Air speed in general does not
exceed 3 m/s and ‘‘rain density’’ is about 0.001 m3/m2 s.
In forced-draught towers, the air is set in motion by fans; this allows to have far
smaller towers, although with higher construction and operating cost due to the
energy consumption of fans and system maintenance. In this case air speed can
exceed 10 m/s whereas ‘‘rain density’’ amounts to nearly 0.003 m3/m2s.
As already said, a fraction of refrigerated water evaporates: water consumption
G due to evaporation, having defined x2 and x1 the values of the input and outlet air
fraction, respectively, and Ga the airflow rate, is given by
G ¼ G a ðx 2 x 1 Þ ð4:39Þ
and generally amounts to a very limited percentage of the flow of the treated water.
However, the flow of the restoration water must be higher than the one consumed
due to evaporation, because the subsequent recycles would unacceptably increase
salt concentration in water, and it is therefore necessary to operate some draining
that must then be offset.
The flow of water necessary for steam condensation is remarkable. By con-
sidering, for instance, the following conditions at the beginning and at the end of
the expansion:
• Input steam in the turbine p = 150 bar and T = 540C

• Steam to the condenser p = 0.05 bar and T = 33C
• Expansion efficiency in turbines: 0.86.
It is possible to calculate that, in order to produce 1 kWh, nearly 3 kg of steam
are necessary, that is to say to provide a power of 1 kW a steam flow of nearly
3 kg/h is necessary.
In a 1,200 MW power plant, typically made up of four groups of 300 MW the
steam flow for one group amounts to 250 kg/s. The balancing equation of heat
exchange between cooling water and steam, where ma is the flow rate of water,
c its specific heat, assuming DT = 15C (to increase higher temperature exces-
sively large exchanging surfaces would be necessary) and DHc = 2.440 kJ/kg the
steam condensation heat is:
mv DHc ¼ ma cDT ð4:40Þ
Therefore:
mv DHc
ma ¼ ffi 9:720 kg=s ð4:41Þ
c DT
to which corresponds a volume flow rate of nearly 10 m3/s and therefore an overall
flow rate for the four groups of 40 m3/s.
General Characteristics
Steam power plants show rather high efficiencies which in the best possible cases
reach 46%; load regulation is possible only within given limits, beyond which
efficiency drastically decreases and transients are deleterious for the plant, since
they negatively impact its lifetime. And in any case the thermal energy of the large
fluid mass involved would not allow the quick response that is conversely possible
in turbogas power plants. For these reasons, steam plants are used for the production
of basic electric power, that is to say cover the lower part of the load diagram, in
large-size plants often (exceeding 1,000 MW), and have a high number of hours of
full load equivalent operation of 6,000–6,500 h/year, and even beyond.
A plant is usually made up of several groups, whose size ranges between 300
and 660 MW.
4.2.3.3 Combined Cycle Power Plants
The efficiency of thermodynamic cycles increases as the ratio between maximum

and minimum operating temperature of the cycle increases. In the cycles of steam
and gas thermoelectric plants, there are thresholds for these temperatures: in steam
plants the maximum temperature of the cycle is limited by the relatively low value
of the critical temperature of water (374.1C), whereas in gas plants this limit
concerns the temperature at the exhaust of the turbine that is imposed, after setting
Fig. 4.28 Gas–steam

combined cycle
the initial expansion temperature and the compression ratio, by room temperature.
Since the two limits are complementary, it is possible to combine two cycles so
that the exhaust heat of the gas cycle represents the source of heat, or part of it, for
the steam cycle. From the thermodynamic point of view, the gas plant is over-
lapped (topper) to the steam plant (bottomer); the maximum and minimum tem-
peratures of the cycle ‘‘deriving’’ from the combination of the two simple cycles,
are, respectively, the maximum temperature of the gas cycle, exceeding 1,000C,
and the minimum temperature of the steam cycle, nearly 30C (Fig. 4.28).
The efficiency of the combined cycle depends on the efficiencies of both cycles
and is, in any case, higher than each of them. Figure 4.28, having defined gc, gg
and gv the efficiencies of the combined cycle, of the gas cycle and of the steam
cycle respectively, it follows that:
Q4 Q4
gc ¼ 1 ) 1 gc ¼ ð4:42Þ
Q1 þ Q3 Q1 þ Q3
Q4 Q4
gv ¼ 1 ) 1 gv ¼ ð4:43Þ
Q3 þ Q2 Q3 þ Q2
Q2 Q2
gg ¼ 1 ) 1 gg ¼ ð4:44Þ
Q1 Q1
Assuming:
Q1 þ Q3
l¼ ; ð4:45Þ
Q1
replacing (4.45), (4.44) and (4.43) in (4.42) it is possible to obtain:
Q4 Q4 Q2 þ Q3 Q2 þ Q3
1 gc ¼ ¼ ¼ ð 1 gv Þ ð4:46Þ
l Q1 Q2 þ Q3 l Q1 l Q1
Being:

1 Q2 þ Q3 1 Q3 gg
¼ 1 gg þ ¼1 ; ð4:47Þ
l Q1 l Q1 l
replacing (4.47) in (4.46) it follows:

gg
1 gc ¼ ð1 gv Þ 1 ; ð4:48Þ
l
from which the efficiency of the combined plant is derived:

gg
gc ¼ gv þ ð 1 gv Þ ð4:49Þ
l
If Q3 = 0 and l = 1, the efficiency of the combined cycle becomes:
g c ¼ g v þ gg gv gg ð4:50Þ
Equation 4.50, assuming constant gv and gg, is the maximum value obtainable
in (4.49).
Two fundamental solutions are possible for gas-steam combined plants: with or
without the afterburning of gas turbine exhaust gases.
The efficiency of combined cycles depends on the efficiency of component
cycles according to (4.49); in the last few years, the development of gas turbine
technologies allowed huge increases in the efficiency of combined plants, presently
reaching values exceeding 55%.
The high efficiency, as well as the use of a ‘‘clean’’ fuel as methane, allow to
reduce NOx, SOx, CO, and CO2 emissions, as well as particulate emission
abatement compared to conventional solutions.
4.2.3.4 Fuel Cells
The energy conversion systems analysed above, involving the conversion of

chemical energy into electric power, perform a thermodynamic conversion.
However, there are converters based on electrochemical principles often more
efficient and effective than the former; they are described in this section.
Overview
The origin of fuel cells date back to 1839, the year in which the British William
Grove generated electricity from a cell containing phosphoric acid, delimited by
two electrodes reached by hydrogen and oxygen, respectively.
The basic principle of operation is the following: the cell is made up of two
electrodes of porous material, separated by an electrolyte. Electrodes act as cat-
alytic sites for the breakdown of reagents into ions; the electrolyte conducts ions
preventing the passage of electricity, conveyed to an external circuit on the tips of
the two electrodes.
Fuel cells are electrochemical systems that directly convert the chemical energy
of a fuel (usually hydrogen) into electric power, according to an isothermal and
Fig. 4.29 Diagram of fuel

cells
isobaric process. Therefore, they eliminate the irreversibility associated to com-

bustion, without considering the passage through the stage of thermal energy, and
allow to depart from the maximum efficiency threshold of thermal machines,
represented by the Carnot efficiency.
A distinctive feature of the operation of a fuel cell, compared to the conven-
tional conversion of chemical energy through an oxidation reaction, is the fact that
in this device both fuel and oxidiser are combined in the form of ions not directly
but through an electrolytic path. In this case reagents are external to the cell
(differently from what happens in a normal electric battery); on the other hand,
neither electrodes nor the electrolyte are consumed in the complex of reaction.
In theory, any oxidation and reduction can be at the basis of a fuel cell. It is
fundamental, however, that a ion reaction occurs, and that the transportation of
electric charges occur rapidly.
Operating Principle of Fuel Cells

The cell is made up of two electrodes (anode and cathode) in a porous material,
separated by an electrolyte (Fig. 4.29). Electrodes act as catalytic sites for reac-
tions, breaking down and consuming the fuel and the oxidiser. Always within the
electrodes, the product of the reaction between fuel and oxidiser is formed, and a
difference in voltage arises which can be exploited by an external circuit. The
electrolyte has the task of conducting the ions produced by a reaction and con-
sumed by the other, closing the electric circuit. The cathode stores a superficial
layer of negative charges, and they attract the positive ions from the electrolyte.
producing an electric double layer. At the same time, the loss of electrons by the
anode produces a layer of positive charges, which attracts the negative ions from
the electrolyte. The double layers increase their concentration until the potentials
can prevent further reactions between the electrolyte and the fuel gases. By closing
the external circuit, electrons move towards the anode to participate in the
Fig. 4.30 Stack of cells
reaction; the movement of electrons makes up the electric current that, through an
external load, produces work. Therefore, in this way it is possible to obtain electric
work directly from the chemical process.
Electrodes act as catalytic sites for the cell reactions that mainly consume
hydrogen and oxygen, with the production of water and passage of electric current
in the external circuit. The electrochemical transformation is accompanied by heat
production.
Anodic reaction H2 ) 2Hþ þ 2e

1 þ
Cathode reaction 2 O2 þ 2H þ 2e ) H2 O
1
Total reaction H2 þ 2 O2 ) H2 O
The Stack
The exposed surfaces must have a sufficient area to obtain current strengths suitable
to the application needs. It is possible to have the desired surfaces, by silling the
cells. The stacking of cells obtained in this way forms the so-called fuel cell stack
(Fig. 4.30), which represents the basis of the typical technological use of fuel cells.
The Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells

In the analysis of the phenomena related to the operation of fuel cells, the standard
charge is the one allowed by a mole of electrons; it is called ‘‘Faraday constant’’
(denoted as F). Having considered that in a mole there are 6.023 9 1023 electrons
and that one electron has the charge of 1.602 9 10-19 C, it follows:
F = 96,48519 C/mol.
The Faraday’s Law concerning electrolysis can be summed up as follows: in
the operation of the battery, one charge of 96,485 C deposits or consumes one
19
The exact value (National Institute of Standards and Technology—2008) is
F = 96,485.3399 C/mol.
gram equivalent of substance on each of the electrodes. The weights of the sub-
stances that intervene in the reactions of electrons are linked to the charge
transported (q) according to the equation:
q¼nzF ð4:51Þ
where n is the number of grams-atom or moles that react and z is the number of
electrons transported by each ion.
In considering the first Law of thermodynamics in its form:
DU ¼ Q Ltot ð4:52Þ
in the case of fuel cells, Ltot is referred both to the electric work Le and to the
expansion mechanic work, Lm. The maximum value of the electric work amounts
to the product of f.e.m. of the cell, E, times the charge that goes through it:
Le ¼ E q ð4:53Þ
On the other hand, using (4.52), (4.53) can be written as follows:
Le ¼ n z F E ð4:54Þ
And the total work, therefore:
Ltot ¼ p Dv þ n z F E ð4:55Þ
Having considered (4.55), (4.52) becomes:
DU ¼ Q p Dv n z F E ð4:56Þ
Thus, introducing the second law of Thermodynamics:
DU ¼ T DS p Dv n z F E ð4:57Þ
The reactions in the fuel cell take place at constant temperature and pressure,
therefore the variation of Gibbs’ free energy20 (G) and of the enthalpy21 (H) are
the following:
DG ¼ DH T DS ð4:58Þ
DH ¼ DU þ p Dv ð4:59Þ
By replacing (4.59) in (4.58) it follows that
ðDGÞp;T ¼ DU þ p Dv T DS ð4:60Þ
So, having considered (4.57), it as possible to obtain:

ðDGÞp;T ¼ n z F E ð4:61Þ
20
G ¼ H TS:
21
H ¼ U þ pv:
Fig. 4.31 Variation of the

ideal voltage (V) and of
thermodynamic efficiency
according to temperature
Equation 4.61 shows that the electric work produced by the fuel cell amounts to
the decrease of Gibbs’ free energy of the reaction.
With this expression it is possible to derive the maximum potential for a cell;
therefore from (4.61) and (4.54) it is obtained:
DG
E0 ¼ ð4:62Þ
nzF
In case hydrogen and oxygen react to form water in standard conditions22 then
it is possible to obtain E0 = -1,186 V.
The ideal thermodynamic efficiency (assuming the reversible transformations)
is:
DG
gt ¼ ð4:63Þ
DH
In the case in point, always in standard conditions, gt = 0.9458 is obtained.23
Gibbs’ free energy and enthalpy variations depend on temperature and pressure;
therefore, as they vary, both the ideal voltage (open circuit) and the ideal ther-
modynamic efficiency vary accordingly. Without lingering on the details of cal-
culations, it is possible to conclude that the ideal voltage and the thermodynamic
efficiency slightly increase as pressure increases (Fig. 4.31), whereas they decrease
as temperature increases (Fig. 4.32).
The previous reactions are obtained by considering all processes as reversible.
Taking into consideration irreversibility, indicating with DS* the entropy variation
in case of real transformations (irreversible), with DSirr the variation due to irre-
versibility and with DS the one of reversible transformations, it follows that:
DS ¼ DSirr þ DS: ð4:64Þ
22
The reaction DG of water formation in standard conditions (T = 25C and p = 1 bar)
amounts to 228,888 J/mo, the number of moles (n) involved in the reaction is 2, and the number
of electrons transported by each (hydrogen) ion is 1.
23
The reaction DH to water formation in standard conditions amounts to 242,000 J/mol.
Fig. 4.32 Variation of the

ideal voltage (V) and of
thermodynamic efficiency
according to pressure
Having considered that, according to the II Law of Thermodynamics, DSirr [ 0

(4.64) shows:
DS [ DS ð4:65Þ
In the case of real transformations, (4.58) becomes:
DG ¼ DH T DS ð4:66Þ
Considering (4.65) and being T [ 0, then (4.66) shows:
DG \DG ð4:67Þ
Therefore, in the case of irreversible transformations, the electric work is lower.
Indicating with V the closed circuit voltage24 (irreversible), it follows that:
V\E ð4:68Þ
As concerns efficiency, recalling (4.67), it follows:
DG
gt ¼ \gt ð4:69Þ
DH
Efficiency of Fuel Cells

The main cause of irreversibility of fuel cells can be identified in the heat
developed by current due to the Joule effect in its passage through the electrolyte.
Furthermore, irreversible phenomena occur when the circuit is closed, causing a
decrease in the electric potential. These phenomena occur in three different forms:
ohmic polarisation, due to the resistance of the electrolytic membrane at the
passage of ions and the resistance of electrodes at the passage of electrons;
24
The passage of current generates irreversibility; therefore it is possible to consider V as the
driving force in case of irreversible transformations.
Fig. 4.33 Effects of

polarisation phenomena
concentration polarisation, due to insufficient porosity of electrodes and to the

spreading of products; activation polarisation, due to the double electric layer on
the surface of electrodes, which determines an activation voltage, decreasing the
speed of chemical kinetics.
Therefore, although a temperature increase reduces thermodynamic efficiency,
the global efficiency increases since it reduces the ohmic polarisation (increasing
the ionic conductibility of the electrolyte), and concentration polarisation
(improving the transportation and activation phenomena together with, improving
the reaction kinetics) and generally improves the tolerance to the impurities
present in gas supply. However, too high temperatures accelerate the corrosion
phenomena, the problems in terms of sintering and crystallisation of catalysts, and
the degradation of the electrolyte.
A pressure rise, on the contrary, increases thermodynamic efficiency and, in
producing higher partial pressures of reagents, improves the phenomena of gas
transportation and solubility in the electrolyte, contributing to reduce the elec-
trolyte losses, therefore increasing overall efficiency. However, too high pressures
entail problems of resistance of the different materials, and require an accurate
control of differential pressures (Fig. 4.33).
The efficiency referred to is the one of the single cell; a fuel cell plant is made
up of one (or several) stack(s) of cells, an inverter, the auxiliary systems (anodic
and cathode supply, refrigeration, etc.). There might be a system of fuel processing
as well as a heat recovery system.
As concerns the entire plant, by definition it is possible to express the efficiency
of the plant, g, as the ratio between the useful electric power (Pe,u) and the product
between the mass flow rate m_ comb of the fuel and its lower heating value:
Pe;u
g¼ ð4:70Þ
m_ comb LHV
Indicating with Vr and Ir the real voltage and current to the terminals of the
stack(s) (4.70) becames:
Pe;u Vr I r Vr Ir
g¼ ¼ gsist ; ð4:71Þ
Vr Ir m_ comb LHV m_ comb LHV
having defined the system efficiency gsist as the ratio between the useful electric
power and the one produced by the fuel cell stack(s), namely:
Pe;u
gsist ¼ ð4:72Þ
Vr I r
By defining the efficiency of cell e as the ratio between the real and the ideal
voltage, (4.71) can be described as follows:
Vr Ir Vid Ic
g ¼ gsist Vid ¼ gsist e ð4:73Þ
Vid m_ comb LHVcomb m_ comb LHVcomb
The Faradic current (IF) is the current that would be in the cell according to
Faraday’s Law in case of absence of irreversibility and other losses, that is to say:
IF ¼ z n_ F ð4:74Þ
where n_ is the mole rate (moles/s) of hydrogen consumed at the anode.
A Faradic (or current) efficiency is the ratio between the real current and the
Faradic one:
Ir Ir
gF ¼ ¼ ð4:75Þ
IF z n_ F
On the basis of (4.74) and (4.75), (4.73) can be written as follows:
Ir Vid z n_ F Vid z n_ F
g ¼ gsist e ¼ gsist e gF ð4:76Þ
z n_ F m_ comb LHVcomb m_ comb LHVcomb
Not all the hydrogen that reaches the anode reacts; a fraction goes to the anodic
discharge. Having defined n_ a the mole rate of the anodic supply, the hydrogen use
coefficient UH2 is the ratio between the hydrogen rate consumed by the anode and
the one of the anodic supply:
n_
UH2 ¼ ð4:77Þ
n_ a
Having considered (4.77), (4.76), by multiplying and dividing by n_ a becomes:
Vid z F
g ¼ gsist e gF UH2 n_ a ð4:78Þ
m_ comb LHVcomb
Recalling (4.54), the molar electric work Lm
e;id results as:
Lm
e;id ¼ z F Vid ð4:79Þ
Therefore, indicating as MH2 the molar mass (kg/mole) of hydrogen and with
LHVH2 its lower heating value (per mass unit), the ideal (thermodynamic) effi-
ciency gid can be described as follows:
z F Vid
gid ¼ ð4:80Þ
MH2 LHVH2
Taking into account (4.80), (4.78) becomes:

n_ a MH2 LHVH2
g ¼ gsist e gF UH2 gid ð4:81Þ
m_ comb LHVcomb
having considered that the hydrogen mass rate is:
m_ H2 ¼ n_ a MH2 LHVH2 ð4:82Þ
The efficiency of fuel treatment system is the ratio between the output and the
inlet energy flow in the system itself, that is to say:
m_ a LHVH2
gstc ¼ ð4:83Þ
m_ comb LHVcomb
Thus taking into account (4.82) and (4.83), the efficiency can be expressed as
follows:
g ¼ gsist e gF UH2 gid gstc ð4:84Þ
During the operation of the cell, heat will be produced due to entropy variation
(T D S) and to irreversibility. So, heat production per mole of reagent can be
expressed as:

T DS DH DG
Q¼ þ DV I ¼ þ DV I ð4:85Þ
nF nF
where DV is the decrease of the electric potential25 due to waste phenomena and I
is current. Such heat can be conveniently used for cogeneration purposes, recov-
ering in this way the energy wasted during the operation of the fuel cells and
obtaining global efficiency (electric power ? heat) close to one.
Some considerations on the global efficiency of fuel cells must now be made.
As concerns the system efficiency, the useful electric power Pe,u can be
expressed as the difference between the electric power generated by the stack and
the electric power absorbed by auxiliaries. The global efficiency is:
Pe;u Vr Ir Pe;aux Pe;aux
gsist ¼ ¼ ¼1 ð4:86Þ
Vr I r Vr I r Vr Ir
The electric power absorbed by auxiliaries is the one relating to pumps (for the
circulation of liquid and/or humidification of cells), compressors or blowers
(anodic or cathode supply): if the cell works at low pressures (close to atmospheric
pressure) the supply is made by blowers, whereas if the cell works at higher
pressures, compressors are necessary. The adoption of high operating pressures on
the one side increases the ideal efficiency, on the other side decreases the system
25 DG
DV ¼ E E e ¼ nF ð1 eÞ:
efficiency, since the power absorbed by compressors is far higher (given the same
flow rate) than the one absorbed by blowers.
As concerns the hydrogen utilisation factor, it is necessary to observe that cells
must be supplied with a quantity of hydrogen always exceeding the one that
effectively reacts to the anode. This because, in absence of such ‘‘excess’’, and due
to the unavoidably inhomogeneous distribution of hydrogen, there would be areas
on the anodic surface in which hydrogen concentration would be lower than
necessary for anodic reactions, and this would drastically reduce the (real)
potential of the cell. In brief, the real potential of the cell increases as the excess of
hydrogen increases; therefore, by increasing the surplus of hydrogen, on the one
side there is a decrease in the utilisation factor UH2 , whereas on the other side the
efficiency of the cell e increased. The optimal value of UH2 depends on the kind of
cells; it ranges between 0.75 and 0.85. Excess hydrogen can be obviously
recovered and reused; in this way it is possible to increase the excess of hydrogen
(and, therefore, e), without decreasing UH2 . It is necessary to consider the
expenditure for the pumping activity destined to the recovery of excess hydrogen,
which decreases the system efficiency gsist.
As concerns the Faraday efficiency, it must be observed that this is always close
to one 1, as a first approximation, it is possible to consider gF = 1. In case the
plant is directly supplied through hydrogen (produced through other means) the
efficiency of the fuel treatment system must be considered as amounting to 1.
Classification of Fuel Cells: the Different Technological Solutions

Fuel cells are conventionally classified according to the type of electrolyte they
contain, which determines their working temperature:
• Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), using a high proton con-
ductibility polymer membrane as electrolyte and work at temperatures ranging
between 70 and 100C (up to 120–130C in case of ‘‘high temperature’’
PEMFC); they are mostly developed for small-size generation/cogeneration and
vehicles’ powertrain (1–250 kW);
• Alkaline fuel cells (AFC), using an electrolyte made up of potassium hydroxide
and operate at temperatures around 100–250C (some special 250 designs
operate at 25–70C). They reached a good level of technological development,
mainly for special use (military and space applications);
• Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC), operating at temperatures close to 200C
with an electrolyte made up of a concentrated solution of phosphoric acid. They
represent the most mature technology for stationary use, for cogeneration
applications in the residential and tertiary applications (100–200 kW);
• Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC): the electrolyte is a solution of alkaline
carbonates fused at the working temperature of the cell (650C) and contained in
a porous ceramic matrix; they are promising especially for the generation of
electric power and cogeneration of some hundreds of kW and some dozens of
MW.
Table 4.5 Classification and characteristics of the different FC

Types Electrolyte Temp. (c) Catalysts Fuel Oxidiser Electric
of fc (exchanged ions) efficiency (%)
PEFC Polymeric 70–100 Pt H2, Reformed O2, aria 40–60
membrane (H +) gases
AFC KOH (OH-) 60–120 Pt/Pd, Ni Pure H2 O2 60
PAFC Phosphoric acid 160–200 Pt H2, Reformed O2, aria 40–50
(H +) gases
MCFC Li and K(CO3-) 600–700 Ni H2, Reformed O2, aria 45–55
carbonates gases
SOFC Zirconium oxides 800–1,000 – H2, Reformed O2, aria 45–60
(O-) gases
DMFC Polymer membrane 90–130 Pt, alloy Methanol O2, aria 40–60
(H +) Pt-Ru
• Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), operating at high temperatures (about 900–
1000C) to ensure a sufficient conductibility to the electrolyte, made up of
ceramic material (yttrium oxide–doped zirconium oxide); as carbonate fuel
cells, they are promising especially for electric power generation and cogene-
ration of some kW to some dozens of MW;
• Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC), operating at temperatures between 70 and
120C. Like PEFC, they use a polymeric membrane as electrolyte. DMFC are
directly fed by methanol at the anode. Methanol is easier than pure hydrogen to
store because it is liquid at ambient conditions.
The fields of application of each type of fuel cells is determined by its operating
characteristics, and in particular by the working temperature and by the type of fuel
used. Table 4.5 sums up the different types of fuel cells with their main charac-
teristics and the present state of technology.
The operating temperature of the cell influences the reaction kinetics, which
increases with temperature. When it is particularly high, the heat generated can be
profitably used, improving the general efficiency of the production system, but it
generates a series of drawbacks: thermal expansion makes the assembling of
components difficult, thermal stresses require materials able to support particularly
severe working conditions, the lifecycle of the cell is mostly influenced by the
operating cycles, and a rather long starting time is necessary.
Another important aspect tied up to high temperature operating is the possibility
of producing H2 inside of the cell itself, starting from conventional fuels, carrying
out an internal reforming. This possibility turns out into a higher simplicity of the
system, since it allows to eliminate the need for an external processor and to
directly supply the cell with a conventional fuel.
High-temperature fuel cells (MCFC and SOFC) are therefore suitable for
applications linked to the production of electric power for stationary use with
cogeneration of electricity-heat and with gas and/or steam plants.
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell: in this type of fuel cells, the electrolyte
is made up of a proton conducting polymer membrane.
The working temperature is presently limited to nearly 70–90C by the use of

polymer membranes, therefore the reaction kinetics requires the presence of cat-
alysts (mainly platinum). However, new membranes are being developed, able to
work at higher temperatures to favour both the reaction kinetics and the possible
exploitation of the thermal energy produced by the cell, especially in stationary
applications.
The following reactions take place in a polymer electrolyte cell:

1 þ
1
Overall reaction H2 þ 2 O2 ) H2 O
The electrolyte is made up of an ion exchange membrane, with a chlorinated
sulphuric acid polymer (usually Nafion 117) with a thickness of 50–250 lm.
Electrodes are made of a platinum-impregnated porous material26 with a coating in
Teflon (water-repellent) with a thickness of 5–50 lm.
Electrode with a porous structure are obtained by putting the catalyst on a
conductive substratum. The latter consists of a layer of coal dust, bound with a
polymer, on a coal tissue porous base.
The present low working temperatures also entail the use of catalysts made of
noble metals (platinum), which easily poison when hydrogen is not sufficiently
pure. Therefore, in the fuel processing section preceding the cell, there must be the
stage of impurity elimination, CO in particular. The supply of cathodes, con-
versely, is generally made with air.
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC) represent the latest generation of FC and
can be considered as deriving from PEFC, since both use a polymer membrane as
an electrolyte. However, DMFC distinguish themselves for the fuel that can be
used; in fact, they can be directly powered with methanol, since they are able to
electrochemically oxidise it, thanks to the use of a new class of catalysts.
The following reactions occur in a DMFC:
Anodic reaction CO3 OH þ H2 O ) CO2 þ 6e þ 6Hþ

3 þ
Cathode reaction 2 O2 þ 6H þ 6e ) 3H2 O
3
Overall reaction CO3 OH þ 2 O2 ) CO2 þ 2H2 O
The possibility of using liquid methanol directly in the cell makes DMFC
particularly suitable to be used in the portable electronics and mobility sectors,
thanks to the remarkable simplification of the system and to the reduction of its
size, also to the detriment of a lower total efficiency.
The theoretical efficiency is nearly 35–40% when operating at temperatures
between 70 and 100C; higher efficiencies can be obtained at higher temperatures.
26
The platinum content for this type of cells presently amounts to nearly 0.6 mg/cm2. The
electric power supplied by a cell per unit of anodic surface is nearly 0.4 W/cm2, therefore the
Platinum content amounts to 1.5 g/kW. The cost of Platinum is about 40 €/g, which means that
the cost of the Platinum alone contained in the anode amounts to about 60 €/kW.
The great interest for this type of technology is sided by the need to solve the
still open technical problems that limit their immediate application. DMFC, in
fact, still have a rapid decay in time, besides a low efficiency, and also show fuel
‘‘cross-over’’ problems (part of the methanol that feeds the anode crosses the
electrolytic membrane and reaches the cathode by deactivating the catalyst), and
furthermore the quantity of the necessary catalyst is high if compared to the one of
PEFC.
Alkaline Fuel Cell In this type of cells, the electrolyte is liquid, and made up of
an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) with a concentration (in
weight) that varies from 30 to 85% according to the operating temperature (from
usually 70 to 250C). Electrodes are made of a carbon porous base on a mesh of
Nickel with a hydrophobic coating polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) with a low-
platinum content (0.3 mg/cm2).
The following reactions occur in an AFC:
Anodic reaction H2 þ 2OH ) 2H2 O þ 2e
Cathode reaction 1
2 O2 þ H2 O þ 2e ) 2OH
1
The circulation of the electrolyte (liquid) allows to use the electrolyte itself as a
cooling substance and to empty the cell during the periods of down-time, hence
avoiding the carbonisation of the cell increases its useful life. On the other hand,
the corrosiveness of the electrolyte imposes the use of special materials as stainless
steels and polymer materials (PVDF—polyvinylidenefluoride, PFA—formed by
PVDF and HFP—perfluoropropene). These cells must be powered with very pure
hydrogen and, furthermore, they show a very low tolerance to CO2, therefore it is
necessary to envisage a system to remove the CO2 in the air for cathode supply.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells: in this type of cell the electrolyte (liquid) is formed
by a concentrated solution (85–100%) of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) in a matrix of
silicon carbide. Electrodes are made of a graphite base on which carbon catalysts
with PTFE and platinum are applied (0.1 g/cm2 at the anode and 0.5 g/cm2 at the
cathode).
The following reactions take place in a PAFC:

1 þ
1
To avoid the solidification of the electrolyte, the cell must always be heated27;
thanks to high operating temperatures, they show a good tolerance to impurities
(nearly 1% for CO).
27
Phosphoric acid solidifies at 42 ± 5C.
Molten carbonate fuel cells: in this type of cell the electrolyte is made up of a
mix of alkaline carbonates (lithium, potassium, sodium) in a lithium—aluminium
porous matrix. Electrodes are in a nickel alloy with 10% of chromium (anode) and
porous nickel oxide with 1–2% of lithium (cathode).
The reactions in a MCFC are the following:
Anodic reaction H2 þ CO3 ) H2 O þ CO2 þ 2e
Cathode reaction 12 O2 þ CO2 þ 2e ) CO3
These cells need to be fed at the cathode, besides with oxygen (or air), also with
carbon dioxide.28 This makes them particularly suitable to be fed with hydrogen
locally produced by gas reforming: in this case it is possible to use the CO2
produced by the reforming system for the cathode supply of the cell. Thanks to the
high operating temperatures (to keep molten salts the operating temperature of the
cell must exceed 600C), internal reforming is possible; by powering the cell with
CH4 and H2O (steam), the reforming reactions take place first, followed by the
already seen anodic reactions. Furthermore, high temperatures allow these cells to
present a high tolerability to impurities.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: in this type of cell the electrolyte is made up of ceramic
material (yttrium-zirconium oxide) with a thickness of 30–40 lm. Electrodes are
free from platinum; the anode is of cobalt or nickel zirconium oxide and the
cathode of strontium-doped lanthanum magnetite.
The H2 reactions in a SOFC are the following:
Anode reaction H2 þ O ) H2 O þ 2e
Cathode reaction 2 O2 þ 2e ) O
1
Over reaction H2 þ 12 O2 ) H2 O
The co reactions in a SOFC are the following:
In these cells, the presence of gas and solid phases alone reduces the corrosion
problems, whereas high temperature reduces the polarisation losses and markedly
improves the tolerance to impurities. For SCFC, CO is not a poisoning agent but
rather a fuel (namely it actively participates in electrochemical reactions); CH4 can
be inert (while not participating in reactions, it does not cause any damages) or
fuel; H2O and CO2 are inert, whereas the compounds of Sulphur are harmful in
concentrations exceeding 1 ppm.
28
The quantities of CO2 requested are by far higher than those normally contained in the air: two
moles of CO2 every mole of O2. Air contains nearly 20% (in moles) of oxygen and 388 ppm
(parts per million) of CO2, which accounts for 0.039%. Therefore, on average, in the air the ratio
CO2/O2 amounts to 0.00195, that is to say over 1,000 lower than the one demanded.
Fields of Application, Costs and Perspectives of Fuel Cells

After space applications, recently, fuel cells were extensively used in the field of
electric power production, both in large power plants and for the small scale
production ‘‘on site’’. Power plants were installed in several places, in Japan, in
Europe and in the USA, where a passage occurred from the prototype phase to the
technical–economic evaluation phase.
In the military field, fuel cells are used in submarines and in ground vehicles,
thanks to their low noise level and thermal ‘‘trace’’ that makes their infrared
detection difficult, whereas there are minimum applications under study in the
surface naval sector.
In general, the most interesting applications, to the purpose of a large-scale
development of the technology of fuel cells, include the electric power generation
for stationary use (in cogeneration), the sector of vehicles and that of portable
electronics.
Stationary Use: For the production of electric power, fuel cells show several
advantages compared to conventional systems, including:
• Higher flexibility of use since they are more suitable to meet the needs of a
variable load, whereas their efficiency is not linked to the size of the plant
• Higher electric efficiency
• Lower environmental impact
• Higher easiness of planning and construction: thanks to their modular structure,
the construction times can be strongly reduced and the power of the plant can be
increased over time.
Cogeneration (and distributed generation in general) meet environmental (low
emissions) and socio-political (management and control at a local level, compet-
itiveness and quality and flexibility of services) needs, that will become increas-
ingly important in the medium-long term. It is therefore possible to envisage a
growing space for small-medium size generation technologies, with a high effi-
ciency and a limited environmental impact, as fuel cells. It is predictable in the
short-medium term that the various types of cells, according to their different
operational characteristics (operating temperature, efficiency, size, etc.), can be
used for distributed generation and cogeneration for civil and industrial use, for
powers ranging between some kW to some MW.
Transports: in the sector of transports, fuel cells show advantages compared to
both internal combustion engines (ICE) and an electric powertrain vehicle with
accumulators. The use of hydrogen-supplied fuel cells allows to have zero emission
vehicles (ZEV) eliminating in this way the pollution problems linked to the use of
ICE without the limits of electric powertrain vehicles with accumulators (high
weight, low autonomy, long recharge times). As concerns electric vehicles, it is
important to underline that both fuel-cell powered vehicles and vehicles powered
through accumulators are driven by an electric motor: the two solutions, therefore,
shall not be necessarily considered as alternative to one another. On the contrary,
the experiences developed in the last few years show that the adoption of ‘‘hybrid’’
solutions (fuel cells for the production of electric power onboard together with both
traditional storage systems—accumulators—and new generation ones—superca-
pacitors) allow to conjugate the high efficiency of electric vehicles with accumu-
lators without the limits due to the limited range and the long recharge times.
Among all the types of cells, the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel
cells are those that, in consideration of their working temperature, power, weight
and size, are suitable for the applications in the sector of transports.
Portable applications: in the field of portable electronic equipments, batteries
are at the moment the only possible option for products that require a power up to
100 W. The limits of batteries in the applications, for instance, for notebooks, are
determined by weights and sizes, by the limited autonomy, the recharge times and
their replacement which entails disposal problems. A fuel cell might, conversely,
supply energy for times very much higher than present Li-ion batteries. Further-
more, given the same weight, hydrogen-rich fuels contain electrochemical energy
that is two order of magnitude higher than whatever type of battery. These con-
siderations led to the development of testing activities for the use of fuel cells for
small electronic units that need high-quality power supply.
The main problems to be solved are linked to the complexity of the internal
design of the device, in particular as concerns the storage hydrogen subsystems,
fuel and oxidant control, and cooling system. Miniaturisation entails therefore a
delicate balance of different factors, such as power, size, handiness and costs.
Costs and Perspectives

The present development led to obtain high specific powers; for instance PEMs,
that, as already said, are particularly suitable for the drive, have a specific power of
about 1 kW/l (corresponding to a volume of nearly 50 litres for a medium-power
vehicle). Another crucial factor for the development of fuel cells is duration;
presently, in case of low-temperature cells, this duration is around 3,000–3,500 h,
whereas it reaches nearly 5,000 h in case of high-temperature cells. Costs vary
according to the type of cells and their size.
The following targets in terms of costs and duration were set as far as marketing
is concerned: 100 €/kW and 5,000 h of operation for low temperature cells for the
powertrain. This duration corresponds, in case the system is assembled on a car, to
about 100,000 km of mileage. In case of stationary plants, objectives include a
cost not exceeding 1,000 €/kW and a duration exceeding 40,000 h.
4.2.4 Chemical Energy-to-Mechanical Energy Conversion Plants
4.2.4.1 Internal Combustion Engines
In these systems, the chemical energy of a fuel is converted into heat through
combustion; such heat is converted into mechanic energy through a
Fig. 4.34 Ideal Otte cycle on

plane p–V
thermodynamic cycle. The most widespread application is in the sector of trans-

ports; in this case the ‘‘useful’’ energy is the mechanic one. In any case,
mechanical energy (on a rotating shaft) can be easily converted into electric energy
through a generator coupled to the shaft (ICE power-supply units): in this case the
system as a whole performs a conversion from chemical energy to electric power.
ICE can be classified according to the thermodynamic cycle: the main ones are
the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle.
Otto Cycle
Figure 4.34 shows the ideal Otto cycle p–V. The engines adopting this cycle can be
fuelled with petrol, LPG, hydrogen and methane, or a mix of them.
The following phases can be identified in the Otto cycle:
• 1–2: Constant pressure aspiration of the air–petrol mixture;
• 2–3: Rapid compression, ideally an adiabatic one, of the mixture;
• 3–4: Combustion, phenomenon summarised through an isochoric heating;
• 4–5: Rapid expansion, ideally an adiabatic one;
• 5–2: Opening of the discharge valve with isochoric reduction of pressure;
• 2–1: Exhaust at constant pressure.
The ideal efficiency of a thermodynamic cycle is:
L
gid ¼ ð4:87Þ
Q1
For the Otto cycle there is:
L ¼ Q1 Q2 ¼ cv ðT4 T3 Þ cv ðT5 T2 Þ ð4:88Þ
By combining the better two equations and assuming cv as constant one carry to:
T5 T2
gid ¼ 1 ð4:89Þ
T4 T3
Applying the equations of the related thermodynamic transformations (adia-
batic and isobaric) of the cycle, then
T3 T2
¼ ð4:90Þ
T4 T5
one comes to:
c1
T5 Vb
¼ ð4:91Þ
T4 Va
Considering (4.90) and (4.91), (4.89) can be written as follows:
c1
T5 1 T2 =T5 T5 Vb
gid ¼ 1 ¼1 ¼1 ð4:92Þ
T4 1 T3 =T4 T4 Va
Having defined the compression ratio r as follows:
Va
r¼ ð4:93Þ
Vb
the ideal efficiency of the Otto cycle is:
1
gid ¼ 1 ð4:94Þ
rc1
It is evident how the ideal efficiency increases as the compression ratio
increases; in the practical Otto cycles, however, it is not possible to exceed a
compression ratio of 8–10 in order to avoid the self-ignition of the mixture that
would occur during the compression phase, before the piston reaches the top dead
centre, since a fuel–air mix is compressed and in some temperature and pressure
conditions, it spontaneously burns out.
With c = 1,4 and r = 8, the ideal efficiency is 56.5%. The real cycle
(Fig. 4.35) is very much different from the ideal one, having considered the
irreversibility of transformations and most of all the fact that induction and
exhaustion do not take place at constant pressure, generating in this way a negative
work in the cycle.
The maximum efficiency29 of the real cycle amounts to about 25%. If the
engine operates at a variable speed (automotive powertrain), considering the
operation at variable speed the average efficiency drops at nearly 18–20%.
29
The efficiency of the real cycle (differently from the ideal one) varies according to the number
of revolutions of the engine and presents a maximum of nearly 2/3 of the maximum number of
revolutions.
Fig. 4.35 Real Otto cycle on

plane p–V
Fig. 4.36 Ideal Diesel con

plane p–V
Diesel Cycle
Figure 4.36 shows the Diesel cycle p–V diagram. Engines adopting this cycle can
be fuelled with gas oil.
In the Diesel cycle the following phases can be identified:
• 1–2: Aspiration at constant pressure of air only;
• 2–3: Rapid compression, ideally an adiabatic one;
• 3–4: Combustion, which takes place by introducing the fuel when air has
reached the conditions suitable for air–fuel mixture burns spontaneously, a
phenomenon that can be regarded as isobaric heating;
• 4–5: Rapid expansion similar to an adiabatic;
• 5–2: Opening of the discharge valve with isochoric reduction of pressure;
• 2–1: Exhaust at constant pressure.
For the Diesel cycle there is:
L ¼ Q1 Q2 ¼ cp ðT4 T3 Þ cv ðT5 T2 Þ ð4:95Þ
Fig. 4.37 Real Diesel cycle

on plane p–V
Therefore, considering cp and cv as constants, the ideal efficiency is:

L cv T5 T2 1 T5 T2
gid ¼ ¼1 ¼1 ð4:96Þ
Q1 cp T4 T3 k T4 T3
Applying the equations of thermodynamic transformations (adiabatic and iso-
baric) of the cycle, then:
T4 T3
¼ ð4:97Þ
Vc V b
Considering (4.96), (4.97) becomes:

1 1 ðVc =Vb Þc 1
gid ¼ 1 ð4:98Þ
c ðVa =Vb Þc1 ðVc =Vb Þ 1
Defining the following ratios:

Va
r¼ ð4:99Þ
Vb
Va
e¼ ð4:100Þ
Vc
Replacing (4.99) and (4.100) in (4.98), the efficiency can be written as follows:
1 ð1=eÞc ð1=rÞc
gid ¼ 1 ð4:101Þ
c ð1=eÞ ð1=rÞ
In this case as well, efficiency increases as r increases. In the case of the Diesel
cycle, however, the real value of r can be higher than in the case of the Otto cycle
since, by compressing only air, the problem of self-ignition does not appear; the
effective values of r can be 18–20. With r = 18 (e = 9) a value of the ideal
efficiency is obtained as amounting to 63.2%. Also in this case as well, the real
cycle (Fig. 4.37) is heavily different from the ideal one for the reasons seen above.
is heavily different from the ideal one for the reasons seen above. The maximum
efficiency values of the real cycle are around 35% and, during operation at variable
speed, the average value of efficiency drops at around 25–28%.
4.2.5 Radiant Energy-to-Thermal Energy Conversion Plants
Solar energy can be captured and used in a thermal form, and this can happen
without concentration (thermal solar at low temperature) or with concentration.
In the case of concentration plants, there are two different applications:
1. The systems with a limited concentration, in which case the thermal energy will
have a relatively low operational temperature (i.e. up to 250 C) and heat is
used for process purposes, whenever a thermal source is needed, i.e. for drying
purposes in agriculture or for chemical-industrial processes.
2. The systems with a high concentration, in which case maximum operational
temperature is high and applications can include industrial processes or ther-
modynamic conversion to produce electric power.
4.2.5.1 Low-Temperature Thermal Solar Plants
The main application of this conversion technology is that of capturing solar

radiation energy and, by means of it, to heat water (at 40–70C) for sanitary use
destined to civil and residential applications.
There are several types of plants and can be used for different purposes
according to the performance of the collector, the place in which they are located
and the types of users they have to serve.
A basic solar thermal system is made up of four main elements that are listed
below:
• Solar panel (collector)
• Storage reservoir
• Control unit
• System of pipes and circulation pump.
Flat-Plate Solar Collectors
A flat-plate solar collector (Fig. 4.38) is made up of a transparent covering with

one or several glass or plastic sheets placed at the top of the absorbing plate to
reduce convective and radiation thermal exchanges between the plate and the
atmosphere, and a black absorbing plate that absorbs the radiation and transfers
the energy collected to a heat-transfer fluid, one layer of thermal insulation to
reduce as much as possible the losses due to plate conduction, and of one
Fig. 4.38 Elements making

up a solar collector
Fig. 4.39 Thermal flows in a

solar collector
parallelepiped-shaped covering with a task of containment and protection from

dust, humidity, etc.
Figure 4.39 shows the energy flows of a tipical flat-plate solar collector. A part
of the incident solar energy on the glass coating is reflected, a fraction is absorbed
by the glass itself, another reaches the capturing plate. A part of such energy is
reflected, another part is absorbed by the plate. Some amount of the energy
reflected by the plate is in turn reflected by the glass coating, hence going back
again to the capturing plate, and the phenomenon is repeated originating a
greenhouse effect inside of the collector.
On the basis of the description above, it is evident that in order to have a
suitable capturing of the incident energy, the covering sheet must be extremely
transparent (s % 1) at wavelengths in which there is the maximum possible solar
radiation (between 0.4 and 2.5 lm). After being reached by the solar radiation, the
absorbing plate absorbs most of it, subsequently emitting energy in the form of
thermal radiation, whose wavelength, 1, (in lm) depends on the level of tem-
perature T (K) according to Wien’s law:
2897:8
k¼ ð4:102Þ
T
Since the operating temperature of the collector plate is usually around 100C
(373 K), the energy released by the plate falls within the field of wavelengths
corresponding to the infrared (nearly 7.7 lm). Therefore, to maximise the useful
energy, the transparent covering should reflect (q % 1) these wavelengths.
Obviously, the collecting plate must be as absorbent as possible (a % 1) for all the
wavelengths, and have a low submissiveness for the wavelengths of the infrared.
The collecting plate, made in copper or steel, is superficially treated with dark
and opaque paints that reduce reflection and increase absorption (low emissivity
for wavelengths, typical of infrared radiation). The main function of the plate is to
divert heat and send it to the pipes: it is important to privilege those solutions in
which the thermal resistance between said elements is reduced to minimum levels
(for instance welded pipes and plate). Normally, canalisations are made to resist
pressures of 6–7 bar.
The insulating material, with a porous structure, has to reduce at minimum the
losses due to conduction towards the lateral and lower surfaces of the collector.
The materials that are mostly used include polyurethane, polyester wool, glass
wool or rock wool (sheets, rolls, pressure-injected foams). Thermal insulation
gives out in case of storage of humidity (often, therefore, a sheet of aluminium is
placed on the insulating plates with the aim of stopping condensation and
reflecting the radiation coming from the plate towards the plate itself).
The transparent covering, as already mentioned, must be extremely transparent
for the wavelengths typical of solar radiation and, at the same time, opaque to
infrared radiation. The materials most frequently used for its implementation
include: single glass (very good transparency without blocking convection losses,
it is heavy and fragile), double glass (decreases transparency but increases the
thermal insulation capacity), honeycomb polycarbonate (light, inexpensive,
resistant, it is characterised by reduced convection losses compared to the single
glass, although it is less transparent, tends to be opaque in time and, therefore, its
lifecycle is shorter than the collector).
The containment case gives compactness and mechanical strength to the col-
lector, and aims at protecting the internal elements from dirt and atmospheric agents.
The materials that are usually used to realise it include stainless steel (generally
galvanised and pre-treated), anodised aluminium or, more rarely, fibreglass.
The heat-transfer fluid must have a limited volume (in order to use small-size
pipes), a high density and a high specific heat. It shall not be corrosive for the
circuit, and must be chemically inert and stable at temperatures around 100C. It is
also necessary that the fluid selected has a low hardness in order to limit the
limestone deposition, besides having a low freezing point and a low viscosity (in
order to favour an easy flowing of the fluid without introducing excessive load
losses in the circuit). In those cases in which the collector is used to supply sanitary
hot water, it shall not be toxic (otherwise there would be huge complications of the
system for safety reasons). Fluids that corresponding to these characteristics, at
limited costs, include water (characterised, however, by non negligible problems
of hardness and also an easily reachable freezing point in areas with a temperate
climate), a solution of water and ethylene glycol (toxic and not suitable to systems
for the production of sanitary hot water (SHW)) or, in most of cases, a solution of
water and propylene glycol.
Indicating with Q the incident flow, with Qu the flow of useful heat, with Qp the
flow of dissipated heat, the balance can be written as follows:
Q ¼ Qu þ Qp ð4:103Þ
Indicating with s the transmittance of the transparent coating, with a the
absorbance of the collecting plate, with I the incident solar radiation and with A the
active surface of the collector, the total incident flow is:
Q¼IsaA ð4:104Þ
With reference to specialised literature, the flow of dispersed heat (sum of
thermal losses and of optical losses) can be expressed as:
Qp ¼ Uc ðTp Ta Þ ð4:105Þ
where Ta is the ambient temperature, Tp is the collecting plate average tempera-

ture, Uc is the thermal dispersion coefficient of the collector that depends on the
convective and radiation thermal exchange coefficients with the environment and
can be considered as constant within a limited range of temperatures.
From (4.103), (4.104) and (4.105), it is possible to obtain:
Qu ¼ ðsaÞI Uc ðTp Ta Þ ð4:106Þ
In (4.106), however, the useful energy is expressed according to the average
temperature of the plate, which is unknown. From an operational viewpoint, it is
possible to use to this end the Bliss equation that expresses the useful energy
according to the temperature of the fluid at the entry point of the collector Ti:
Qu ¼ Fr ½ðsaÞI Uc ðTi Ta Þ ð4:107Þ
Fr is the factor of thermal removal of the collector, always lower than 1. It
physically represents the ratio between the useful energy actually collected and the
energy that would be collected if the entire plate had been at the same temperature
as the outlet fluid. This condition might only be assessed in ideal conditions:
infinite fluid flow rate and null thermal resistance between fluid and plate. Fr
mainly depends on the convection coefficient for fluid and plate, on the thermal
conductivity between plate and the canalisation.
Some reference values of the parameters used in the Bliss equation are shown in
Table 4.6.
The efficiency of a solar collector is defined as the ratio between the useful
energy collected in a given period of time and the incident solar energy in the same
period:
Qu
g¼ ð4:108Þ
I
Replacing (4.107) in (4.108), it follows that:
Table 4.6 Values of the parameters for the calculation of useful energy
Parameters for the calculation of useful energy
Thermal loss coefficient Uc Non-selective plate and simple glass transparent 7–8
(W/m2 K) covering
Non-selective plate and double glass covering 4–6
Selective plate and double transparent covering 3–5
Effective product sa Simple glass covering 0.9
Double glass covering 0.8
Thermal removal factor Fr Liquid collectors 0.9
Air collectors 0.7
Fig. 4.40 Efficiency of a

solar collector as operating
conditions vary
Fr Uc ðTi Ta Þ
g ¼ Fr ðsaÞ ð4:109Þ
I
Since Fr(sa) and FrUc can be considered as constant, the efficiency depending
on the variable Ti-Ta/I is an angular coefficient line FrUc, as shown in Fig. 4.40.
The results obtained are supported by the experimental analysis, from which it
emerges that efficiency has an almost linear trend, sloping down as temperature
increases due to the variation of Uc. As wind speed increases, efficiency is reduced
by some percentage points with more marked variations over the speed of 5 m/s,
and as the temperature of collectors increases. The influence of wind is negligible
for those collectors endowed with two or more transparent coverings.
The intersection of the efficiency line with the axis of abscissas defines the
stagnation temperature that, after setting room temperature and the intensity of the
incident radiation, represents the temperature at which the plate is taken in con-
ditions of null useful energy.
Performance of flat-plate collectors influence parameters
At the usual operating temperatures (40–60C) for a non-selective flat-plate

collector and a glass covering, thermal dispersions are due to 10% only to posterior
and lateral conduction losses. The remaining part is equally divided into losses due
to convection and radiation between plate and glass. For this reason, it is not
possible to obtain remarkable advantages by increasing the thickness of posterior
insulation beyond the 5–10 cm that are usually used, whereas there are consid-
erable reductions of losses by taking care of the elimination of all possible thermal
bridges, the most common of which is represented by the plate-external covering
contact outside of the collector.
Particular importance is also ascribed to the characteristics of the insulating
material that shall not degrade over time because of severe thermal stresses. Since
the radiation exchange depends on the fourth magnitude of absolute temperature,
as temperature increases, radiation dispersions increase as well, which explains the
use of selective plates when operating temperatures are higher. This intervention,
however, in lowering the equilibrium temperature of glass, stresses the convective
losses between plate and glass; this increase, however, is lower than the reduction
of dispersions by radiation.
Dispersions by convection can be drastically reduced, creating vacuum between
the plate and the glass, with pressures lower than 10 mbar as it happens in vacuum
collectors.
To increase Fr it is possible to increase the flow rate which should be included
between the minimum value of 0.007 kg/m2s, necessary to guarantee a sufficient
irrigation of all canals, and the maximum value of 0.03 kg/m2s beside which the
advantages of the best thermal exchange can be overcome by an increased
pumping activity. As the flow rate decreases, the temperature drop between the
input and the output of the collector increases, and therefore also the instantaneous
efficiency, which in the long term may cause a penalisation of the overall per-
formance, is reduced. The Fr increase is also obtained by paying attention to the
thermal exchange between plate and canalisation, which might also be limited in
the case of canalisations welded to the plate. Furthermore, it is important that the
plate has a good thermal conductivity, which might be obtained by using metals as
copper (which shows the best conductivity), aluminium and steel.
Apparently, performance should be penalised as the thermal capacity of the
collector increases, because of the impossibility of exploiting short favourable
periods, characteristic of a variable climate.
Types of flat-plate solar collectors
Besides the glazed ones mentioned above, there are other types of collectors:
uncovered, integrated-storage and vacuum.
Uncovered collectors, made with plastic pipes (propylene, neoprene, synthetic
rubbers, PVC) have the advantage of being cost-effective in some conditions
although free from any type of insulation and transparent cover, and provide
satisfactory performance only if used for plants working in the summer period,
when the great availability from the solar source makes up for their low efficiency.
In integrated storage collectors, a single element replaces the collecting plate,
the coil and the external storage; this single element can be made up of siding
pipes (diameter of nearly 10 cm), large pipes between two plates facing each
other, and a single large container of different shapes. The water necessary for
users remains inside of the collector (slow heating with convective motions).
Fig. 4.41 Efficiency curve of

the different types of flat
collectors
In order to have an idea on the difference compared to flat collectors, it is enough

considering that the water content reaches 80–100 l/m2 against 0.6–2 l/m2 of heat-
transfer fluid, typical of the devices with external storage. Since water remains is a
‘‘reservoir’’ insulated only along three sides out of four, this type of collector is
characterised by non-negligible leakages and is suitable for particularly mild
climates.
Vacuum collectors are those with the highest efficiency; by reducing at mini-
mum levels the presence of air in hollow spaces, it is possible, as a matter of fact,
to avoid the losses due to convective motions. Although more expensive compared
to the average, these collectors allow good performance also with harsh climates.
From Fig. 4.41, showing the comparison between the efficiency curve of the
different types of flat collectors, it is possible to note that the efficiencies of
the different types of solar collectors are basically the same for low values of the
difference between the temperature of the collector and the ambient temperature.
In fact, the different solutions adopted (the covering, eventually selective, the
vacuum inside of the collector) aim at reducing leakages. These leakages, for
obvious reasons, are in any case limited for the low values of difference between
the temperature of the collector and the ambient temperature; as it increases, the
leakages for the different types markedly increase. In particular, vacuum collectors
keep high efficiencies also at high temperatures.
Plant solutions
As concerns the configuration of the plant, natural circulation and forced-

circulation plants are to be considered.
In natural circulation plants, the force of the heat-transfer fluid occurs on the
basis of a different density between the hottest water column flowing out of
the collector, which tends to increase, and the coldest water column flowing out of
the storage reservoir, which tends to increase (Fig. 4.42a). The higher the differ-
ence in temperature between the two columns of fluid, the higher the force that
allows its circulation. In natural circulation systems, panels must be positioned
lower than the storage area. The difference between the two levels as well is
proportional to the force generated.
In forced-circulation plants, the fluid is set in motion by a centrifugal pump
(Fig. 4.42b); in that case, obviously, position different in the storage can occur.
Fig. 4.42 Natural (a) and forced (b) circulation plant configurations
Fig. 4.43 Plant configuration: closed systems (a) and draining systems (b)
Another distinction in the plant configuration concerns the state of the circuit
when the plant is stopped: there are closed-loop systems and drainback systems
(Fig. 4.43).
In closed-loop systems, solar collectors are always loaded with fluid, even when
the circulation pump is stopped. In this case the heat-transfer fluid must be able to
face low temperatures without freezing, and impose the use of an antifreeze liquid:
this prevents the direct exchange. In closed systems it is always necessary to
interpose a heat exchanger between the solar circuit and the users.
In drainback systems, as soon as the circulation pump stops, the solar circuit
empties in a drainage reservoir, placed under collectors themselves. Since one
better avoid using antifreeze liquids, open systems can be used with a direct
exchange without placing any exchanger between the plant and users that, obvi-
ously, entails a higher complication of the system and an overall loss of efficiency.
Conversely, the disadvantage of direct exchange systems that use running water as
heat-transfer fluid is the danger of calcareous deposits on the internal walls of pipes.
Another variant of low-temperature solar plants concerns the storage system,

which is generally provided: plants may have either an integrated storage reser-
voir or an external storage reservoir.
In integrated storage reservoirs, each panel has its own ‘‘integrated’’ reservoir.
As a matter of fact, generally, the system is more compact, installation is easier
and it is possible to eliminate the external reservoir that is unaesthetic and bulky. It
is also possible to eliminate the hydraulic circuit between collector and storage and
the storage heat exchanger which always implies a loss of efficiency.
In the systems with external storage reservoirs, which are necessary when users
have a remarkable thermal load, the heat transfer between the solar collector
circuit and the users’ circuit occurs in the storage phase.
Two types of heat exchangers can be used: tube-bundle and cavity ones.
In tube-bundle exchangers, a series of tubes is inserted in the low part of the
storage. Sometimes, two groups are inserted with a view to heating the fluid
contained in the storage with two different sources of heat (solar system and
integration boiler).
In order to avoid the formation of electric current, given the presence of dif-
ferent metals in a saline solution (water always contains dissolved salts) an anode
is inserted (negative metal compared to the others), which eliminates this problem.
The anode is inserted in an orifice place at the bottom of the reservoir. From the
same point, probes, thermometers and all the control equipment are inserted.
A cavity exchanger consists in a hollow space obtained in the cylindrical wall
of storage. The fluid coming from solar collectors exchanges counter-current its
thermal energy with the fluid contained in the storage. Sometimes two cavities are
obtained in the wall to allow the thermal exchange from two different sources of
heat.
Heat storage
Since solar radiation and consumption of thermal energy do not happen simul-
taneously, it is necessary to include a heat storage reservoir in the plant. Heat storage
can be done on a daily, weekly or seasonal basis. For the sizing of storage (usually
daily) it is necessary to refer to the diagrams of daily heat production and needs.
In any case, seasonal storage is also possible. There are two storage systems:
the first one (very much used in northern European villages), is obtained by
digging in rocky masses a cave with a capacity between 100 and 1000 m3. If there
are no aquifers nearby, the rock, once filled with hot water, reaches a stable
thermal equilibrium. The reservoir is sized to meet the thermal needs from Sep-
tember to the end of February. In March the direct use of water from solar collector
begins once again. Very often the heat coming from inter-season storage is inte-
grated with chimney boilers. In the second one (very much used in Middle East)
systems called ‘‘Solar Pond’’ are made. These are large artificial reservoirs; the
bottom of the reservoir is made in black plastic or in any other material provided
that it is safe (sometimes also seaweeds). The reservoir is divided into two layers
through a polyethylene film or in any case with a transparent plastic: the most
Fig. 4.44 Diagram of a forced-circulation and closed-circuit integrated system
superficial layer is filled with freshwater, the deepest layer with saltwater. The
transparent film acts as a selective material. The temperature of deep saltwater
reaches even 90C.
The weekly storage aims at ensuring the availability of heat in long periods with
a low or very low solar radiation. In this case the storage system is a reservoir of
such size that guarantees a reserve of thermal energy. Storage can be done through
a single reservoir or with several reservoirs, one of which has to be sized for the
daily needs of the normal period of use, whereas the secondary ones must be used
according to the quantity of storage thermal energy selected. In case of the Mild
climate areas, weekly coverage solutions are avoided, since they are more suitable
for cold climate regions.
Integrated plants
Given the uncertainty of the source, solar collector plants, in order to guarantee
the continuous availability of heat to users, must usually be integrated with tra-
ditional plants. The heat produced from solar energy will integrate the one pro-
duced in traditional boilers: the integration factor is determined according to
technical–economic considerations, normally around at least 60%.
The insertion is extremely simple in case of integrated storage in the collector.
In fact, having considered that the hydraulic circuit between collectors and storage
is not present, any control equipment is necessary (differential thermostat and
minimum thermostat). The solar collector can be installed upstream the integration
boiler and uses the thermostat of the integration system (gas boiler or electric
water heater) as a control of the system. Modern gas boilers and electric water
heaters can be crossed by hot water. The load losses of the fluid in crossing the
boiler are limited, having considered that the length of the coils inside of it does
not exceed two meters in linear length. A scheme of integrated plants is shown in
Fig. 4.44.
4.2.5.2 Solar Thermal Concentration Plants
Flat-plate solar collectors work with acceptable efficiencies at low temperatures.

To obtain heat at higher temperatures, the so-called concentration plants are used.
Concentration solar collectors use optical systems aimed at increasing the
intensity of radiation on the collecting surface.
Figure 4.45 shows a scheme of the operating principle: in principle, the incident
radiation of a suitable sized and shaped concentrator is reflected and concentrated
in one point (as a matter of fact, on a surface small if compared to the one of the
concentrator), the receiver. It is eviden from the figure that these systems, since
they operate according to the optical reflection principle, exploit only the direct
component of solar radiation, since the diffuse radiation reaches the receiver while
being distributed in all directions. Furthermore, for the same reason, they must be
endowed with a tracking system, since the angle of incidence of the radiation
compared to the normal tangent of the concentrator in a point must remain
constant.
When the solar radiation incident on a given surface is concetrated on a smaller
one, thermal losses, being them proportional to the exchange surface of the
absorbing body, are lower. The ratio between the area of the reflecting surface Ar
and the absorbing surface Aa is called concentration factor. This value, for the
different concentration systems, varies from 1.5 to 10,000; as the concentration
factor increases, optical losses become increasingly relevant.
As shown in Fig. 4.46 there are three types of concentrators which are used in
concentration solar thermal plants: linear parabolic concentrators, parabolic dish
concentrators, and central receiver concentrators.
In Iinear parabolic concentrators, the radiation is concentrated along a line that
covers the entire length of collectors; along such a line there is a pipe containing
the heat-transfer fluid. Collectors follow the sun by rotating around an axis. With
these systems, temperatures of around 400C are reached, with good efficiencies.
In parabolic dish concentrators, the solar radiation is concentrated in a point in
which there is a device that absorbs the radiation and transfers heat to a gas. The
concentrator ‘‘follows’’ the sun rotating around two axes. With these systems,
temperatures of around 750C can be reached.
Central receiver parabolic concentrators are made up of a large field of he-
liostats and a receiver placed on a tower. A heliostat is a flat mirror that moves (to
follow the sun) independently from the others by rotating around two axes. With
these systems, it is possible to reach temperatures around 1,000C.
Fig. 4.45 Scheme of the

operation principle of a
concentration system
Fig. 4.46 Different types of concentrators
The heat produced by concentration solar plants has different types of appli-
cations. It can be used by the industrial sector as process heat, or to feed a
thermoelectric (steam) plant; in this case, the plant as a whole operates a con-
version from radiant energy to electric energy. Another possible application (for
those operating at high temperatures, that is to say dish concentrators and solar-
power towers) consists in providing the necessary heat for the thermodynamic
fission of water to produce hydrogen. In that case, the plant as a whole performs a
conversion from radiant energy to chemical energy.
4.2.6 Thermal Energy-to-Chemical Energy Conversion Plants
4.2.6.1 Thermolysis
In general, the thermolysis process consists in the fission of the water molecule
into hydrogen and oxygen, using heat for the fission reaction
H2O ? heat ) H2 ? O2. Thus it is a system converting thermal energy to
chemical energy. Heat can be produced in different ways, and several studies
Fig. 4.47 Diagram of a solar

thermolysis plant [3]
assess such technologies. One option is to exploit the heat produced in thermo-
electric plants: the thermolysis allow a transformation of chemical energy (a fossil
fuel is used as a primary resource, and another fuel is produced, hydrogen). Also
heat produced in nuclear plants can be used: in this we have a conversion from
nuclear power to chemical energy. Another possibility consists in the use of
concentrated solar energy, which allows to reach very high temperatures; in this
case the plant operates a conversion from radiant energy to chemical energy.
In any case, the reaction of direct fission of water, heavily endothermic, without
the use of catalysts, takes place at very high temperatures (besides 2,000C). To
obtain the fission at lower temperatures, it is necessary to use particular catalysts
forming intermediate compounds.
When heat is produced by thermoelectric or nuclear power plants, a promising
chemical process is the one made up of three phases: thermal decomposition of
hydrogen iodide from which H2 and I2 are obtained; thermal decomposition of
sulphuric acid, from which SO2 and O2 are obtained; reaction of I2 and SO2, in
aqueous solution at ambient temperature, from which HI and H2SO4 in cycle are
generated.
In brief, the process is the following:
Phase 1ðT ¼ 300 CÞ 2HI ! H2 þ I2
Phase 2ðT ¼ 870 CÞ H2 SO4 ! H2 O þ SO2 þ 12 O2
Phase 3ðT ¼ 25 CÞ 2H2 O þ SO2 þ I2 ! H2 SO4 þ 2HI
Global reaction H2 O ! H2 þ 12 O2
The efficiency of the chemical plant under consideration (defined by the ratio
between the energy content of the hydrogen produced and the heat consumed)
amounts to nearly 50%. The overall efficiency of the plant clearly depends on the
efficiency of the heat production process.
Another chemical process, used in the plants in which heat is produced through
solar concentrators, is based on the use of iron oxide as catalysts. The process is
therefore the following:
Phase 1ðT ¼ 2:000 CÞ Fe3 O4 ! 3FeO þ 12 O2

Phase 2ðT ¼ 600 CÞ 3FeO þ H2 O ! Fe3 O4 þ H2
Global reaction H2 O ! H2 þ 12 O2
Also in this case, the efficiency of the chemical plant is nearly 50%.
Fig. 4.48 Typical voltage–

current for type I and type II
conductors
The use of concentration solar plants allows to reach very high temperatures,
necessary for the dissociation reactions of the water molecule: in the focus of a
parabolic mirror concentrating direct solar reactions, temperatures exceeding
2,000C are reached.
Figure 4.47 shows the diagram of a solar thermolysis plant. The heat produced
by parabolic concentrators is stored in suitable systems since the chemical plant
must operate with continuity: in the periods of peak solar radiation, the heat
produced is partly used to feed chemical plants, and partly stored. In the hours of
absence of radiation, the chemical plant continues to operate, powered by the heat
storage system.
Considering an efficiency of the heat collection and accumulation system
amounting to 65% and an efficiency of the chemical plant of 53%, a global
efficiency relating to hydrogen production from solar energy is obtained and
amounts to nearly 35% [3].
4.2.7 Electric Power-to-Chemical Energy Conversion Plants
4.2.7.1 Electrolysis
Overview on the Electrolysis Process
Electrolysis is a set of phenomena that take place in an electrolytic solution or in a

molten electrolyte at the passage of electric current, usually continuous. In this
way, the conversion of electric energy into chemical energy is made.
There are different ways of conducting current, and therefore it is possible to
make a distinction between Types I and II conductors. In the case of the former,
with the passage of continuous current, the Ohm’s Law applies, whereas for type II
conductors, the validity of this low is not a general one. Figure 4.48 shows the
trends of current intensity according to the function of the difference of potential
applied to a type I conductor and a type II one.
It is possible to see how in the case of a type II conductor only when the
potential difference (PD) exceeds a given value (E) a passage of current occurs,
Fig. 4.49 Current plotted

against time for different
values of applied PD
which then increases proportionally to the PD applied until reaching a saturation

state. Below this potential threshold there is not any passage of current and
therefore there is no electrolysis. Electrodes in electrochemical processes are
divided in different ways according to their characteristics and the ones of the
electrolytic solutions. The latter exclusively represent catalyst elements of the
electrode process and a typical example is the platinised platinum electrode.
Figure 4.49 shows the trend over time of current when an electrolysis cell with
platinised platinum electrodes in contact with an electrolytic solution is imposed a
PD.
If PD is lower than the threshold value E, it is possible to observe:
• A first ascending phase: in fact, at the beginning there is no PD among elec-
trodes (identical electrodes in the same solution) and no electrode reaction
occurs; however, in the moment in which the circuit is closed and the PD set is
applied to electrodes, there is a passage of current and electrolysis takes place.
• A second descending phase: the molecules that during the passage of current are
formed on the electrodes remain absorbed on them and let the cathode and the
anode assume the nature of electrolytes relating to the species absorbed. In this
way, inside of the electrolysis cell, a stack is generated, whose electromotive
force-emf (as opposed to the PD imposed from the outside and also called
counter electromotive force—cemf), opposes the passage of current. As the ionic
species in the solution are exhausted at the electrodes, there is an increase in
products’ activity and the cemf increases, consequently determining the
decrease of the intensity of the electrolysis current.
• A third constant phase: as the cemf becomes equal to the PD imposed from the
outside, the passage of current basically stops, and remains constant at a value
very close to zero.
With a progressively increasing PD, although always lower than E, the quali-
tative trend of the phenomenon does not change, but any increase of the PD
imposed leads to an increase of the activities of electrolysis products on electrodes
and therefore of cemf.
In this way, a value of pd imposed is reached, in which the activities of products
and reagents becomes such that the pd is higher than cemf and the real electrolysis
takes place, that is to say in the third constant previously described there is a
passage of current.
The phenomenon described, based on which the electrodes of an electrolytic

cell change their chemical nature on the surface during electrolysis, goes under the
name of chemical polarisation of electrodes.
Overvoltage
On the basis of the above, it follows that:
• If a PD lower than E (threshold) is applied to an electrolytic cell,there is no
passage of current and therefore there is no electrolysis. This happens since
there are conditions of equilibrium (between cemf and applied PD) and con-
sequently the reaction speeds on electrodes are globally null.
• If the PD applied is higher than E, there are no more equilibrium conditions, the
passing current has an intensity I and electrolysis takes place.
In order to have electrolysis, then, a PD higher than E must be applied, that is to
say an overvoltage indicated as intrinsic overvoltage (Vi), since it is implied in the
phenomenon of electrolysis itself.
Another unavoidable increase of electrolysis PD, necessary to keep constant the
value I of current, is due to the discharge of ions on electrodes, causing a decrease
of concentration in the solution areas in contact with them, with subsequent
migration towards those areas of other ions from the bulk of the solution (where
concentration is higher). The slower the ion supply (for instance due to the high
viscosity and/or low concentration of the solution), the more marked the con-
centration decrease in the electrode areas, the higher the cemf. This increase
demands, in order to allow I to be constant, an equal increase of the electrolysis
PD. In this way, there is another type of overvoltage, of concentration (Vc), dif-
ferent from the one described above.
Finally, there is the increase of electrolysis PD due to the ohmic drop in the cell,
whose value (V) is given by the product of the electric resistance of the cell (X) by
the intensity of the electrolysis current (A); it varies with the distance between
electrodes and with the resistance of the solution. This phenomenon represents the
so-called ohmicovervoltage (Vh).
Therefore, having called DEterm the thermodynamic voltage, the PD needed for
electrolysis is given by
V ¼ DEterm þ Vi þ Vc þ Vh ð4:110Þ
In practice, in order to improve efficiency, the maximum reduction of the
overvoltage has to be implemented. The intrinsic overvoltage is reduced by using
catalysts (on the surface of the electrode), the concentration one by keeping the
solution rough, and the ohmic drop by making electrodes as close as possible. Each
reduction of V, in fact, represents an energy saving, an element which is very much
important in the economy of industrial processes.
Fig. 4.50 Diagram of an

electrolytic cell
The phenomenon of electrolysis is governed by the Faraday’s Law:

• The masses of chemical species formed (or consumed) to the electrodes during
electrolysis are proportional to the quantity of electricity that has crossed the cell;
• the masses of chemical species formed (or consumed) for the passage of the
same quantity of electricity are, in whatever electrolysis, proportional to the
equivalent masses of the species involved in electrolysis itself.
– The passage of 1 F in an electrolytic solution corresponds to the transfor-
mation (oxidation, reduction) of 1 equivalent of the chemical species that is
electrolysed. Three different cases are possible:
Electrolysis of strongly acid solutions
A solution of H2SO4 with [aH3O+] = 1 is taken into consideration. In this case

it is possible to admit that H3O+ ions, which are present in high concentrations at
the cathode, are reduced and the H2O molecules are oxidised at the anode, given
the low concentration of OH- ions. The electrode processes, therefore, are:
Cathode ðreduction of H3 Oþ Þ 4H3 Oþ þ 4e ! 2H2 þ 4H2 O

Anode ðoxidation of H2 OÞ 6H2 O ! O2 þ 4H3 Oþ þ 4e
Global reaction 2H2 O ! 2H2 þ O2
Electrolysis of strongly alkaline solutions
A solution of KOH with [aOH] = 1 is taken into consideration. In this case, the
following electrode processes take place:
Cathode ðreduction of H2 OÞ 4H2 O þ 4e ! 2H2 þ 4OH
Anode ðoxidation of OH Þ 4OH ! O2 þ 2H2 O þ 4e
Electrolysis of neutral solutions A solution of K2SO4 is considered, since the
K2SO4 does not hydrolyse, the concentration of ions H3O+ and of ions OH- is
small and the processes to the electrodes are:
Cathode ðreduction of H2 OÞ 4H2 O þ 4e ! 2H2 þ 4OH

Anode ðoxidation of H2 OÞ 6H2 O ! O2 þ 4H3 Oþ þ 4e
In the three cases described, the global reaction is the same, and therefore the
values of DE = 1.23 V coincide. Figure 4.50 shows the scheme of an electrolytic
cell.
Electrolysis Efficiency
The efficiency of the electrolysis process can be defined as the ratio between the
electric power theoretically necessary to the process according to the Faraday’s
Law, and the one that is actually used. Indicating with F the Faraday constant, with
z the number of electrons transported by each ion, with c the speed (in mole/s) at
which the reagent is consumed, the current, IF, necessary to the process according
to the Faraday’s Law is:
IF ¼ z F c ð4:111Þ
The necessary voltage according to the Faraday Law is DEterm, therefore effi-
ciency, indicating with V and I the effective voltage and current, is:
DEterm z F c
g¼ ð4:112Þ
V I
Introducing the voltage efficiencyg V, defined as ratio between thermodynamic
and real voltage:
DEterm
gV ¼ ð4:113Þ
V
And the current efficiencyg F, defined as the ratio between the Faraday current
and the effective one:
zFc
gF ¼ ð4:114Þ
I
Replacing (4.113) and (4.114) in (4.112), the efficiency of the electrolysis
process can be expressed as a product of the two efficiencies defined above:
g ¼ gV gF ð4:115Þ
As already said, the thermodynamic potential of water electrolysis amounts to
1.23 V; however, considering the inevitable overvoltage, at least 1.4 V are nec-
essary to obtain an acceptable reaction speed. In the current density conditions
typical of commercial electrolysers (amounting to nearly 1 A/cm2), there is a cell
voltage between 1.7 and 2.0 V; current efficiency is close to the unit, thus to these
values efficiencies of the electrolysis process of 60–70% correspond. As concerns
Fig. 4.51 Scheme of an electrolysis system
the efficiency of an electrolyser, auxiliary consumptions (mainly the pumping of

hydrogen and oxygen) must be considered which cause, given the same hydrogen
produced, an increase of electric power consumption by nearly 20%.
Electrolysers
Figure 4.51 shows the chart of an electrolysis system; the electrolyser, fed with
deionised water, produces hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen produced under-
goes first of all a de-oxidation process and subsequently dehumidification to
eliminate the (distilled) water present, which is then reused to fuel the electrolyser;
at the outlet of the dehumidifier there is hydrogen with a very high degree of purity
([99.9%).
Water electrolysis always takes place in solution and not in pure water, since its
conductibility would be very low and the current crossing the cell would be
negligible; very often a basic solution of KOH (alkaline electrolysers) is used. As
the concentration of the solution increases, two contrasting phenomena can be
observed: on the one side, the number of charge conveyors increases (which
improves conductivity); on the other side the interactions between ions which
obstacle movement increase, hence leading to a decrease of the conduction
movement. The maximum electric current in the cell is obtained with a concen-
tration of the electrolytic solution of nearly 30%.
Electrolysers can be classified as follows:
• Conventional alkaline electrolysers: the concentration of the electrolytic solu-
tion (normally KOH) ranges between 20 and 30%, operating at temperatures
ranging from 70 to 100C and pressures between 1 and 30 bar;
• Advanced alkaline electrolysers: characterised by a lower distance between
electrodes (which reduces the ohmic resistance of the electrolyte), by new
techniques for the catalysation of active surfaces (which decrease overvoltage)
and higher operating temperature;
Table 4.7 Characteristics of conventional and advanced conventional alkaline

Parameter Conventional Advanced
Rated current density Jt (A/cm2) 0.2 0.5
Superficial resistance K (W/cm2) 1 0.4
Ohmic overvoltage (V) 0.2 0.2
Electrolysis overvoltage (V) 0.5 0.4
Cell rated tension (V) 2–1.8 1.78
Tension efficiency 0.747–0.83 0.839
Faradic efficiency 0.985 [0.99
Total efficiency (Ref. LHV) 0.62–0.70 0.71
Efficiency (ref.HHV) 0.74–0.82 0.83
Specific energy consumption (kWh/Nm3) 4.83–4.29 4.22
• Solid polymer electrolysers: in which the PEM unifies the separator and elec-
trolyte functions; they show potentially very high efficiencies (94%), but pres-
ently the actual efficiency is lower than the in alkaline ones and entail high costs;
• Steam electrolyser: the electrolyte is ceramic (ion conductor); the efficiency is
potentially very high, but not yet available in the market.
Table 4.7 shows the main characteristics of conventional and advanced alkaline
electrolysers.
4.2.8 Radiant Energy-to-Chemical Energy Conversion Plants
4.2.8.1 Photoelectrolysis
This process is based on the coupling of photovoltaic technology and electrolysis:

in practice, these are electrolytic cells with electrodes in photovoltaic semicon-
ductor material. The theoretical efficiency accounts for 45%, and experimentally it
was possible to achieve efficiencies of 20% with amorphous silicon cells.
Solutions are under study which envisage the use of multilayer thin films that
will reach efficiencies close to the theoretical one.
4.2.9 Electric Energy-to-Thermal Energy Conversion Plants
Through thermodynamic reverse cycles it is possible, by absorbing energy, to

transport heat from a lower to a higher temperature, that is to say to decrease the
heat of a room temperature source by refreezing it up to low temperatures. Usu-
ally, the energy that is absorbed by the systems that make these thermodynamic
operations is electric. Among the plants that operate as recalled herein, there are
refrigerators and heat pumps. In the formers, the main purpose is to refrigerate a

of a heat pump
body, that is to subtrac heat from a body and reduce its temperature (from a few
degrees above 0C even up to cryogenic values of -250C and less). In the latter
two different functions are possible: can be provide both heat and cool, for winter
heating purposes as well as for summer conditioning.
4.2.9.1 Compression Heat Pump
Overview
The heat pump is a machine able to transfer heat from a lower temperature room to
another higher temperature area (Fig. 4.52). In general, the purpose is to heat a
room at higher temperatures; sometimes the objective is to refrigerate a body at the
lower temperature. Reversible heat pumps operate in both conditions, simply by
changing the interval of operating temperatures.
The heat pump is made up of a closed circuit crossed by a fluid (refrigerant)
with suitable characteristics that, according to its temperature and pressure con-
ditions, takes a liquid or gaseous state, usually steam.
In its standard configuration, the closed circuit is made up as follows (Fig.
4.53):
• A compressor, C
• A condenser
• An expansion valve, V
• An evaporator
The condenser and the evaporator are two heat exchangers, namely two pipes in
which a refrigerant fluid flows exchanging energy with a service fluid (either water
or air). The refrigerant releases heat in the condenser and removes it in the
evaporator. The components of the circuit can be grouped into a single block or
divided into two parts (‘‘split’’ systems) linked by the pipes in which the refrig-
erant fluid flows. In its operation, the refrigerant fluid, within the circuit, undergoes
the following transformations (Fig. 4.54):
• Compression (1–2): the gaseous and low pressure refrigerant fluid, coming from
the evaporator, is taken to high pressure during compression, and heats itself by
absorbing a given quantity of heat.
Fig. 4.53 Cycle of a

compression heat pump
• Condensation (2–3): the refrigerant fluid, coming from the compressor, passes
from the gaseous to the liquid state, releasing heat outside.
• Expansion (3–4): passing through the expansion valve, the refrigerant fluid
partially transforms into steam and cools down.
• Evaporation (4–1): the refrigerant fluid absorbs heat from outside and evapo-
rates completely.
The overall set of these transformations is the heat pump cycle: providing
energy to the refrigerant fluid with the compressor, it absorbs heat from the sur-
rounding medium in the evaporator and, through the condenser, releases it to the
body to be heated.
In the compression heat pumps, that are the far most widespread ones, the
energy absorbed by the cycle (E in Fig. 4.52) is the mechanic energy necessary to
activate the compressor; as it often happens, from an operative viewpoint, the
energy supplied to the machine is electric power and the compressor is set in
motion by an electric motor, therefore the plant, as a whole, operates a conversion
from electric energy into thermal energy.
Thermodynamic Cycle
While discussing about the thermodynamic cycle, reference will be made to
compression heat pumps.
The phases of the cycle of a heat pump are shown in Fig. 4.53. The refrigerant
fluid, at the liquid state and at a temperature T1 and pressure p1, absorbs heat from
the outside, evaporating; as it is known, the passage from one phase to another
takes place at constant temperature and pressure. The steam is then taken to
pressure p2 [ p1 through an adiabatic compression; therefore, the temperature at
the exit of the compressor (which absorbs the mechanical work L) will be T2 [ T1.
In these new conditions, the refrigerant fluid, at the gaseous state, releases heat to
the outside by condensing at a temperature T2 [ T1. At the exit of the condenser,
the fluid is expanded adiabatically up to conditions p1 and T1 and the cycle starts
again. Since the refrigerant fluid is at the liquid state, the (useful) work obtainable
Fig. 4.54 The ideal

thermodynamic cycle
in its expansion is absolutely negligible, therefore this expansion takes place in an

expansion valve, that is to say the recovery of the expansion energy is given up.
Since expansion and compression are adiabatic transformations, and the pas-
sages of phase (evaporation and condensation) are isothermobaric, the reference
thermodynamic cycle is the Carnot cycle, shown in Fig. 4.54, considering the fluid
as a perfect gas and the ideal transformations the reversible ones.
From Fig. 4.53, it is possible to determine the energy balance of the cycle as
follows:
Q2 ¼ Q1 þ L ) L ¼ Q2 Q1 ð4:116Þ
If Q2 is the useful effect (heating) the coefficient of performance (COP) is the
ratio between the useful effect and the energy supplied from the outside. Therefore,
having considered (4.116), it follows that:
Q2 Q2
COP ¼ ¼ ð4:117Þ
L Q2 Q1
With regard to Fig. 4.54 we have:
Q2 ¼ T2 ðS3 S2 Þ ¼ T2 DS ð4:118Þ
Q1 ¼ T1 ðS3 S2 Þ ¼ T1 DS ð4:119Þ
By replacing (4.118) and (4.119) in (4.117), it follows
T2
COP ¼ ð4:120Þ
T2 T1
The refore, the COP, depends on the limit temperatures of the cycle and
decreases as the difference between the two temperatures increases.30 Considering,
30
For this reason, heat pumps are more suitable for mild climate.
Fig. 4.55 COP of a heat pump as the external temperature varies
for instance, T1 = 5C = 278 K and T2 = 20C = 293 K a COP = 18.3 is

obtained.
For the calculation of the real value of the COP, it is necessary to consider the
actual operating conditions.
First of all, as concerns the previous example, the external temperature amounts
to 5C, and the temperature of the fluid at the evaporator T2 must be lower, to
allow the thermal exchange between the external source and the fluid itself.
Similarly, if the internal temperature is 20C, the temperature of the fluid at
condenser T1 must be higher. Considering, for thermal exchanges, a DT of 10C,
then T1 = -5C = 268 K and T2 = 30C = 303 K. With these values, a
COP = 7.7 is obtained.
Furthermore, it is necessary to consider the real transformations of the ther-
modynamic cycle: the real compression work Lr is higher than the ideal work Li,
being:
Li
Lr ¼ [ Q2 Q1 ð4:121Þ
gc
where gc is the compression thermodynamic efficiency. Furthermore, the electric
energy consumed for compression (L in Fig. 4.53) is higher than the real work
since it is necessary to consider the efficiency of the electric motor gME:
Lr Li Q2 Q1
L¼ ¼ ¼ ð4:122Þ
gME gc gME gc gME
Fig. 4.56 Diagram for the

study of the Peltier effect
Furthermore, considering the load losses (during expansion, in the condenser

and in the evaporator) and the efficiency of the compressor, the COP values
amount to nearly 3–5, and obviously vary as the operating temperatures vary, as it
is shown in Fig. 4.55.
As previously said, the heat pump can also have the feature of refrigerating or
cooling. In this case the thermodynamic cycle remains unchanged; what changes is
only the interval of operating temperatures (if the purpose is heating, the maximum
temperature will be, for instance, 45 7 50C; for refrigeration, it will be close to
room temperature, having considered that the purpose in this case is to keep
temperature T1 lower than the room one).
From the plant and the thermodynamic viewpoint, the same considerations
apply: in this case the useful effect is the heat absorbed during condensation (Q2).
The COP value of cooling is normally lower than the one obtained in heating.
In conditions of partial load, if the compressor, set in motion by an electric
motor, works at a constant number of revolutions, then the compression efficiency
(and, therefore, the COP) falls suddenly. The use of inverters, that change the
frequency of the supply current of the electric motor, allows to vary the number of
revolutions of the compressor, so obtaining a good efficiency also in the operation
with partial loads.
4.2.9.2 Peltier Effect Heat Pumps
This type of heat pumps operates on the basis of the Peltier effect. To briefly recall
the characteristics of this effect, one can refer to Fig. 4.56, in which a thermo-
electric circuit is connected to a battery that allows direct current I to flow in. As it
is known, two different metals have free electrons at different levels of Fermi,31
characterised by separate values of kinetic energy and concentration; as a conse-
quence of this, at the contact of the two metals the e.m.f. allows each electron that
crosses the interface to deliver a given quantity of energy (positive in one
31
At absolute zero the Fermi level or Fermy energy is, at absolute zero, the highest energy level
occupied by the ‘‘free’’ electrons of the conduction band. It is typical of the material considered
and weakly depends on temperature. At higher temperatures, some free electrons can be at higher
levels, according to the statistical distribution function provided by the Fermi–Dirac theory.

Peltier effect heat pump Q
p n
Fig. 4.58 GLS incandescent

lamp [4]
direction, negative in the other). This energy exchange translates into a heat
absorption in one of the junctions and into release in the other.
The electric power Wp developed and absorbed in each junction is given by the
ratio:
WP ¼ aP1;2 ðT Þ I ð4:123Þ
where aP,1,2 (T) is the Peltier coefficient. It has the same physical mean of a
e.m.f and, depends on the materials used and varies according to temperature. If
dependency upon temperature is put aside32, then the quantity of heat absorbed in
a time unit at a junction is exactly the same as the one developed at the other.
It is useful to consider the Peltier coefficient as follows:
aP1;2 ¼ aP1 aP2 ð4:124Þ
By convention, the Peltier coefficient is positive if heat is absorbed when the
current flows from the material with a Fermi level higher than the one with the
lower level 0.
32
This admission does not introduce a significant error.
Fig. 4.59 Spectrum of

emission of the black body
The Peltier effect can be exploited for the carrying out of heat pumps; in these
applications, electric current is circulated in a circuit as the one shown in Fig. 4.56:
exploiting as a ‘‘useful effect’’ the passage of heat from one junction to the other.
Figure 4.57 shows the scheme of this type of heat pump: the use of semicon-
ductors imposes the adoption of low voltages and, therefore, given the same
power, high currents; to avoid too high currents, several cells in series must be
connected. In any case, this type of heat pumps is only used for small powers. The
COP is low (1.2–1.4) and markedly decreases as the difference of temperature
increases: therefore, to obtain acceptable values of COP, the temperature differ-
ence between the hot joint and the cold joint shall not exceed 20C.
4.2.10 Electric Power-to-Radiant (Luminous) Energy

Conversion Plants
4.2.10.1 Incandescent Lamps
GSL Incandescent Lamps
Historically, incandescent lamps are the previous ones and nowadays are still the
most widespread; their success over time is due to the good compromise they make
between mean life, luminous efficiency and price.
The most common model of incandescent lamps is represented by general
lighting service (GLS) lamps (Fig. 4.58). The first patent of these lamps dates back
to Edison, in 1841, but it was only in 1880 that they were actually commercialised.
They are made with a base and a glass bulb inside of which there is a filament
that, when the lamp is connected to a power circuit, is crossed by an electric current
that heats it until reaching incandescence, leading it to emit radiant energy
including different wavelengths. The filament emission is regulated by the Planck’s
Law, since in general it is a material similar to a high-emission black or grey body
(Fig. 4.59). Therefore, it emits on the entire spectrum, for wavelengths between 0
and ?, and the emission decreases until becoming null for k = 0 and k = ?.
According to the Wien’s Law, the maximum emission is obtained when:
2:9 106
kmax ¼ ð4:125Þ
T
As temperature increases, this maximum moves from the infrared
(T = 1.500 K) to the field of visible light (T = 3.000 K). In particular, in order to
have it at k = 555 nm, to which corresponds the maximum level of visibility, it is
necessary that the filament reaches a temperature of 5,225 K, too high for what-
ever known material: therefore, in practice, the maximum emission mainly occurs
in the field of infrared radiation. In the first models, until 1913, the filament was
linear and made up of coal; it worked at nearly 1,800C, since it was not possible
to reach higher temperatures in order to avoid the sublimation of carbon. This
phenomenon must be generally avoided for two reasons: because it produces a too
rapid destruction of the filament that, in loosing matter, weakens and breaks, and
because of the subsequent deposit of the vapours released on the internal surface of
the glass bulb darkening it and therefore decreasing the transparency of the glass
and, subsequently, the luminous flow emitted outside.
At 1,800C the maximum emission is at k = 1,400 nm, whereas only a small
portion of the radiation energy falls in the field of visible radiations. Furthermore,
the lamps work with very low pressures in the bulb: in fact, the vacuum was
created in it to delay the oxidation of the filament and prevent it from burning;
however, the low pressure had, together with high temperature, the unwanted
effect of accelerating carbon sublimation. This problem has represented for a long
time a limitation to temperature increase, since it was kept very much below the
melting temperature, until tungsten was adopted, once all the techniques necessary
for its processing in rather thin wires of suitable electrical and mechanical char-
acteristics were fine-tuned.
This material, due to its very high melting point (3.770 K), allows to reach very
high temperatures (it should not exceed 2,500C in vacuum and 2,800C in inert
gas), hence guaranteeing high-energy emissions with wavelengths that fall in the
visible light.
Furthermore, it shows outstanding features in terms of ductility and electric and
mechanical resistance, which allow in the lamps that are presently available in the
market, differently from the first types of products, to coil it up in a double-helix
shape to increase its mechanical resistance and allow a minimum heat dispersion.
In case of powers exceeding 25 W, inert gases are generally introduced in the
bulb, usually argon and nitrogen mixes (but also, in case of special applications,
kripton or hydrogen) that reduce the sublimation of the filament, although in this
way a certain heat transmission is activated by convention between the filament,
the gas and the glass, which lowers the temperature of the filament and subse-
quently reduces its efficiency. In general the best filling gas is kripton since,
besides having a sufficient chemical inertia, it also shows a low value of thermal
conductivity.

energy levels in mercury
atom
Incandescent lamps are however characterised by a heat emission that clearly

prevails compared to the one of luminous radiations, and for this reason they have
a limited efficiency, which varies between 10 and 20 lm/W, with higher values for
greater powers. Their mean life is nearly 1000 h, with a final luminous flow
accounting for 87% of the initial one. The colour temperature coincides with the
filament temperature which is variable from 2,700 to 3000 K. To increase its
value, the glass of the bulb is generally coloured in light blue: in this way it is
possible to obtain a less reddish light that is more suitable for some applications.
However, in doing so, the luminous flow emitted is reduced—as it is partly
absorbed by the coloured glass—as well as efficiency.
Incandescent Halogen Lamps

A further development of this type of light source is represented by halogen lamps,
in which a small quantity of halogen gas (generally iodine, bromine or chlorine) is
inserted in the bulb to effectively counter the evaporation of tungsten.
The presence of these substances, in addition to inert gases, allows the trig-
gering of a regenerative cycle of tungsten, given by the following reactions:
I2 ! 2I
W þ 2I ! WI2 2:000 K
WI2 ! W þ 2I 2:800 K
In the area of the lamp with the lowest temperature, the vapours of tungsten
freed from the filament are chemically combined with the iodine present, forming
gaseous tungsten iodine (WI2) or other similar compounds. This compound, while
migrating to the area of the hot filament, decomposes in its elements, forming
metallic tungsten that newly deposits on the filament. In this way, most of the
sublimated tungsten deposits once again, markedly slowing down both the erosion
process of the filament and the deposition on the inside of the bulb.
Fig. 4.61 U-shaped

discharge tube filled with
low-pressure gas [4]
Furthermore, in these conditions the filament can be crossed by a more intense

current, allowing to reach higher temperatures (*3200 K) and subsequently higher
flows (this entails, however, that the bulb consists of quartz glass, in consideration
of its capacity to resist to the high temperatures to be reached); therefore, there is an
increase both in the luminous efficiency, that is on average 25 lm/W, but which can
also reach 30 lm/W, and the colour temperature (white light). The colour-rendering
index amounts to 100, the mean life is 2,000 h, and the final luminous flow is 94%
of the initial one. For their particular characteristics, these lamps find application
both in interior lighting, and in exterior lighting in case of large complexes, for
photograph shooting, in the headlights of vehicles, etc.
4.2.10.2 Gas-Discharge Lamps
In discharge lamps, light production is due to the emission of luminous radiations

by a preventively excited gas33: when an electron goes back to its orbit, luminous
energy is emitted in the amount of the difference of energy between the two states.
Since electronic orbits are defined, energy gaps are defined as well and typical of
the gas filling the bulb; to a given energy corresponds therefore a well-defined
wavelength and therefore a precise colour (Fig. 4.60). Consequently, these sources
emit a light made up of the typical radiations of gas, and the spectrum is dis-
continuous (with lines).
Differently from incandescent lamps, in which the light emitted can be con-
sidered as a by-product of the transformation of electric power into thermal
energy, in the discharge ones the light is obtained through the direct transfor-
mation of electric power into luminous energy. For this reason they are charac-
terised by a light efficiency far higher than the filament ones, ranging between 35
and 200 lm/W. The mean life as well is higher than incandescent lamps and varied
between 5,000 and 12,000 h according to the type of lamp. Conversely, generally
these lamps do not meet in the same way the colour rendering34 requirements.
33
Excitation consists in the removal of electrons from the stable orbit, made by other electrons
accelerated by an electric field.
34
Due to the fact that these sources emit a light whose spectrum is discontinuous.
Fig. 4.62 Low pressure

(a) and high pressure
(b) sodium lamp [4]
They are essentially made up of a container, generally in glass or quartz with two
electrodes, in which a gaseous body is fit (metallic vapours, sodium or mercury in
particular, since the radiations they emit are found in the visible spectrum, xenon
or rare gases) at a suitable pressure (Fig. 4.61).
Sodium in particular, being solid at the ordinary temperature, must pass to the
gaseous state to be able to emit: therefore it is plunged in a neon atmosphere which
allows the triggering of the discharge and the necessary temperature increase.
According to the value of pressure of the discharge pipe, this type of lamp can, in
turn, be divided into two sub-groups: high and low pressure. In low-pressure
sodium steam lamps (0.5 Pa) the discharge takes place in a glass U-shaped pipe,
protected by an external glass tubular bulb, whose internal surface is covered with
indium oxides to ensure a good thermal insulation, having considered that the lamp
works better at high temperatures (270C) (Fig. 4.62).
At low pressures, sodium emits a practically monochromatic yellow light (a
doublet of yellow-orange spectral lines, very close to the maximum light sensi-
tivity, at 589 and 589.6 nm), and cannot be used for internal lighting and for all
those applications in which the distinction of colours is important: for this reason,
their use is destined to those cases in which colour rendering is not important; in
particular, in Italy this lamp is mostly used for road lighting. Light efficiency in
low-pressure lamps reaches 200 lm/W, whereas their mean life ranges between
8,000 and 10,000 h. Colour rendering is obviously completely insufficient
(Ra = 0): in particular the low-pressure sodium lamps are disadvantaged from this
viewpoint. In high-pressure sodium lamps (40 kPa) the discharge still takes place
at high temperature, with the emission on a line spectrum or continuous spectrum
in the visible light, therefore the colour is not monochromatic yellow any longer,
but rather white-gold (Ra = 60) with a colour temperature varying from 2,200 to
4,200 K (Fig. 4.62).
The luminous efficiency is slightly lower than the one obtained at low pressure,
in any case exceeding 100 lm/W. Its lifetime goes from 5,000 to 12,000 h, and the
flow at the end of the useful life is reduced on average to 90% of the initial one.
Fig. 4.63 Very high pressure

mercury steam lamp [4]
On the contrary, at a low pressure mercury usually has an emission spectrum

characterised by a doublet of lines placed in the ultraviolet area (254 and 185 nm),
whereas at high pressure there are other lines in the field of the visible light (blue,
green); with the further pressure increase, the lines widen into bands and the
emission spectrum becomes a continuous one, although lacking in the wavelengths
corresponding to red. Therefore low pressure bands are not used for lighting
purposes, but rather for particular technological operations that require the use of
UV radiation. Their widespread use is possible, in fact, only after correcting the
quantity of light emitted, as it happens in fluorescent lamps.35
Efficiency in high-pressure lamps is relatively low and ranges from a minimum
of 35 lm/W to a maximum of 50 lm/W. Also the colour-rendering index
(Ra = 60) and the colour temperature (2.150 K) are relatively low, and this
explains the present low use of these lamps (in the case of street lighting, they have
been almost entirely replaced by the sodium-vapour ones). In some types of lamps,
sodium halide (hydride), thallium and indium are added to correct the character-
istics of the emission spectrum and to improve the light efficiency, which can reach
95 lm/W. These lamps are able to cover the same market of halogen lamps and
fluorescent lamps, with the advantage compared to the former of a higher effi-
ciency and to the latter of the availability of higher flows.
In order to improve colour rendering (Ra = 65–80) recently small halide lamps
were produced with the addition of holmium, dysprosium, etc., comparable to
halogen lamps but with the advantage of a 2/3 energy saving. These are in practice
discharge lamps miniaturised with a luminance of 15 Mcd/m2, whose colour
temperatures range between 3,000 and 6,000 K, and with a mean life exceeding
even 6,000 h. Finally other discharge lamps use a xenon atmosphere, which allows
35
See Sect. 1.2.10.2.1.
Fig. 4.64 Voltage–current

characteristic curve in a
discharge tube
to obtain emission spectrums that reproduce, with a good approximation in the

visible field, the one of solar radiation. It follows a faithful rendering of colours, and
therefore these lamps are well used for the lighting of indoor and outdoor areas.
A brief mention is finally deserved by very high pressure mercury vapours (3.5–
10 MPa), with very high luminance (100,000 stilb) and are mostly used in sci-
entific laboratories (Fig. 4.63).
The gas discharge phenomenon can be described as follows. In a mass of
rarefied gas there are always free electrons due to photoelectric effects or to a
cosmic radiation. At ordinary temperatures, the energy owned by molecules (3kT/
2) is of the same magnitude as the energy exchanges among molecules or between
electrons and molecules caused by their collisions.
If however temperature is analysed or if particles are accelerated with a suitable
electric field, then there are the conditions for the ionisation of gas and the sub-
sequent phenomena that are at the basis of the operation of a discharge lamp. In
particular, when the two electrodes are connected to a source of direct voltage the
characteristic curve V(I) is diagrammed, then it follows that (Fig. 4.64): for very
low values of gas, which usually has a very low thermal conductivity, it acts as a
perfect insulator; in these conditions there is only a weak passage of current due to
the free electrons that are present and near the first section of the curve there is a
trend of growing i with V.
For the highest voltage values, electrons will acquire kinetic energy according
to the electric field existing between electrodes, moving towards the anode and
colliding in their pathway against gas atoms. A collision occurring at low speeds is
elastic and causes the deviation of the collision electron, which releases a small
part of its kinetic energy to the gas atom that is heated.
On the contrary, as speed increases, the quantity of energy exchanges caused by
the collision between particles increases; consequently the likelihood of deter-
mining the ionisation of a molecule. A collision taking place at high speeds causes
the change of orbit of one of the external electrons to a higher energy level,
exciting the atom. After a very short time, ranging between 10-9 and 10-8 s, the
electron goes back to its initial level and in passing from a higher energy status E2
to a lower one E1 the atom emits a quantum of light (photon) amounting to the
difference:
E 2 E1 ¼ h m ð4:126Þ
with h as Planck’s constant (6.63 9 1034 Js) and m as frequency of the emitted
radiation (in s-1). Since the energy released by the electron with the collision
amounts to eV, the wavelength of the photon emitted will be given by:
c ch
k¼ ¼ ð4:127Þ
m eV
When finally the collision takes place at a speed so high that a peripheral
electron is taken away from the atomic system, the atom is charged positively and
therefore it ionises. The freed electrons behave exactly like a colliding electron,
whereas the ion can recombine with another electron producing light, or release
heat through collision against the walls. If an appropriate continuous voltage is
applied to the discharge tube, there will be a continuous formation of ions moving
towards the cathode and a production of other electrons that will very quickly
move towards the anode. In the characteristic curve of the tube, this phenomenon
turns into a rapid increase of current as voltage increases. Under the bombardment
of ions, the cathode heats and emits in turn electrons due to the thermionic effect:
therefore the ionisation increases and a number of electrons is produced that is
sufficient to allow the discharge to become independent from the original free
electrons (in this case it is generally said that it is self-sustained). The gas has
become in this way a conductor, the voltage drop on the lamp decreases and the
current increases. The minimum voltage able to trigger this process, that corre-
sponds to the voltage at which the lighting of the lamp takes place, is called in fact
triggering voltage.
In the typical curve there is then a section of negative resistance (corresponding
to the operation of discharge lamps) in which the potential drop between elec-
trodes decrease as current increases. The voltage at the terminals sufficient to keep
the discharge is lower than the triggering voltage. Another section corresponding
to the disruptive or arch discharge finally follows that is only exploited for arch
lamps, used in special applications.
The trend of the curve (triggering voltage, arch voltage, etc.) depends on the
form of the tube and on the nature of gas. In particular, the triggering voltage
depends on the product of pressure by the distance between electrodes (Paschen’s
Law), therefore the higher their values, the higher it will be: this can be explained
by making the following considerations.
At high pressures the mean free time (the time between the two subsequent
collisions) is rather short, therefore they do not succeed in gaining a sufficient
kinetic energy to produce the ion ionisation in collisions. Only by increasing the pd
at the terminals it is possible to suitably accelerate the particles in such a way as to
allow collisions to have the ionisation of other atoms: this translates, therefore,
into an increase of the value of the triggering voltage.
At low pressures, when the gas is very much rarefied, the mean free time is
much larger, therefore the possibility of having a collision before the accelerated
particle reaches the opposite electrode is rather low. Also in this case, only by
increasing voltage it is possible to reduce the mean free time producing a higher
agitation of particles and this, once again, translates into an increase of the trig-
gering voltage.
Furthermore, for a given gas and at a given pressure, the triggering pressure
increases as the diameter of the tube decreases. This can be explained by
observing that a small diameter facilitates the possibility of ion and electron
recombination on lateral surfaces before causing other ionisations. The value of
the triggering voltage can however be reduced by using both rare gases, and
appropriate electrodes. The former show an excitation voltage very close to their
ionisation voltage, which facilitates the definition of the discharge through the
gas (furthermore these gases, as all the metallic vapours, have a monatomic
molecule, and this allows not to disperse energy in the collisions with electrons
to excite oscillations and rotations of the atoms of the molecule). As to the
appropriate electrodes, it is possible for instance to coat the cathode, which is
generally made in tungsten, with layers of alkaline-terrous oxides, such as BaO,
SrO and CaO, with a low exit potential, which facilitate ionisation phenomena).
It is also possible to adopt auxiliary electrodes, that is to say the heating of
electrodes.
In order to allow the phenomenon of the discharge not to be exhausted, it is
necessary that the gas remains ionised, with shifts towards the cathode of positive
ions and of electrodes towards the anode. In this way a progressively higher
current is however determined, which must be stabilised by using some current
limiters, called reactors, inductive ballast resistors that are used to limit power
drops.
Fluorescent Lamps
To exploit the emission of ultraviolet radiations by some gases and vapours

(mainly mercury) used in the discharge tubes (that, exception made for specific
applications, is unusable) in this type of lamps the phenomenon of fluorescence is
exploited, a property that some substances have in terms of absorbing small
wavelength electromagnetic radiations and releasing energy in the form of higher
wavelength. This phenomenon allows the recovery of the energy emitted outside
of the visible, also allowing the correction of the colour of the light emitted, with a
very high colour rendering. It is based on the property owned by some substances
called phosphor of exciting when they are invested by a radiation, emitting in turn
energy radiations with a lower energy than the excitement one, and therefore of a
higher wavelength. The emissions stop within a very short period of time (10-8 s)
from the interruption of the exciter radiation. With these substances, that are made
Fig. 4.65 Mercury vapour

(a) and compact (b) bulb
fluorescent lamp [4]
up of oxisulphide, aluminates, phosphate tungstate and silicate of Calcium,

Magnesium and Zinc, associated to heavy metals as copper or antimony, the
internal surface of the glass cover is therefore involved (Fig. 4.65). Furthermore,
very often in fluorescent salts the particular traces of substances called activators
are dispersed.
A similar phenomenon often consistent with fluorescence is furthermore
luminescence or phosphorescence, that is conversely extended in time. The
colour of the resulting light varies with the nature of phosphors and of activators,
and goes from hot white (&3.000 K), that is close to the colour of the light
emitted by incandescence lamps, up to the white-light blue of the daily light
(temperature of colour & 6.500 K). Tubular fluorescent lamps are on the con-
trary generally filled with argon, with the addition of a small quantity of mer-
cury, in order to facilitate the triggering of the discharge. A common
characteristic of this type of lamp is the low luminance of the emitting surface
(4,000–7,000 cd/m2): this feature sometimes makes it possible for the use of
these sources without any direct shielding to avoid glare, as it is conversely
necessary with other types of lamps.
In consideration of the capacity of these lamps to recover energy, the luminous
efficiency is generally very high (85–95 lm/W). Their mean life is nearly 10,000 h,
whereas the final luminous flow accounts for 85% of the initial one. The colour-
rendering index is included between 85 and 95.
Additionally, in the last few years small-sized fluorescent lamps were produced,
which are destined to the same market as incandescent ones, of which they
basically offer the same chromatic quality of light (Ra = 85), allowing however
considerable energy savings (Fig. 4.66).
Their cost, still higher compared to incandescent lamps, is in fact offset by a
higher efficiency (50–80 lm/W) and a longer mean life (6,000 h).
Mixed-Light Lamp
These are mercury vapour bulb fluorescent lamps, where inside of the bulb, a
filament of tungsten is added and connected in series to the discharge tube
(Fig. 4.66). The filament, in emitting through incandescence with its continuous
Fig. 4.66 Mixed-light lamp

[4]
Fig. 4.67 Operation diagram

of an induction lamp [4]
spectrum rich in large wavelength radiations, offers a useful contribution to the

production of the luminous flow and improves colour rendering. A further
advantage is given by the fact that these lamps do not require any reactor. The
values of luminous efficiency are intermediate between incandescent lamps and
fluorescent lamps (20–30 lm/W), the colour temperature is around 3,000–4,000 K,
the colour-rendering index goes from 40 to 75 and the mean life from 5,000 to
7,500 h.
Induction Lamps
These are new generation lamps, whose functioning is based on the fluorescent
lamps, but in which electrodes are eliminated since they represent the weak point
in terms of duration. The power requested is in this case provided by a high-
frequency electronic generator (2.65 MHz) that, once coupled with a coaxial cable
to an antenna, creates an alternate magnetic field that in turn induces a secondary
electric field (Fig. 4.67). Therefore, an induced current is generated which circu-
lates in the mix of mercury vapour and rare gas contained in the bulb, triggering
the ionisation phase previously described.
The efficiency is around 65 lm/W, the colour temperature around 3,000–
4,000 K, the colour-rendering index is higher than 80 and the estimated mean life
is 60,000 h.
4.3 Energy Transformation Plants 277
Table 4.8 Energy transformation processes

Conversion Plant Conversions and transformations
Chemical Reformer Conversion of fuel’s chemical energy to be reformed into
thermal energy
Conversion of thermal energy into chemical energy of
the fuel produced
Partial oxidation Conversion of fuel’s chemical energy to be reformed into
thermal energy
the fuel produced
Gasification Conversion of fuel’s chemical energy to be reformed into
thermal energy
the fuel produced
Pyrolysis Conversion of fuel’s chemical energy to be reformed into
thermal energy
the fuel produced
Fermentation and Direct transformation
digestion
Photoproduction Direct transformation
Heat Absorption heat Direct transformation
pumps
4.3 Energy Transformation Plants
Also in the case of transformation plants aimed at producing energy vectors, the
same concepts and criteria exposed for conversion plants apply. In general, in a
plant, different energy transformation and conversion processes take place that
allow to transform the resource used into the desired form of energy. For instance,
in the steam reforming process there is also a conversion of chemical energy into
thermal energy (part of the fuel to be reformed to produce hydrogen is burnt to
produce the necessary heat to trigger reactions); the heat produced is in turn
converted into chemical energy. Therefore, globally, a steam reforming plant
operates a transformation of chemical energy, producing a fuel with given char-
acteristics starting from a different fuel with different characteristics.
Table 4.8 shows the transformation plants tackled in this paragraph.
4.3.1 Chemical Energy Transformation Plants
4.3.1.1 Steam Reforming
This process, which since the mid-60 ranks first in the industrial preparation of
hydrogen (presently, the most cost-efficient, the most common and with the
highest efficiency), is based on the reaction of a hydrocarbon (mainly methane)
with water vapour according to the reaction CH4 ? H2O $ CO ? 3H2. This is an
endothermic reaction and the relevant balance, at low temperatures is heavily
shifted to the left side. Therefore, this reaction is carried out at high temperatures
(nearly 800C36), in the presence of catalysts (nickel salts supported on aluminium
oxide), and at a pressure of nearly 30 bar.
The CO ? 3H2 mix produced, also containing low percentages of CO2,37 is
indicated with the name of water gas, is then subtracted from the equilibrium,
enriched with a suitable quantity of water steam and passed through catalysts (with
iron and cobalt) at temperatures of nearly 400C (shift reaction). In this way there
is a reaction called water gas conversion reaction CO ? H2O ? CO2 ? H2.
In brief this process, with a global efficiency of around 75%, will be:
First phase CH4 þ H2 O ! CO þ 3H2
Second phase CO þ H2 O ! CO2 þ H2
Global reaction CH4 þ 2H2 O ! CO2 þ 4H2
In the ideal case, as it can be derived from the global reaction, there is the
emission of 1 mole of CO2 for every 4 mole of hydrogen produced. Considering
molar weights, there are 5.5 g of CO2 for every g of hydrogen produced. As
concerns the methane produced, there is the emission of a mole of CO2 for every
mole of CH4 consumed, that is to say 2.75 g of CO2 every g of CH4 consumed. As
already mentioned, as a matter of fact, a part of methane is burnt to produce the
heat necessary to reactions. The methane combustion reaction is
CH4 ? 2O2 ? CO2 ? 2H2O, from which it is possible to infer than in the
combustion there is an emission of 2.75 g of CO2 every g of CH4 burnt. Therefore,
every gram of methane consumed in the reforming process (burnt for heat pro-
duction or reformed to produce hydrogen) there is the emission of 2.75 g of CO2.
The actual consumption can be expressed according to the process efficiency.
Indicating with mH2 the mass of hydrogen produced and with LHVH2 its lower
heating value, with mCH4 the mass of methane consumed and with LHVCH4 its
lower heating value, by definition, the efficiency of the reforming process gR is:
mH2 LHVH2
gR ¼ ð4:128Þ
mCH4 LHVCH4
Thus the mass of methane consumed is:
mH2 LHVH2
mCH4 ¼ ð4:129Þ
gR LHVCH4
Indicating with EMsCO2 the CO2 emissions per g of CH4 consumed, the
CO2 EMCO2 emissions are:
36
The necessary heat is produced by the combustion of a given quantity of methane.
37
Also at high temperatures and pressures, the reaction is never complete.
Fig. 4.68 Scheme of a reforming plant
LHVH2
EMCO2 ¼ mH2 EMsCO2 ð4:130Þ
gR LHVCH4
Assuming an efficiency of the reforming plant scheme accounting for 75%,
from (4.130) it is possible to obtain:
EMCO2 ¼ mH2 9:13 ð4:131Þ
Therefore, there are emissions of 9.13 g of CO2 for every gram of hydrogen
produced.
Figure 4.68 schematically shows a reforming plant. These are generally, large
plants, with a production capacity around 800 MNm3/year of hydrogen.
4.3.1.2 Partial Non-catalytic Oxidation of Hydrocarbons
Partial oxidation consists in the reaction of hydrocarbons with oxygen. The tem-
perature at which the oxidation reaction occurs depends on the hydrocarbon and on
the presence of catalysts: light hydrocarbons react, with the catalyst, at nearly
600C, whereas heavy hydrocarbons (for instance naphtha), in the absence of
catalysts, need temperatures around 1,400C.
The overall efficiency of the partial oxidation process, on average amounting to

50%, is lower than the reforming one, and costs are remarkably higher. Further-
more, for the partial oxidation reaction, pure oxygen is needed: the exothermal
reaction of partial oxidation of a general hydrocarbon CnHm is the following:
n m
Cn Hm þ O2 ! nCO þ H2
2 2
The product of partial oxidation of hydrocarbons is a synthesis gas made up of a
mix of CO and H2 (similar to the one obtained in the first reaction of the reforming
process) with a content in H2 that increases as the H/C ratio of the oxidised
hydrocarbon increases.
4.3.1.3 Gasification
In general, gasification consists in the oxidation of a (solid) substance whose final

objective is the production of a gaseous fuel. The oxidising agent can be air,
oxygen, water steam or a mix of them.
The gasification process takes place in three subsequent phases:
1. Drying at a temperature of nearly 100C.
2. Pyrolysis at temperatures between 200 and 700C.
3. Oxidation–reduction processes at temperatures around 900C.
The reaction processes are in variable percentages, according to the starting
substance, the oxidation agent and the gasification technology used, hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, steam, methane and hydrocarbons exceeding
the status of vapours or oils and ashes. The general gasification reaction of a
CHaOb substance is the following:
CHa Ob þ wH2 O þ yO2 þ zN2 , x1 C þ x2 H2 þ x3 CO þ x4 H2 O þ x5 CO2

þ x6 CH4 þ x7 N2 þ x8 O2 þ . . .
Coal Gasification
In coal gasification, carbon reacts with water steam according to the reaction
C ? H2O ? CO ? H2. This is an endothermic reaction and the relevant balance,
at low temperatures, is heavily shifted to the left. Therefore, this reaction must be
carried out at high temperatures (800–1,000C), which are kept through the
combustion of a part of coal with dosed inlets of air or oxygen or heat from a
combustion chamber. The reaction described represents the first phase of the
process. Subsequently, the mix CO ? H2 produced (synthesis gas called water
gas), also containing small percentages of CO2, is subtracted from the equilibrium,
enriched with a suitable quantity of water steam and passed through catalysts (with
iron and cobalt) at temperatures of nearly 400C, similar to the case of the
reforming process. In this way a reaction occurs, called water gas conversion
reaction: CO ? H2O ? CO2 ? H2.
In brief this process, with a global efficiency of around 50%, is:
First phase C þ H2 O ! CO þ H2
Second phase CO þ H2 O ! CO2 þ H2
Overall reaction C þ 2H2 O ! CO2 þ 2H2
Proceeding similarly to the reforming process, it is possible to calculate CO2

emissions for the production of hydrogen from coal gasification: assuming an
efficiency of the gasification plant of 50% CO2 emissions amounting to 30 g per g
of hydrogen produced are obtained.
Gasification of Biomass
One of the most advanced systems for the gasification of biomass is represented by
two fluid beds in which combustion and gasification occur separately to produce a
gas not diluted with nitrogen. In this case (fluid bed indirect heating gasificator) an
oxygen generator is not necessary and there are no problems in the materials for heat
transportation to high temperatures. This type of plant allows a high conversion of
the carbon present in the biomass, which can be used also in a non-dried state.
The output synthesis gas from the gasificator must be treated before being used
in combustion engines, turbine or high temperature fuel cells. There are two main
gas conditioning methods that are substantially used: cold and hot.
The cold methods consist in the mechanical removal of particles through porous
membranes (bag filters) or sand (sand filters) or water jets (scrubber); although
sophisticated in their realisation, they are conceptually very simple and do not
need in-depth analyses.
In hot methods the first cleaning stage is always represented by a cyclone,
which removes the entire char38 and part of the TAR (Topping Atmospheric
Residue)39 and of the particulate. The subsequent stages remove the fractions of
TAR and particulate (ceramic filters) not removed by cyclones. Where possible
these methods, are be preferred, since they mostly retrieve the thermal and
chemical content of the gas produced, do not have to cool the gas and do not
produce polluted wastewater.
The efficiency of these plants, defined as the ratio between the energy content of
the synthesis gas produced and the one of the biomass used, is on average 70%.
38
Carbonaceous solid product mainly made up of carbon, containing residues at a high
molecular weight, as furan-derivatives and phenol compounds.
39
‘‘Liquid oily’’ fraction containing water and compounds with a low molecular weight as
aldehydes, acids, ketones, alcohols, heavy hydrocarbons condensed at temperatures lower than
20-100C.
4.3.1.4 Pyrolysis (or Dry Distillation)
Pyrolysis is a process of thermochemical decomposition of organic matter based

on the administration of heat at temperatures between 400 and 800C, in a total
absence of an oxidising agent, or with a reduced quantity of oxygen. In practice,
thanks to this process, the organic macromolecules break into chains with a lower
molecular weight. The products of pyrolysis are gaseous, liquid and solid, in
proportions that depend on the methods of pyrolysis (fast, slow or conventional)
and on the reaction parameters:
• from conventional pyrolysis that occurs at temperatures lower than 600C and
with moderate reaction times, it is possible to obtain approximately three
fractions (solid, liquid and gas) in equal proportions;
• in fast pyrolysis the conversion reactions occur fast and at temperatures between
500 and 650C, and with short contact times in order to reduce the new for-
mation in intermediate compounds, hence favouring the production of the liquid
fraction up to 70–80% in weight of the organic matter supplied;
• the flash pyrolysis takes place at temperatures exceeding 700C and with contact
times lower than 1s, in such a way as to favour the production of a liquid
fraction (around 80% in weight of supply), but with a more reduced composition
variation.
4.3.1.5 Fermentation
Fermentation is an anaerobic process, similar to the known process of anaerobic

digestion, in which the glucose of biomass is decomposed, through bacteria, into
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and acids according to the following reaction:
C6 H12 O6 þ 2H2 O , 2CH2 COOH þ 2CO2 þ 4H2 :
The theoretical efficiency is 4 mole of hydrogen per mole of glucose (0.5 Nm3
of hydrogen per hk equivalent glucose). The final co-products of fermentation as
acetic acid can be further fermented or submitted to photosynthesis processes,
increasing the maximum theoretical efficiency to 12 mole of hydrogen per mole of
equivalent glucose. The bacteria necessary to fermentation can be cultured in pure
or mixed cultures. Pure cultures of caldicellulosirupter saccharolyticus and ther-
motoga elfii can produce hydrogen at temperatures of 65C. Mixed cultures of
clostridia use non-sterile environments in continuous reactors at nearly 30C on
substrates of carbohydrates including cellulose.
The research is oriented towards obtaining mixed cultures in non-sterile envi-
ronments with a high hydrogen efficiency and able to inhibit the consumption of
the hydrogen produced.
4.3.1.6 Photoproduction
Hydrogen photoproduction can be obtained by using some photosynthetic

organisms including green algae. It is performed by conditioning algae through
illumination cycles alternated to darkening cycles. Algae cause bio-photolysis by
splitting water into H2 and O2. In some conditions, the hydrogenase enzyme
contained in green algae acts as a catalyst causing the reduction of protons to form
hydrogen. Hydrogenase is synthesised after many hours of incubation in anaerobic
(without oxygen) conditions and without light. Hydrogenase contains iron and is
oxygen-sensitive, so that when after a short period of light exposure in which H2
and O2 are produced, the production of hydrogen decreases. Green algae as
chlamydomonas reinhardtii, blue algae as cyanobacteria and photosynthetic
bacteria as rhodobacter sphaeroides have been extensively tested. Blue algae and
bacteria produce hydrogen by using the nitrogenase enzyme, normally involved in
the formation of NH3. Nitrogenase is less efficient than hydrogenase (due to a
higher energy demand and a slower turnover). The reactor must be designed to
allow the collection of the hydrogen produced, be penetrable to light, water and
culture.
4.3.2 Thermal Energy Transformation Plants
4.3.2.1 Absorption Heat Pumps
Operational Principle
Absorption heat pumps operate on the basis of the capacity of some substances to
absorb large quantities of steam of others, hence forming a mix or forming weak
chemical bonds.
The principle at the basis of the operation of absorption machines is based on
the behaviour of liquid mixtures in equilibrium with their own vapour.
To analyse the phenomena determining the operation of these machines, two
containers shall be considered: A (absorber) and E (evaporator), the former
(A) containing a mix of substances a and b (i.e.: liquid in equilibrium with its
vapour) and the latter (E) substance a alone (also in this case in liquid phase in
equilibrium with vapour). The two containers communicate through an initially
closed tap, as shown in Fig. 4.69. In these conditions it is possible to express
pressure in A (pA) and pressure in E (pE) according to the concentrations (Xa and
Xb) and the partial pressures of the vapour phase (pa and pb)40 of the two solutions
through the Raoult’s Law. In container A there is a solution of a and b, therefore:
40
In the presence of the two phases of liquid and steam, the pressures of the steam phase (pa and
pb) only depend on the temperatures exciting in containers (TA and TE).

operation of absorption heat
pumps
α+β α
A E
P A ¼ X a P a þ Xb P b ð4:132Þ
In container E there is pure a, therefore:
P E ¼ Pa ð4:133Þ
If substance a is more volatile than b, that is if Pa Pb (4.132) can be as
follows:
P A ¼ X a Pa ð4:134Þ
The Clapeyron’s Law links temperature and pressures in a biphasic system
through the following ratio:
dP DH
¼ ð4:135Þ
dT TDV
where DV = Vv–Vl is the variation of volume in the passage of phase from vapour
(Vv) to liquid (Vl) and DH is the latent heat of evaporation.
Putting aside the volume of the liquid compared to the one of vapour
(DV % Vv), considering vapour as a perfect gas and DH constant, it follows that:
dP DH dP DH dT
¼ P) ¼ ð4:136Þ
dT RT 2 P R T2
Integrating (4.136) and indicating with K the constant of integration, it follows:
DH 1
ln P ¼ þK ð4:137Þ
R T
Therefore the pressure of the steam phase of substance a according to tem-
perature is:
DH 1
Pa ¼ e R T þK ð4:138Þ
From (4.133) it follows:
DHa 1
PE ¼ e R TE
þ K1 ð4:139Þ
From (4.134) it is obtained:
DHa 1
PA ¼ Xa e R T A þ K1 ð4:140Þ
By putting the two containers in communication, obviously the pressures in A

and E will be the same; from (4.139) and (4.140) therefore it follows:
DHa 1
DHR a T1
e R TE
¼ Xa e A ð4:141Þ
Moving on to logarithms:
DHa 1 DHa 1
¼ ln Xa ð4:142Þ
R TE R TA
From (4.142) it is obtained:
1 R 1
¼ ln Xa þ ð4:143Þ
TA DHa TE
Being DHa [ 0 and 0 \ Xa \ 1, therefore ln Xa \0; it is possible to obtain:
1 1
[ ) TA \TE ð4:144Þ
TA T E
The variation of concentration (in E there is a pure a whereas in A there is a
solution of a and b) at the same pressure conditions, therefore the temperature in A
is lower than temperature in E. From (4.144) it is evident that (R being a constant)
the difference between temperature in A and in E increases as both Xa (that is to
say the concentration of a must be low) and DHa decrease (which means that the
latent heat of evaporation of a must be as low as possible41).
Description of the Absorption Heat Pump Plant

As regards Fig. 4.70, providing heat (QE) in E there is the production of steam of
a, which migrates to A. By subtracting heat (QA) from A the steam previously
formed goes back to the liquid state and, thanks to the affinity between a and b is
absorbed by the solution contained in A. This system can be therefore used for the
operation of a heat pump taking heat (QE) to a certain temperature and releases it
(QA) at a lower temperature (4.144). However, in the process described, the var-
iation of concentrations in E, as well as the exhaustion of a in E, allow that, at a
certain point, the process itself stops. In order to make this system cyclical, it is
necessary to bring the two containers back to their initial conditions. To this
purpose, other two exchangers are used (Fig. 4.71): a steam generator (G), that
absorbs heat QG at temperature TG and a condenser that releases heat QC at
temperature TC.
Summing up, as regards Fig. 4.71, the components of an absorption heat pump
are the following:
41
That is in line with the hypothesis according to which a is far more volatile than b.
Fig. 4.70 Operational

diagram of the absorber–
evaporator system
QA α+β α QE
A E

of an absorption heat pump
G C
QG QG
TG=T1 TC=T0
A E QE
QA
TA=T0 TE=T2
• Steam generator (G): here the fluid absorbs heat QG at temperature TG. This
entails an evaporation of the mix with its subsequent dilution42;
• Condenser (C): here the fluid releases heat QC at temperature TC by condensing
it at high pressure;
• Evaporator (E): between it and the condenser there is a pressure difference
(through a valve) (pE \ pC) that allows the refrigerant to evaporate by absorbing
heat QE at temperature TE.;
• Absorber (A): here the refrigerant is reabsorbed by the solution, completing the
cycle. The absorption causes the condensation of the refrigerant, therefore it is
necessary to subtract heat QA (at temperature TA).
As mentioned above, the cycle of an absorption heat pump is based on the use
of a binary mix of fluids, for instance a solution of water and lithium bromide
(H2O–BrLi), or ammonia and water (NH3–H2O). The first of the two substances of
the mix behaves as a refrigerant fluid; the second as solvent, in which the
refrigerant is dissolved in a more or less high concentration according to the point
of the plant.
To keep the necessary difference of pressure between condenser and evapora-
tor43 (and, therefore, between steam absorber and generator) it is necessary to
42
Being a more volatile than b, the steam will be richer than a compared to the liquid phase.
43
Normally the pressure at the condenser is nearly 10 times as much as higher than the one at the
evaporator.
Fig. 4.72 Scheme of a plant

G C
with an absorption heat pump QG
TG=T1 TC=T0
QG
3 5
2 6
A E QE
QA
TA=T0 TE=T2
insert a laminating valve between condenser and evaporator and a pump between
steam absorber and generator.44
Figure 4.72 shows a more detailed diagram of the operation cycle of an
absorption heat pump. The cycle uses a solution of water and lithium bromide,
which is represented here as an example with the values indicating the typical
values of the cycle (concentrations, temperatures and pressures).
At the exit of the absorber (section 1) the solution is rich in refrigerant
(Xa = 59%, Xb = 51%) and is at a pressure of 800 Pa and at a temperature of
41.5C. Unless load losses occur, the pressure in the evaporator is the same
available in the absorber, a pressure at which water evaporates at around 5 7 6C.
The solution (at the liquid state) taken by the absorber is compressed at a
constant temperature through the pump and in section 2 the pressure is nearly
8,000 Pa: from here the solution enters the heat exchanger (where it exchanges
heat with the solution outgoing from the steam generator) heating up to a tem-
perature of nearly 77C, at a constant pressure and concentration. In the steam
generator (where heat QG is absorbed) there are two phases: in the first one there is
a heating (up to nearly 85C) at constant pressure and concentration; in the second
one, being the solution in equilibrium with its steam, at an increase of temperature
corresponds a separation (through evaporation) of the refrigerant from the solution.
Pressure remains constant also in this second phase, at the end of which there is a
pure refrigerant at the vapour state and a solution at the liquid state rich in solvent
(Xa = 36%, Xb = 64%) at the temperature of nearly 94C. The liquid solution is
introduced in the exchanger where it heats the solution coming from the absorber;
from here it is sent to the absorber itself, providing it with a solution, rich in
solvent, able to absorb the refrigerant. The refrigerant is sent to the condenser,
where it condenses by releasing heat QC at a high temperature (94C). From here it
44
Also in this type of pumps, therefore, there is a compression: however, compared to the case
of compression heat pumps where a gas is compressed through a compressor, in the absorption
ones a liquid is compressed through a pump, and therefore the compression work is much smaller.
Fig. 4.73 cycle of a plant

QG G1 G2
with a two-stage absorption
heat pump
C QG
1
QA A E QE
crosses the laminating valve, decreasing its pressure (from 8,000 to 800 Pa) and it
is injected in the evaporator, where it evaporates by absorbing heat QE at the
temperature of nearly 5C. At this point the refrigerant (at the vapour state) is
taken from the evaporator and introduced in the absorber by closing the cycle.
The absorption plant can take a more complex configuration: in fact in order to
improve the efficiency of the cycle two-stage concentrators are used (Fig. 4.73). In
this case the steam generator is divided into two sections, one at high and one at
low temperature.
Performance of Absorption Heat Pumps

The performance of an absorption heat pump are generally indicated with a
defined Coefficent Of Performance (COP) code; in this case, as a ratio between the
useful (thermal power) heat flow (Qu) and the thermal power introduced in the
steam generator QG
Qu
COP ¼ ð4:145Þ
QG
As regards Fig. 4.72, in the heating operation there is:
QA
COP ¼ ð4:146Þ
QG
Whereas in the cooling phase:
QE
COP ¼ ð4:147Þ
QG
The COP values in the heating operation are around 1.5, whereas in the cooling
phase they are markedly lower. For simple machines, they are typically lower: the
value of COP varies in the range 0.6–0.75, with higher values for lithium bromide
machines compared to the ammonia ones: In the case of double effect machines,
the COP can reach values exceeding the unit, generally in the range of 1.1–1.3.
Furthermore, performance vary if the machine works in a partial load. In this
connection, it is possible to observe that an absorption machine shows a lower
consumption compared to a compression machine and in particular a partial load
cooling COP can outperform the corresponding full load value. This is due to the
absence, in absorption machines, of auxiliaries with parts in motion, whose per-
formance always decrease with partial loads, and with the increase in the exchange
efficiency in system exchangers when the system operates with ranges lower than
the design ones.
References
1. Caputo C (1979) Le turbomacchine vol III. Editoriale ESA. ISBN:88.405.3216.1. Also: Logan
E (1983) Turbomachinery: basic theory and applications, CRC press, ISBN 9780824791384,
and Baskharome EA (2006) Principles oh turbomachinery in air breathing engines, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 9780521858106
2. Pello’ PM (1990) Impianti di accumulo mediante pompaggio per la generazione elettrica: il
caso italiano in L’energia elettrica no 9 p 369
3. Maccari A, Vignolini M (2001) Progetto di massima di un impianto pilota per la produzione di
2000 m3/giorno di idrogeno solare basato sul processo ut-3
4. Nucara A, Pietrafesa M (2001) Elementi di illuminotecnica, Universita’ degli Studi
‘‘Mediterranea’’ di Reggio Calabria; Facolta’ di Ingegneria; Dipartimento di Informatica
Matematica Elettronica e Trasporti. Also: Dilouie C, Advanced lighting controls: energy
saving, productivity technology and applications, The Fairmont Press, ISBN 0-88173-510-8
Chapter 5
Distributed Generation and Cogeneration
5.1 Distributed Generation
The distributed generation of electric power, rather than a real technology,

represents a paradigm of energy production, being complementary and/or alter-
native to the centralised and/or localised production in large-scale plants. It is
based on the use of small-size generators that operate close to end users and with a
power ranging from a few kW to some MW. To date, the spreading and the
incidence related to distributed generation on global electric power production are
marginal, although increasing. On the other hand, a considerable and articulated
series of technical–economic evaluations exist, describing the present state of the
art and setting out generally growing development scenarios for the next decade.
The subject of electric power distributed generation was introduced in the late
’90s with some considerations on technologies, strategic aspect, advantage and
problems [1]. In this section, these elements will be resumed, and integrated with
further considerations stimulated by recent events.
5.1.1 General Features of Conversion Plants
In brief, conversion plants can be classified according to the following features:

• Energy source used
• Environmental impact
• Size and flexibility.
Obviously, the source used determines the technology as well as the conversion
and processing procedures adopted to obtain the form of energy desired. In the
case of non-renewable sources (fossil and nuclear) the resource used usually in
plants is not the primary source, but rather a resource obtained from it (secondary
292 5 Distributed Generation and Cogeneration
source) through suitable transformation processes. In the case of renewable

sources, on the contrary, the plant normally directly uses the primary source,
exception made for biomass: in this case, suitable processes are needed to make
this source usable in most efficient technologies. The type of process varies
according to the type of biomass (and therefore the plant technology): in the case
of biomass usable in boilers or gasifiers (biomass suitable for combustion) the
process simply consists of preparing the biomass according to a size suitable to
feed the plant. On the contrary, in the case of biomass usable in biochemical
processes (fermentation, digestion and esterification), the preparation consists of a
real transformation process in which, from the biomass, it is possible to obtain a
gaseous fuel (biogas) usable in traditional boilers.
In general, energy conversion plants interact with the environment consuming
resources, producing waste, occupying the soil they are located in, etc. It is
therefore possible to state that these plants cause a certain environmental impact:
according to whether this impact produces effects at a global and local level,
reference is made to global or local impact.
When talking about the size of the different technologies used in energy con-
version plants, it is suitable to make some considerations. It is evident that, at least
in theory, a plant—whatever technology is used—can be of any size: as a matter of
fact, for some technologies, the main characteristics of the plant itself (cost and
performance) are strictly related to its size. This is true, for instance, for steam
thermoelectric plants: as it is known, these are highly performing plants
(exceeding 40% efficency) and allow to produce electric power at low costs. These
features, however, occur in large-size plants (normally exceeding 1,000 MW)
thanks to the scale effect: the same type of small plant (for instance, of some tens
of kW) would not have such a high performance and the cost of the energy
produced would markedly increase. These considerations lead to state that steam
plants are large sized ones. Conversely, for other technologies (for instance pho-
tovoltaic), the absence of the scale effect and the problems that the adoption of
large sizes would entail (think of the necessary surfaces) ‘‘discourage’’ the setting
up of large plants. For these reasons, photovoltaic plants are normally classified as
small-size plants.
The main characteristic that defines the currently needed operational features of
a plant is flexibility, that is to say the capacity of the plant to regulate the power it
supplies. As far as this characteristic is concerned, it is possible to distinguish three
main categories of plants:
• plants that directly use aleatory sources (sun and wind), and in this case nor-
mally there is no possibility to adjust the power supplied (without systems for
the systems for the accumulation of the energy produced);
• plants in which, although an adjustment is technically feasible, it entails a
remarkable worsening of performance; it is the case of large steam thermo-
electric plants that, in order to keep a good efficiency, must work as much as
possible at normal conditions and with continuity, reducing switching off and
on;
5.1 Distributed Generation 293
• plants that allow to adjust—within wide ranges—the power supplied according

to the load, keeping their efficiency nearly constant; it is the case of turbogas
plants and, more evidently, of fuel cells.
5.1.2 Scale Economies
The centralisation of electricity production is traditionally based on consolidated

evaluations of scale economy, deriving from the low management and investment
charges per kWh produced in large plants. The need and/or the convenience to
delocalise plants imposed to resort to burdensome infrastructures for the trans-
portation, processing and distribution of the energy produced (networks), which
however accounts for an increasing percentage of total costs furthermore, con-
siderable energy losses. Further difficulties are found in the case of new plants, not
only for the considerable investment charges, but also for the possible oppositions
by local communities vis-à-vis the new transportation plants and facilities.
On the other hand, the small size of distributed generation plants does not entail
the need for high-medium voltage distribution networks and, at the same time,
allows to use low-voltage for local connections. Furthermore, their progressive and
non-traumatic introduction is favoured, both in those cases in which a production
structure is missing, and when replacing the existing networks is considered as
suitable or convenient.
5.1.3 Energy Sources and Distributed Generation Technologies
Distributed generation plants (including stand alone ones) must meet specific
requirements, including:
• plant-engineering modularity which means reduced scale economies and
installation costs almost independent from the size; this allows to scale power
according to users’ needs;
• reduced management and maintenance needs: this characteristic is due to the an
installation closer to the users’ place is hardly suitable for plant solutions
requiring frequent maintenance with specific professional skills;
• reduced emissions installations at users, including in towns, impose particularly
strict limits to emissions.
As stand-alone units, macro-generators in distributed generation allow the use
of a potentially unlimited range of energy sources and, in any case, much wider
than central systems, which mainly operate with traditional fossil fuels. In par-
ticular, the small scale entails flexibility in the choice of energy sources, depending
on local availability, geographic characteristics, as well as on the technological
and economic conditions of users. In this framework, the provisions of the United
Table 5.1 Characteristics of electric power distributed generation technologies

Technology Diesel ICE Gas ice Gas Micro- FC PV
turbines turbines
Scale (kW) 20–10,000 50–5,000 [1,000 30–200 50–1,000 [1
Efficiency (%) 36–43 28–42 21–40 25–30 35–54 n.a.
CO2 emissions (kg/MWh) 650 500–620 580–680 720 430–490 0
NOx emissions (kg/MWh) 10 0.2–1.0 0.3–0.5 0.1 0.005–0.01 0
Nations conferences and summits on sustainable development (starting from Rio

de Janeiro 1992), relating to both the energy needs of the underdeveloped areas of
the planet, and to the concerns on the anthropogenic effects of development, can be
suitably conjugated with the operational characteristics of distributed generation at
all application levels.
As a matter of fact, the low spreading of distributed generation, and the sub-
sequent and continued marginality of the relevant technologies, limit the field of
usable sources. Among fossil sources, natural gas, oil and reforming hydrogen
have the lead. Among renewable sources, thermal and photovoltaic sources pre-
vail. The reference to hydrogen implies its use both in a long-term perspective, as a
main energy vector in fuel cells, and in a short/medium-term perspective as a
component of fuel mixtures (i.e., hydrogen-methane mixtures) in heat engines and
turbines.
The production technologies available include reciprocating engines (diesel and
gas), microturbines, fuel cells and photovoltaic conversion. Wind production is
usually considered as a variant of central systems, although at a small scale.
Table 5.1 shows the semi-quantitative analytic data on the different production
technologies.
5.1.4 From Concentrated Production to Distributed Production
As already mentioned above, the present organisation of the energy system at a

national level is mainly based on the production of energy vectors concentrated in
very few large plants, located far from users, and on the transportation and dis-
tribution of the vectors produced to end users. This organisation does not only
concern production plants, but also the other infrastructures (the distribution grid)
that represent the energy system as a whole. A passage from concentrated to
distributed production, therefore, cannot only concern energy production tech-
nologies, but also all the components of the energy system, that is to say the
infrastructures for energy wheeling, vectors themselves (since a distributed gen-
eration system shall provide for the use and therefore the supply of hydrogen
together with electricity and heat) up to the technologies for end use.
The present electricity distribution grid as well as the energy network as a
whole, is essentially conceived and organised to transport energy towards one
direction only (from production centres to users); namely it is unidirectional,
Table 5.2 Today’s grids and smart grids-ETP

TODAY’s GRIDS
large centralised generation
geographical distribution of generation resources
power flow in one direction from the power stations
dispatching of power and network control ? centralised facilities (controlling several regions
from one place)
There is little or no consumer participation and no end-to-end communications
SMARTGRIDS
they accommodate bi-directional power flows
they allow:
• distributed generation management
• renewable energy resources management
• optimisation of DSM (demand site management)
• optimisation of Storage management
Coordination of local energy management and full integration of DG and RES with large-scale
central power generation
passive and able to absorb power only from higher voltage grids. Therefore, it is
limitedly suitable for a bidirectional system in which distributed production has a
particular relevance from the quantitative viewpoint. Therefore, the introduction of
distributed generation in this type of network, entails problems that can be over-
come only until limited quantities are involved. Conversely, a massive penetration
would entail a high degradation of the quality of the service as well as problems in
terms of operation and protection.
The momentum given by low-carbon generation technologies, associated to a
higher efficiency (therefore a lower energy consumption), will allow consumers a
higher interaction with the networks.
Making consumers active players in the process of energy supply, and pro-
moting the spread of renewable sources and distributed generation: these are the
main objectives of Smart Grids.
In Europe, in fact, the SmartGrids European Technology Platform (ETP) was
set up in order to face the problems linked to an electric grid system no more
unidirectional. The aim of the SmartGrids ETP for electricity networks was to
formulate and promote a vision for the development of Europe’s electricity
networks looking towards the future [2].
Compared to traditional electric grids, characterised by large plants with a
technology consolidated over decades, centralised control and optimal manage-
ment at a regional level, Smart Grids exploit at best the advantages offered by the
digital era (Table 5.2), but for this purpose they have to be:
• flexible, fulfilling customers’ needs while responding to the changes and chal-
lenges ahead;
• accessible, granting connection access to all network users, particularly for RES
and high efficiency local generation with zero or low-carbon emissions;
Fig. 5.1 Future network

vision [2–5]
• reliable, assuring and improving security and quality of supply, consistent with
the digital era demands;
• cost-effective, providing the best value through innovation, efficient energy
management and ‘‘level playing field’’ competition and regulation.
In such a project, a smart grid scheme (Fig. 5.1) must envisage that:
• the system operation will be shared between central and distributed generators.
• the control of distributed generators might be aggregated to form micro-grids or
‘‘virtual’’ power plants to facilitate their integration both in the physical system
and in the market.
In a smart grid perspective, and always bearing in mind the things said about
energy systems, sources and vectors, it is necessary to increasingly adopt the larger
concept of Smart Energy Networks, as ‘‘renewable’’ as possible.
It is readily evident that the passage towards distributed production neither does
necessarily envisage the complete elimination of large plants, nor the possibility of
siding them with small production plants directly at users’; it is rather possible to
envisage intermediate levels of energy production and distribution, as well as
energy vectors at the city or district level.
Figure 5.2 shows a possible organisation of the energy system based on dis-
tributed generation.
In an organisation as a Smart Energy Network, thanks to a ‘‘smart’’ use of a
different mix of energy vectors (priority given to zero emission usability), like
electricity, heat and hydrogen, the coverage of the energy needs of single users
will no longer be entirely met by the network but rather partly covered by the
integrated plants that produce energy directly for users (micro energy networks in
Distributed Generation) and partly by the grids. Therefore, the energy taken from
the network by a single user will partly come from the national grid (powered by
large concentrated production plants), partly from medium-sized local plants, and
partly from other users at the city and/or district level (Fig. 5.3) shows that during
the production phase it had no consumption needs. This type of system therefore,
will have a series of energy production and storage microstations locally.
Furthermore, from an energy viewpoint, the use of distributed generation allows
to employ cogeneration, which is very much efficient; this is clearly impossible in
Fig. 5.2 Organisation chart

as a smart energy network
Fig. 5.3 Possible

distribution of energy
consumption by end users
the case of concentrated generation, since heat transportation for long distances is
not feasible from the energy viewpoint.
A Smart Energy Network has to be flexible, accessible, reliable and cost-
efficient. It should also guarantee; renewability of energy resources; efficiency in
energy conversion, distribution and use; lowering of the environmental impact;
increasing of energy access; tailor making of energy systems on local social-
economic-environmental conditions.
5.1.5 Type One and Two Distributed Generation
Let’s now some considerations on distributed production. First of all, it is evident

that there is no sharp division between concentrated and distributed production:
concentrated and distributed production refers to the size and the localisation of
the plant (large conversion plants far from users, or small-sized plants close to
users), but neither the size nor the distance from users indicate any values of sharp
distinction between distributed and concentrated production.
Secondly—although on the basis of this qualitative distinction alone—it is
evident that production can be ‘‘more or less’’ distributed: it ranges from the plant
directly installed at one user and that supplies that given user (for instance a
photovoltaic plant integrated on the roof of a house), to the plant that supplies a
group of users (one or several buildings or groups of users), up to the plant that
supplies entire groups of houses, industries or commercial activities (districts,
cities, industrial and commercial areas). In all the cases mentioned above, refer-
ence is made to distributed production, but it is evident that the characteristics of
plants are completely different, and the ‘‘degree of distribution’’ varies as well.
As regards the ‘‘degree of distribution’’ some considerations are needed; as
already mentioned, from the global energy efficiency point of view, an advantage
of distributed generation is the elimination (or strong reduction) of the losses
derived from the transportation of the vector produced from the production site to
end users. In this connection, in case of plants whose resource used is a primary
resource available on site and which does not need any energy spending for its
transportation, the increase of global efficiency due to the decrease of transpor-
tation losses always applies and increases as the degree of distribution increases
that is, to say by approaching production to users.
In other cases, when the plant into consideration, although ‘‘distributed’’
throughout the territory and therefore close to end users, uses an energy vector for
which transportation energy must be spent (see chapter on vectors), the decrease in
overall transportation energy spending mentioned above shall be carefully eval-
uated and on a case-by-case basis since, as the degree of distribution increases, the
expenses for the transportation of the vector increase. In these cases, therefore, it is
necessary to identify an ‘‘optimal value’’ of the degree of distribution.
On the basis of the above, from the energy analysis perspective, not always
distributed production is better than the concentrated one. Distributed production
of energy, in fact, refers to an energy conversion process close to end users which
can start from an energy vector produced in a remote place and distributed up to
the final conversion point, or a process that directly starts from a primary energy
resource available at the user.
It is therefore necessary to make a differentiation between the two situations
already in their definition, since they are completely different from one another. To
do so, it is necessary to introduce a specific characterisation besides the indication
of distributed production. Therefore we define distributed production of type I as
the production through plants that use primary resource locally available as a
resource. Conversely, we define distributed production of type II the production
through plants that use as a resource an energy vector made available to the end
user and for whose transportation energy was spent.
In the case of distributed production of type I, global efficiency increases with
the degree of distribution, whereas in the case of distributed production of type II
the degree of optimal distribution must be evaluated.
On the basis of the definition, examples of distributed production of first type

include solar plants (photovoltaic, thermal at low, medium and high temperature),
and wind plants. It is evident that, although for these plants global efficiency
increases as the degree of distribution increases, for the real localisation of plants it
is necessary to consider other aspects, such as the characteristics of the plant and
the availability of the source. In some cases, as in the case of photovoltaic plants
and solar collectors for heat production at low temperature, the characteristics of
the plants themselves (modularity, possibilities of integrated solutions in build-
ings), as well as the characteristics of availability of the source1 make them par-
ticularly suitable for production at the users. In other cases, the availability of the
source (wind2) and the characteristics of plants3 impose some constraints to the
localisation of plants themselves. In any case it is possible to state that the dis-
tributed production plants of type I must be localised as close as possible to users,
irrespective of the energy vector produced and compatibly with other types of
constraints.
As concerns the plants for type II distributed production, the optimal ‘‘degree of
distribution’’ firstly depends on the vector used and on the one produced.
In the case of heat production, because of the relevant losses for the trans-
portation of heat itself, plants must necessarily be sufficiently close to users.
Within some limits, in any case, production can be more or less distributed4: in this
case, it is necessary to identify the different factors that determine the global
energy efficiency. In particular:
• energy spending for the distribution of the vector used for heat production
purposes;
• energy spending for heat distribution;
• eventual efficiency variations of the conversion plant for the different solutions
analysed.
For electric power production, in the case of type II plants, the low energy
spending for its transportation5 suggests a centralised production or, more gen-
erally, a distribution of plants that limits at the transportation of the vector used at
a minimum level. For instance, if natural gas is used for the production of electric
power, the expenditure for the transportation of the vector used is higher than the
one for the transportation of the vector produced: in fact, if we consider an
1
Incident solar radiation depends on the latitude and on the cloudiness of a given area. In
practice, the solar radiation available can be considered as constant within rather wide macro-
areas.
2
In the case of wind energy, the availability of the source varies according to micro-areas; this
makes necessary a detailed assessment of the resource.
3
Concentration solar plants, for instance thermodynamic solar plants, are necessarily large and
demand large areas with particular infrastructures.
4
Such solution includes the possibility of producing heat for domestic heating at the level of
single house, single flats or groups of flats or at a district level.
5
See Sect. 3.4.
efficiency of the conversion plant as amounting to 40%, in order to produce 1 kWh

of electricity we need 2.5 kWh of gas. On the basis of the considerations made in
the Sects. 3.4.3.1 and 3.4.4.1, in case of gastransportation the energy spending,
given the same energy transported is nearly as much as doubled compared to
electric power6. This means that distributing methane for the production of electric
power entails an energy spending five times higher than the one needed for the
distribution of the electricity produced starting from methane.
Let us now turn to the production of hydrogen from the reforming of natural
gas. In this case, the efficiency of the processing plant is high, and amounts to
nearly 75%; therefore, to produce 1 kWh of hydrogen, 1.33 kWh of gas is con-
sumed. The energy spent for the transportation of hydrogen is, given the same
energy transported, nearly three times7 as much as higher than the one for the
transportation of natural gas. Therefore, the energy spending for the distribution of
the hydrogen produced is over two times higher than the one for the distribution of
the gas used. In this case, then, the global energy efficiency increases as the degree
of distribution increases.
A particular case is the one in which biomass is used; due to the low energy
density (in weight and volume) its transportation is relatively energy consuming.
The specific characteristics vary according to the type of biomass; in any case,
generally speaking, to limit the energy spending for transportation into acceptable
values (10 720% of the energy transported), the transportation distance shall not
exceed 100–150 km. Therefore, in this case, it is convenient from the energy
viewpoint to limit the transportation of the resource used; this however does not
mean centralising production, but rather to distribute it near the resource and not
near users. Obviously, more in detail, for an optimal ‘‘distribution’’ it is necessary
to consider the energy vector produced by the plant; electricity, heat and synthetic
fuels (solid, liquid or gaseous) for whose transportation energy spending varies
considerably.
5.2 Combined Production of Electric Power and Heat:

Cogeneration
The word cogeneration indicates the set of operations targeted to the combined
production (cascade) of electric power and thermal energy, both considered as a
useful effect. This solution consists in the recovery of heat otherwise released in the
environment by electric power production plants, with subsequent increase of the
overall efficiency compared to the separate production of electric power and heat.
6
Also considering the necessary voltage transformations for the transportation of electric power
for long distances.
7
See Sects. 3.4.3.1 and 3.4.5.2.
5.2 Combined Production of Electric Power and Heat: Cogeneration 301
Fig. 5.4 Energy balance of a

cogeneration system (kWh)
Fig. 5.5 Energy balance for

the separate production of
electric power and heat
(kWh)
Figure 5.4 shows an example of energy balance in a cogeneration system. This

chart is referred to a cogeneration system with a turbogas: the ratio between electric
power produced and thermal power strongly depends on the technology used,
whereas the efficiency does not heavily vary from one technology to the other;
therefore, the example shown can be considered as a general validity. Therefore, if
we consider a fuel consumption of 100 kWh, it is possible to obtain a total useful
energy of 85 kWh (35 kWh electric energy and 50 kWh thermal energy).
Comparatively, Fig. 5.5 shows the energy balance of the separate production of
electric power and heat, given the same useful effect and considering an efficiency
of electric power production amounting to 38% (almost the average value of the
Italian electric system) and an efficiency of 90% of boilers for heat production. In
this case, to obtain 35 kWh of electric power and 50 kWh of thermal energy, fuel
consumption amount to 147.7 kWh.
The conversion efficiency of distributed generation microgenerators into electric
power is generally lower than in large plants. However, their proximity to end users
(which in fact reduces energy trasmission losses and complexity), offers the pos-
sibility for considerable energy recovery at low temperatures, otherwise dispersed,
mainly for the heating of rooms and of household water. The simultaneous gen-
eration and use of electric energy and heat (Combined Heat Power—CHP), or
cogeneration, does not alter thermoelectric efficiency, while substantially increases
the portion totally used of source energy. In general, as a consequence of a 20%
increase of investment costs for CHP devices, depending on the size, the efficiency
Table 5.3 Costs and Type Size (MW) Initial Electric Efficiency of
efficiencies of cogeneration cost efficiency use (%)
technologies (€/kW) (%)
Micro-CHP \0.015 2,700 15–25 85–95
(Stirling)
Micro-turbine 0.1 1,970 29 59
Diesel engine 0.1 1,380 28 75
Fuel cells 0.2 3,800 36 73
Diesel engine 0.8 980 31 65
Turbine 1.0 1,600 22 72
of use of the source energy doubles (from 30% to over 60%) (Table 5.3). The
precondition for an economic convenience, although not always met, is that the user
simultaneously uses the electric power produced and the heat recovered.
Cogeneration is increasingly integrated, especially in commercial sectors, with
‘‘cold’’ production, in particular for room air conditioning, in which case the word
trigeneration is used. Its development is supported by the huge savings following the
replacement of electric air conditioning systems with gas-absorption ones. In par-
ticular niches of users, it is also convenient to install hot/cold water generators with
the supply of electric power as a sub-product. The present penetration of trigener-
ation is even more limited than CHP; however, cautious estimates indicate for the
future a considerable market growth, especially in the most advanced EU Countries.
5.2.1 Cogeneration Technologies
Cogeneration systems, depending on the technology used and on the thermody-

namic cycle, can be summed up as follows
• steam turbines;
• gas turbines;
• combined-cycle;
• fuel cells;
• internal combustion engines (ICE);
• gas esternal combustion engines (Stirling).
Table 5.4 shows the values relating to the size and the characteristic electric
index, which is the ratio between the electric power and the overall power (electric
+ thermal) of these plants.
Indicating with gc the cogeneration efficiency, with ge the electric efficiency, Pe
the electric power, Pt the thermal power, with m_ c the mass flow of the fuel and
with LHV its Lower Heatic Value, it follows that:
Pe þ Pt
gc ¼ ð5:1Þ
m_ c LHV
Table 5.4 Characteristics of Type of plant Power (kWe) Electric index

the main cogeneration
technologies ICE 10 – 100 0.35 – 0.45
Stirling 1 – 25 0.20 – 0.65
Gas turbine 400 – 100,000 0.20 – 0.40
Gas microturbines 10 – 80 0.20 – 0.40
Fuel cells 10 – 1,000 0.55 – 0.65
Steam turbine 1,000 – 150,000 0.5 – 1
Combined cycles [10,000 0.45 – 0.60
thus:
gc m_ c LHV ¼ Pe þ Pt ð5:2Þ
By definition, electric efficiency is
Pe ¼ ge m_ c LHV ð5:3Þ
Indicating with Ie the electric index, from its definition, we have:
Pe
Ie ¼ ð5:4Þ
Pe þ Pt
Replacing (5.2) and (5.3) into (5.4), one comes to:
ge m_ c LHV ge
Ie ¼ ¼ ð5:5Þ
gg m_ c LHV gg
5.2.1.1 Cogeneration with ICE
In these plants, electric efficiency generally amounts to nearly 30%, whereas the
overall cogeneration one accounts for about 80%.
As shown in Fig. 5.6 the heat available can be recovered, more or less in the
same quantities, at the discharge: at temperatures of about 350–400C, and from
the cooling circuit at lower temperatures (85–90C).
5.2.1.2 Cogeneration with Fuel Cells
These plants are characterised by high electric efficiency (from 50% to over 60%,
according to the type of cells used).
The heat flow (thermal power) generated by a cell8 is:
8
See Section ‘‘The Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells’’ of Chap. 4.
Fig. 5.6 Energy balance

with ICE

T DS DH DG
Q¼ þ DV I ¼ þ DV I ð5:6Þ
nF nF
The voltage drop DV is:
DG
DV ¼ E E e ¼ ð1 eÞ ð5:7Þ
nF
Replacing (5.7) in (5.6) it is possible to obtain
I
Q ¼ ½DH DG þ DGð1 eÞ ð5:8Þ
nF
from which,
I
Q ¼ ½DH DG e ð5:9Þ
nF
Assuming, the Faradic efficiency of the cell as amounting to 1, (5.9) becomes:
Q ¼ DH DG e ð5:10Þ
The ideal electric work is equal to DG. The real one, having assumed the
Faradic efficiency and the fuel processing system as amounting to one, is:
Le;r ¼ DG e UH2 gsist ð5:11Þ
From (5.10), the total useful energy (electric + thermal) is:
Q þ Le;r ¼ DH DG e þ Le;r ð5:12Þ
Replacing (5.11) in (5.12) it is possible to obtain:
Q þ Le;r ¼ DH DG e þ DG e UH2 gsist ð5:13Þ
By definition of cogeneration efficiency, we have:
Q þ Le;r
gc ¼ ¼ 1 gi e þ gi e UH2 gsist ð5:14Þ
DH
(5.14), indicating with ge the electric efficiency of the fuel cell (5.14), can be
written as follows:

Q þ Le;r ge 1
gc ¼ ¼1 þ ge ¼ 1 ge 1 ð5:15Þ
DH UH2 gsist UH2 gsist
(5.15) gives the cogeneration efficiency according to the electric efficiency of
the fuel cell: ge exceeds 85%. The temperature at which heat is available deeply
changes with the type of cell used: it ranges from 70C of PEMFC up to over
1,000C of SOFC. Since electric efficiency is around 50–55%, the electric index
takes values of 0.55–0.65.
5.2.1.3 Cogeneration with Steam Plants
This system is very much used for industrial cogeneration, since it is possible to
make the steam available for thermal use at pressure values that are more fre-
quently requested by processing, that is to say between 2 and 10 bar. It is also used
in the civil sector for district heating.
The characteristic parameter of this type of plants is the so-called degree of
recovery, which expresses the ratio between the mechanical energy produced by
the steam flow rate recovered for thermal use and the mechanical energy overall
produced.
Two different plant solutions are possible for the production of electric power
and heat with steam cycle:
• backpressure plants;
• condensation plants with controlled bled-steam.
The most relevant aspects of the plant include:
• high investment costs (they sharply vary according to the kind of plant, such as
either backpressure or controlled bled-steam);
• possibility of using different types of fuel (external combustion);
• good reliability with reduced maintenance costs;
• low electric index value;
• electric index depending on the temperature at which heat is requested.
Backpressure Plants
The scheme of this type of plant is shown in Fig. 5.7.

According to thermal users’ needs, turbine expansion is stopped at suitable
pressure and temperature values, and the remaining condensation heat of the steam

cogeneration plant with a
backpressure steam cycle
Fig. 5.8 Expansion I

enthalpic variation in the H A
turbine of Fig. 5.7
ΔH
Z
B
C
is used for heat production purposes. This solution is the easiest and cheapest one
from the plant viewpoint (the condenser is replaced by the heat exchanger),
although showing a scarce operational flexibility; electric and thermal power are
produced in a pre-fixed ratio, and an increase of the former necessarily implies an
increase of the latter.
As concerns heat demand, the steam status and its range (that is to say the
thermal power requested) are defined. As regards Fig. 5.8, Z being the point
representing the status of steam requested by the industrial process (or, more
generally, by users), after tracing the isothermobaric process passing from point
Z and estimating a value for the efficiency of turbine gt it is possible to trace the
expansion line, being:
AB AB 1
gt ¼ ¼ ¼ ð5:16Þ
AC AB þ BC 1 þ BC
AB
In fact from (5.16), it is possible to identify point A through the following

equation:
gt
AB ¼ BC ð5:17Þ
1 gt

cogeneration plant with a
controlled spilling steam
cycle
The point I at the beginning of the expansion must be identified on the line for
points A and Z according to the ratio between thermal power and electric power to
be supplied: the mechanical power obtainable, having defined M as the steam
range and gm as the mechanical efficiency, is
P
P ¼ M DH gm ) DH ¼ ð5:18Þ
M gm
Such a procedure makes it is possible to identify the point I at the beginning of
the expansion, while the isobaric process passing for point I indicates the pressure
that the fluid must have outside of the steam generator. Please note that, after
setting the heat power requested, as the obtainable electric power increases, the
pressure at the beginning of the expansion also increases (even much faster), that is
to say the operating power of the steam generator, with obvious consequences on
the plant and management costs. This practically limits the electric index:
IE B 0.2. In any case, after fixing point I, as the temperature (and thence the
pressure) at which expansion stops increases, heat production increases and
electric power, i.e., electric efficiency, decreases.
Since electric power and heat are obtained from the same range of steam, it is
possible to vary the total power supplied only by changing this range, and leaving
IE unchanged. The degree of recovery in this type of plants, for the same reason,
always amounts to one.
Condensation Plants with Controlled Bled-Steam
By combining a condensation plant with a backpressure plant, it is possible to

obtain a good operational flexibility with regard to the electricity/heat ratio pro-
duced. The scheme of such a plant is shown in Fig. 5.9. Expansion process occurs
into two machines. In the high-pressure turbine the expansion of the entire steam
flow occurs; at the end of this expansion, which correspond to steam conditions
appropriate for users’ needs, a part of the steam flow is destined to thermal util-
isation (heat exchanger), while the remaining part continues its expansion in the
low pressure turbine, reaching the condenser. The two flows rejoin in regenerator R.
Fig. 5.10 Willan’s line for a M

steam turbine C
A
P
Acting on the flow of the bled-steam, giving the same flow at the input of or
acting on the flow of such a turbine giving the same bled-steam, the value of the
electric index IE changes.
The maximum and minimum flows of the bled-steam (and, therefore IE values)
are defined by the steam flow (both maximum and minimum) of the condenser, as
well as by the maximum flow of the steam generator. The minimum steam flow to
the condenser sets a lower threshold to the electric index at around 0.2. The
maximum flow to steam condenser and generator impose a minimum value to the
flow of the bled-steam, then a maximum value to the electric index. While
developing the project it is evidently possible to envisage maximum flows to
condenser and steam generator so as to allow the working of the plant without any
bleeding: in this case, the electric index clearly amounts to one.
For the management of the plant, besides the project, it is necessary to know the
correlation between the different variables: mechanic power, thermal power, steam
flow rate in the turbine T1 and flow of bled-steam. This correlation is given by the
working diagram of the plant, obtained by tracing the two turbines of the Willan’s
lines for the different flows obtained as the spilled flow or the input flow of high
pressure turbine change.
The Willan’s line for a turbine is the diagram of flow M absorbed according to
the power P supplied (Fig. 5.10): it is nearly linear from point A of no-load
running (to which corresponds a given steam flow M0 necessary to keep the turbine
rotating without supplying any power) up to point B (project conditions at which
there is the highest performance of the turbine), beyond which the slope increases
up to point C corresponding to maximum overload. For industrial applications, the
linear Willan’s line is adopted in the entire field of operation of the turbine.
As the spilled steam flow changes, the degree of recovery of these plants takes
values ranging between 0 and 1.
5.2.1.4 Cogeneration with Gas Plants
Systems based on gas turbine as a prime mover have the advantage of making
independent, in a wide field of variation, production of electric power from
thermal one. The latter takes place downstream in the machine at the expense of
the heat of fuel gases that would be in any case released into the atmosphere, at
temperatures of 400–500C; the air excess of exhaust gases allows, in case heat is
requested at higher temperatures, to operate an afterburning that increases the level
of gas temperature.
The main characteristics of this type of plants, whose scheme in shown in
Fig. 5.11, are the following:
• low installation costs;
• easy following of load variations;
• short assembling period;
• reduced maintenance costs;
• high-quality fuels required;
• heat available at a high temperature (the temperature of exhaust gases is nearly
500C).
The heat obtained in the form of steam in the heat-recovery boiler placed
downstream the turbogas, can be used for the direct distribution to technological
users, for urban heating through a superheated steam/water exchanger, or it can be
used to supply a steam turbine that operates an electric generator obtaining in this
way the gas-steam combined cycle, that shows huge efficiency for both cogene-
ration and electric power production purposes (see next paragraph).
Considering a cogeneration efficiency of 85% and an electric performance of
around 30%, the value of the electric index amounts to about 0.35.
5.2.1.5 Cogeneration with Combined Plants
Combined plants are particularly suitable for the combined generation of electric
power and heat. The combined cycle, in carrying out thermodynamic transfor-
mations far more efficient than the steam processes traditionally used for cogen-
eration purposes, is able to generate, given the same quantity of thermal energy,
higher quantities of ‘‘fine’’ (electric) energy. Therefore, the efficiency values
obtained are far higher than the case of cogeneration with a simple cycle, with
considerable savings in terms of primary energy, even more than doubled com-
pared to the steam solution. Another very important advantage offered by the
combined cycle is that it keeps high ‘‘energy indexes’’ also in case of a very
much variable thermal load: it is possible to use a plant destined to cogeneration
for the production of electric power alone, continuing to save remarkable quan-
tities of primary energy, whereas with simple cycles this saving depends on the
use of heat.
The main characteristics include:
• high electric efficiency;
• huge working flexibility as concerns the thermal and electric power supplied;

cogeneration plant with gas
cycle

cogeneration plant with
combined cycle
• large-size plants (usually exceeding 10 MW);

• expensive and complex plants.
Figure 5.12 shows a combined cycle cogeneration scheme. If we consider a
cogeneration efficiency of 85% and an electric performance of nearly 50%, the
value of the electric index amounts to nearly 0.58.
5.2.1.6 Cogeneration with Stirling engines
Stirling machines are potentially very effective cogeneration systems. Their his-
tory, their potentialities and the reasons of their limited diffusion up today are
referred in [3, 4].
The recent rebirth of such external combustion engines is particularly con-
centrated in micro-cogeneration applications [5].
5.2.2 Typical Indexes of Cogeneration Plants
The performance of cogeneration plants can be defined through some typical

indexes that refer to the working of the system at the nominal project conditions:
efficiency of the first and second principle, and saving of primary energy.
5.2.2.1 Efficiency of the First Principle
It is also called fuel global utilisation index and expresses the ratio between the
sum of the thermal and electric powers obtained and the power supplied to the
system by the primary energy source.
Indicating with Pe the electric power, Pt the thermal power and Pc the power
supplied to the system by the fuel, we have:
Pe þ Pt
gI ¼ ð5:19Þ
Pc
The efficiency of the first principle is nothing else but the already defined cogen-
eration efficiency. This parameter equally measures the thermal and electric power
supplied (from which the definition of efficiency of the first principle), and does not
consider the level of temperature at which the thermal power is obtained. As shown
above, its value is substantially the same for all the cogeneration technologies.
5.2.2.2 Efficiency of the Second Principle
It is also called fuel qualified utilisation index and expresses the ratio between the
sum of the powers supplied, where thermal power is translated into conventional
mechanical power through the Carnot efficiency, and the power supplied to the
system by the primary energy source.
Please note that this parameter is more significant than the previous one, in
converting the thermal power into conventional mechanical power, differently
weights the powers supplied and also considers the temperature at which heat is
obtained as a qualifying element (from which the definition of efficiency of the
second principle).
If we consider Pt; T the thermal power supplied at temperature T and Ta the
reference room temperature, the corresponding mechanical (or electric) conven-
tional power Pe; T is:

Ta
Pe;T ¼ Pt;T 1 ð5:20Þ
T
noting that if the temperature at which heat is produced is variable, T is a suitable

average value. The equation of the efficiency of the second principle gII therefore is:
Pe þ Pe;T
gII ¼ ð5:21Þ
Pc
Considering (5.20) and (5.21) can be written as follows:
Ta
Pe þ Pt Pt
gII ¼ T ¼ g Pt Ta ð5:22Þ
I
Pc Pc T
Indicating with Ptot the total power (electric + thermal) produced, (5.22) can be
written as follows:
Ptot Pe Ta
gII ¼ gI ð5:23Þ
Pc T
Bearing in mind (5.4) and (5.23) becomes:

Ta Ta Ta
gII ¼ gI gI ð1 IEÞ ¼ gI 1 gI IE ð5:24Þ
T T T
(5.24) can be written as follows:

Ta
gII ¼ gI 1 ð1 þ IEÞ ð5:25Þ
T
From (5.25) it is possible to infer that the efficiency of the second principle is
always lower than the one of the first principle. Furthermore, given the same
efficiency of the first principle, the efficiency of the second principle increases as
the temperature T at which heat is available increases, and as the electric efficiency
increases. Therefore, whereas—as already recalled—the efficiency of the first
principle is substantially independent from technology, the efficiency of the second
principle markedly varies according to the specific characteristics of the technol-
ogy under consideration, and is high in those cases in which heat is available at
high temperatures and/or in case of high electric indexes (namely of high electric
efficiencies), as for instance high temperature fuel cells.
5.2.2.3 Primary Energy Saving
The Primary Energy Saving index RI is defined as the ratio between the consumption
of primary energy of the cogeneration process Pc and the consumption of a con-
ventional process Pc that separately produces the same quantities of thermal Pt and
electric Pe energy. Indicating with gt the production efficiency of separate thermal
energy, ge the production efficiency of separate electric energy, it follows that:
Pc
RI ¼ Pm ð5:26Þ
ge þ Pg t
t
This parameter highlights the saving that can be achieved through the cogen-
eration process, although it does not take into account the level of temperature at
which heat is supplied and produced.
5.2.3 District Heating
The use of cogeneration in the civil sector mainly consists of using the heat
produced in cogeneration plants for the heating and the production of sanitary hot
water for domestic use.
As far as the efficiency of this solution is concerned, some considerations are
necessary. Besides the evident advantages entailed by the combined production of
electric power and heat which are also highlighted by the parameters defined
above, it is useful to examine the efficiency of traditional heat production systems
for heating purposes: combustion of fuels in boilers, mostly gasoil and methane.
Very often efficiency is only considered according to the first law of thermody-
namics, that is to say energy conservation. This means considering as cause of
inefficiency only the energy losses in the passage from the combustion to the
utilisation phase, that is a problem of combustion efficiency and thermal insulation.
Clearly, obtaining good combustion efficiency values and reducing as much as
possible heat losses entails primary energy saving but, even accepting heating
systems that have an efficiency of the first principle close to 100%, there is in any
case energy waste that cannot be avoided, since it is due to the fact that the
chemical potential of the fuel (gasoil or methane) is transformed into heat at
40–50C, as requested by the household comfort.
We better consider also the degradation of the energy level from high tem-
peratures, beyond 1,000C, supplied by through fossil combustion, to the end use
temperatures. This degradation can be identified by considering the exergy that,
according to the second law of thermodynamics, sets some ‘‘quality criteria’’ of
energy. These criteria are the following:
• Heat and work are not equivalent forms of energy, since work can be entirely
transformed into heat, whereas heat can be transformed into work only in a
maximum percentage equal to Carnot efficiency. Therefore, work is a form of
energy more ‘‘valuable’’ than heat;
• Thermal energies quantitatively equal, available at different temperatures, are
not equivalent: the one at a higher temperature is more ‘‘valuable’’.
Therefore, while considering the second item, it is possible to understand that
the drop of nearly 1,000C, typical of residential boilers for the production of hot
water, originates a thermodynamic ‘‘waste’’ that does not depend on the quality of
the system.
5.2.3.1 Benefits Obtainable Through District Heating
After making these considerations of merely thermodynamic nature, the advan-

tages of district heating—in particular the primary energy savings—are now taken
into consideration.
Fig. 5.13 An example of

thermal needs duration curve
Heat, produced jointly with electric power in cogeneration plants, is distributed

to residential users through a distribution network. The energy vector is hot water,
usually at a temperature of about 120C.
The costs, sometimes considerable, of the distribution network and the heat
losses in the network itself (5–10%) are offset by the following advantages:
• fuel saving by nearly 1/3 compared to the two separate productions, due to the
cogeneration and the use of higher efficiency boilers compared to the ones used
in buildings;
• environmental benefits, since in plants it is possible to obtain technically better
combustions with pollutant reduction systems and with higher controls in
operations and maintenance;
• elimination of management and maintenance problems for users.
Overall, with cogeneration and district heating the costs due to the distance
between production and consumption are acceptable, in view of a higher effi-
ciency, allowing energy saving.
For a correct selection of parameters in sizing a cogeneration plant, it is nec-
essary to consider the ‘‘duration curve of thermal demand’’. As an example,
Fig. 5.13 shows this curve as relating to a typical city of Northern Italy.9 A peak of
thermal power requested for a limited duration, followed by a medium thermal
power area relating to heating basic needs, and a final part of low thermal power
corresponding to the need for hot water (sanitation use).
The optimisation of the exploitation of cogeneration plants suggests their sizing
for a power accounting for 50–60% of the maximum peak. Management tricks
(use of the accumulation heat) and the form itself of the duration diagram allow
this sizing in terms of power that corresponds to a heat supply to the network
whose 85–90% comes from cogeneration. The remaining 10–15% is supplied by
integration boilers suitably divided by number and size, in order to coherently
9
The curve of durations of thermal need for remote heating is clearly linked to the climate
characteristics of the area.
meet the integration and reserve functions. These plants, in the implementation by
subsequent stages of a general district heating plan, meet the entire heat needs
during users’ integration transition phase.
After these preliminary remarks, if Ft is the thermal need and gCC the average
efficiency of building or family boilers of the traditional heating system, the
consumption of Ef fuel without cogeneration is:
Ft
Ef ¼ ð5:27Þ
gCC
To calculate the consumption in case of cogeneration, it is necessary to consider
the technology used and make some general considerations on the entire energy
cycle in order to evaluate general and global benefits (primary energy consump-
tion). As an example, let’s consider steam (backpressure) and gas cogeneration
plants, powered by fossil fuels. In order to assess consumption required to meet
thermal needs in case of cogeneration, the following criterion can be applied:
considering that a cogeneration plant produces electric power and heat, after
calculating the fuel consumed by the cogeneration plant for the production of the
heat requested and the corresponding electric power produced, the production of
heat requested is attributed to the difference between this consumption and the one
that would apply by taking the same quantity of electric power from the network.
As for the consumptions due to the intake of electric power from the network, it
is necessary to consider first of all the losses due to the transportation of the energy
itself pT (expressed as a percentage of the energy transported); indicating with Ep
the electric power produced and with Eu the one available to users also considering
losses, we come to:
Eu ¼ Ep Ep pT ¼ Ep ð1 pT Þ ¼ Ep gTR ð5:28Þ
where the transportation efficiency gTR is a complement to 1 of the losses. After
calculating Ep it is necessary to consider the percentage produced by non
renewable sources (ENR) on the basis of the percentage of electric power pro-
duction INR of the national electric endowment:
INR
ENR ¼ Ep INR ¼ Eu ð5:29Þ
gTR
Indicating with gm the average efficiency of the production endowment from
fossil fuels (or, more generally, non-renewable sources) at a national level, indi-
cating with EPNR the consumption of non renewable primary energy, it follows10:
ENR INR
EPNR ¼ ¼ Eu ð5:30Þ
gm gTR gm
10
It is also necessary to consider energy consumption due to the extraction, the processing and
transportation to the plants of the fuels used: in an approximation analysis, they can be neglected.
Let’s now define a fictitious global electric efficiency, geg that besides pro-
duction and transportation, takes into consideration also the percentage of electric
power produced from renewable sources, as follows:
gTR gm
geg ¼ ð5:31Þ
INR
It is evident that such ‘‘efficiency’’ increases as the efficiencies of plants and
transportations increase, so as the percentage of electric power produced by
renewable sources.
In consideration of (5.31) and (5.30) becomes:
Eu
EPNR ¼ ð5:32Þ
geg
Now it is necessary to calculate fuel consumption to cover the thermal

needs under consideration through district heating, as well as the corresponding
quantity of electric power produced by the cogeneration plant. First of all, it is
necessary to consider the efficiency of heat distribution of the district heating
network gDT: the thermal energy ET to be produced by cogeneration plant to cover
thermal needs is:
Ft
ET ¼ ð5:33Þ
gDT
On the basis of the assumptions dealing to the thermal needs duration curve not
all the thermal need is covered by district heating. Indicating with IQT the per-
centage of thermal needs covered by district heating, with IQI = 1 – IQT the one
relating to integration boilers, with gCI their efficiency and with gt the thermal
efficiency of the cogeneration plant, it is possible to state that fuel consumption of
the cogeneration plant Efc11 is:
Ft IQT Ft IQI
ETQT ET IQI gt þ gCI
Efc ¼ þ ¼ ð5:34Þ
gt gCI gDT
(5.34) can be written by expressing the thermal efficiency according to the first
principle and the electric efficiency, as follows:

Ft IQT IQI Ft IQT IQI
Efc ¼ þ ¼ þ ð5:35Þ
gDT gt gCI gDT gI ge gCI
11
In this case, the use of fossil fuels is hypothesised both for the cogeneration plant and for the
boilers. In general, the consumption of non-renewal primary energy consumption must be
considered.
Recalling the definition of electric index Ie, and (5.33), the corresponding
electric power produced by the cogeneration plant (and therefore available to
users) is:
Ft IQT Ie
Eu ¼ ð5:36Þ
gDT ð1 Ie Þ
By replacing (5.36) in (5.32) we obtain:
Ft IQT IE
EPNR ¼ ð5:37Þ
gDT geg ð1 IEÞ
Finally the total consumption for heat production through cogeneration; Ec tot
is:
" #
Ft IQT IQI IQT Ie
Ec tot ¼ Efc EPNR ¼ þ ð5:38Þ
gDT gI ge gCI geg ð1 IeÞ
The ratio R between the consumption to cover the thermal need without
cogeneration and the one with district heating, from (5.38) and (5.27) is:
gDT
R¼ ð5:39Þ
IQT I IQT IE
gCC þ gQI g
eg ð1IEÞ
gI ge CI
Equation 5.39 shows that the ratio R depends on the characteristics of the
cogeneration plant (gI, ge and Ie), of district heating network (gDT), on the tech-
nology of the plant (IQI and IQT), of the traditional heat production systems that is
being replaced (gCC), finally on the characteristics of the national energy system
(geg).
As an example, let’s consider a district heating system with a gas plant
(ge = 30%, gI = 80%; therefore Ie = 0.375). Then it is possible to assume
IQT = 0.85, IQI = 0.15 and gCI = 90%. Furthermore, the heat losses in the district
heating network are considered as accounting for 8%, that is to say gDT = 92%,
while for integration boilers gm = 90%. As concerns the national energy system, by
considering the case of Italy, let’s assume gm = 39%, the average distribution losses
accounting for 5% (therefore gTR = 95%) and INR = 80% [1]. On the basis of this
data we calculate geg = 46.3%. Finally, taken gCC = 80%, one comes to R = 1.72.
The effectiveness of this solution is linked to the ‘‘duration’’ of heat demand for
heating purposes12; in fact, during the periods in which there is no heating request,
the thermal demand is limited to sanitary hot water needs. Sizing the plant giving
priority to heating needs, the plant—as far as heat production is concerned—would
12
Therefore this solution is particularly suitable for cold climate.
be practically unused.13 Furthermore, from the economic viewpoint, the use of heat
for short periods of time prevents the amortisation of the relevant costs of the heat
distribution network. In this connection, it can be the technology of absorption heat
pumps look attractive, which use heat for the air conditioning (both winter and
summer). In this way, there is a heat demand for long periods also in mild climates
in which the request would be limited to a few months for year in winter time.
Another consideration relates to the technologies that can be used: on the basis
of the above, it is evident that district heating is energy efficient with the use of
mature and tested technologies presently competitive as gas turbine plants. The use
of innovative technologies, such as high temperature fuel cells powered through
syngas produced locally by the gasification of biomasses (hence from a renewable
source) would make this solution even more interesting from the energy and
environmental viewpoint. From an economic perspective, however, these tech-
nologies are not yet competitive.
In general, as concerns the cogeneration technologies to be adopted for district
heating purposes, it is interesting to note the modularity of the entire district
heating system (heat distribution network, integration boilers and substations)
against the technology used. In other words, it is possible to plan and implement a
district heating system by immediately using the most competitive technologies
presently available (steam and gas plants), moving on in the future to new and
more efficient technologies that avail themselves of renewable sources, by using
the same district heating network.
5.2.3.2 Cogeneration in the Industrial Sector
The self-production of electric power by industries–a rather widespread practice

nowadays, in stations located near production plants–allows the use of cogene-
ration in the industrial sector. Although plants devoted to self-production only of
electric power exist in large industries, in the vast majority of cases cogeneration
plants are used that allow, where the suitable conditions exist, to obtain high
overall energy efficiency with subsequent saving of primary energy. Obviously the
feasibility and the convenience of cogeneration plants, are reached with a simul-
taneous demand of electric power and heat. There are many industrial sectors in
which this condition takes place, including the following industries:
• extraction;
• iron-and-steel;
• metallurgic;
• mechanical;
• chemical and electrochemical;
13
Regulations impose minimum limits to the ratio between the heat actually used and the one
produced by the plant to ‘‘certify’’ the plant as a cogeneration plant. To comply with these limits,
when there is no heat demand for long periods of time, the plant must be stopped.
• oil;
• textile;
• food;
• paper;
• ceramics and glass;
• brick.
For the different industrial sectors, the characteristics of the simultaneous
demand for electric power and heat vary on a case-by-case basis: in particular, the
quantities of electric and thermal power demanded vary, and consequently the
electric power/thermal power ratio, as well as the temperature at which heat is
demanded. However, this does not endanger the convenience of cogeneration.
As concerns the variations in the quantity of electric and thermal power, that is
to say the electric power/thermal power ratio, it is possible first of all to chose the
type of plant that is most suitable for specific users. In general steam plants are
suitable for huge power and low electric power/thermal power ratios. In particular,
the backpressure plants supply electric power and heat always with the same pre-
determined ratio, whereas the controlled bled-steam ones allow to largely vary this
ratio within given limits. Gas plants are suitable for lower powers and higher
electric power/thermal power ratios. Highly important is also the connection of the
station to the electric power distribution public network, with the possibility of
purchasing electric power from the network in the periods of highest consumption
and to sell to the network itself the electric power, when in excess, at economically
convenient conditions. This allows to separate—within given limits—the pro-
duction of electric power from its consumption and therefore to size and manage
the plant with particular reference to the thermal demand having considered that
the separate heat production is the most penalising from the energy previously
discussed.
As concerns the efficiency viewpoint, at different values of temperature at
which heat is demanded in different specific cases, it is possible to meet this need
within given limits according to the type of plant being considered. In steam
cogeneration plants, for example, both backpressure and controlled bled-steam, it
is possible to select in the project design phase the temperature at which the
thermal energy is intended to be available, setting the steam conditions at which
expansion stops in the former case, or in which spilling is made in the latter one.
However, it is necessary to bear in mind that by increasing the temperature at
which heat is ‘‘recovered’’, the electric energy production efficiency drastically
decreases; as a matter of fact, this limits the arbitrariness in the choice of tem-
perature for heat utilisation purposes.
As we said the maximum temperature of a steam cycle is around 550C, thus
when heat is demanded at very high temperatures, the use of gas systems is
necessary in which the temperature of exhaust gases is 400–500C. Furthermore,
as already said, the strong air excess of exhaust gases allows to perform post-
combustion with the possibility of obtaining very high temperatures (over
2,000C). It is clear that, in the case of post-combustion, the heat sent to thermal
users is not entirely ‘‘recovered’’, but it is partly produced ad hoc. This implies a
decrease in the global efficiency of the cycle as much as higher than the tem-
perature at which heat is demanded (more precisely the difference between the
temperature at which heat is requested and the one of exhaust gases). In any case,
it is possible to obtain, in this instance as well, a saving of primary energy
compared to the case of combustion of air taken from the atmosphere, precisely
amounting to the one corresponding to the quantity of heat necessary to bring air—
through combustion—from room temperature to the exhaustion temperature of the
turbine.
It is interesting to observe how, sometimes, in industrial cogeneration, more
generally in industrial energy self-production it is possible to have a further
possibility of saving primary energy, namely fuel, burning the residues of the
production process; this solution appears particularly interesting in the agricultural
sector, despite the low incidence of energy consumption in this sector out of the
total, since many remains of agricultural activities can easily be used as fuels.
In order to build these plants, the technology of fluidised-bed combustion
chambers is fundamental, since it allow to burn, with very good results both in
terms of efficiency and harmful emissions, materials with poor chemical physical
characteristics and potentially very much polluting.
References
1. Ackermann T, Andersson G, Lennart L (2001) Distributed generayion: a definition, Electric

Power Systems Research 57 (2001) Elsevier. Also: Sharma D, Bartels R, (1998) Distributed
electricity generation in competitive energy markets, The energy Journal, Special issue-
Distributed resources: towards a new paradigm of electricity business. The International
Association for Energy Economics
2. European Smart Grids Technology Platform (2006) Vision and strategy for Europe’s
electricity networks of the future—directorate general for research sustainable energy system
C.E.C.
3. Walker G (1980) Stirling Engines, Oxford Press, Oxford.
4. Naso V (1991) La macchina di Stirling. In: Masson (Ed) Editoriale ESA, Milano, also in
English: (1995) The Stirling Machines, Editoriale ESA, Rome
5. Proceedings of the International Stirling Engine Conferences (2009) Groningen, The
Netherlands, http://www.stirlinginternational.org
Chapter 6
Energy Useful Effect and End Use
6.1 Introduction
The exploitation of energy sources and the entire pathway of energy vectors in
time and space have a main purpose: to meet the needs of human beings in order
to make their lives more comfortable, more productive and socially active.
Apparently human beings do not directly need any energy sources or vectors
additional to food. As a matter of fact, they have concrete and easily identifiable
needs for better living, and energy is aimed at meeting these needs.
As already highlighted in Chap. 1, the human needs that can be met, thanks to
the implementation of a suitable energy flow are grouped under the definition of
useful effects. As said, human beings need to warm or to cool the rooms in which
they live, work or carry out their social activities; they need to operate their
vehicles, their household appliances, to move quickly and safely. Furthermore,
human beings need to light the rooms in which they live, irrespectively from
the availability of natural light, in order to free themselves from the rhythm of the
alternation of day and night and seasons. They also need to operate their
information technology (IT) and telecommunications equipment, their small and
large monitors and displays.
The useful effects from an energy perspective are represented by the reaching
and keeping of the desired comfort (temperature and humidity) in our rooms, by the
useful result deriving from the operation of machines, household equipment and
means of transport, by the correct level of lighting of indoor or open-air places, and
the processing, sending or receiving of data thanks to their electronic devices.
From the energy viewpoint, in the end use—the one that directly produces the
desired useful effect–men need mechanic energy, thermal energy, luminous
energy, and electric power—in the last few years, the most required. The entire
world energy system must therefore be finalised to the availability and accessi-
bility for each end user, namely for each man living on Earth, of these forms of
energy in the time, space, quantity and quality desired.
322 6 Energy Useful Effect and End Use
Table 6.1 Energy useful Useful effect Energy end use

effects and end use
Rotation of the drum of a washing-machine Mechanic
Heating of a room Thermal
Lighting of a hall Luminous
Operation of a computer Electric/electronic
The point of contact between energy vectors and useful effects is therefore
fundamental for the implementation of the entire energy system. In fact, any
system is aimed to the realisation of useful effects, attainable thanks to one of the
four energy end uses mentioned above. The correct knowledge of useful effects,
and from an energy viewpoint especially of the energy end uses in which they can
be translated, allows to identify the appropriate energy vector able to meet such
human need, within the level of technological development of the solutions
available.
This chapter, therefore, contains an analysis of the energy end uses that is the
energy summary of all human needs:
• mechanical:
• thermal;
• luminous;
• electronic/electrical.
These four groups of end uses allow to achieve all the possible useful effects.
In fact, useful effect is defined as the real and concrete need met, such as the
heating or cooling of a room, the lighting of a hall, the rotation of the drum of a
washing-machine or of the wheels of a vehicle and the activation of the
microchips of a computer, of liquid crystals, or of the light emitting diode (LED)
of a video screen.
Therefore the energy end use indicates the form in which energy is used by men
at the point of need (Table 6.1).
Electric/electronic use means that the form in which energy is used to achieve
the useful effect, i.e. electric power, as it happens in computers, printers, faxes, TV
sets, etc.
In many other cases, on the contrary, although the equipment placed at the end
of the energy chain under consideration is supplied by electric power, it is not the
energy form that leads directly to the useful effect. Very often, in fact, electricity is
converted in a more or less distant point of the energy chain into another form of
energy: mechanic, thermal or luminous. For instance, thinking about home
applications, many household appliances convert the electric energy with which
they are powered into mechanic energy (vacuum cleaners, washing-machines,
etc.). The same happens for the equipment destined to industrial production: in
these cases, the form of energy that must be identified with the useful effect is
mechanic energy, not electric energy. Similarly, many types of equipment (electric
fires, ovens for both domestic and industrial use and many others), convert the
6.1 Introduction 323
electric power with which they are powered into thermal energy through the Joule
effect. In these cases, the energy end use is the thermal one.
As for mechanic use, in the industrial and agricultural sector this form of energy
is used in productive processes (process work) and for the handling of goods; in
the civil sector, mechanical energy is often used in household appliances. A
particularly important sector for the use of mechanical energy is ground trans-
portation of goods and people.
6.2 Thermal End Use
6.2.1 Overview
Some exemples of energy thermal end use are the heating of rooms, the supply and
implementation of the thermal conditions necessary to carry out several industrial
production processes, in addition to cooking and to the production of domestic hot
water.
These applications have very different needs in terms of characteristics of the
energy flow (the temperature requested in particular) and this determines the
choice of the single technologies used in the various cases. The heat requested is
presently produced in industrialised countries mainly through the combustion of
fossil fuels at the point of need, or by deriving it from the distribution grid of the
electricity vector (heat pumps, boilers, electric heaters and electric ovens), and
more rarely by using the renewable fuels or solar energy locally available at the
point of used.
The thermal uses can be divided as follows:
• Industrial, agricultural and food-industry use, including, among the most
important ones one finds:
– Process heat
– Air-conditioning of greenhouses–Cooking
• Civil and residential use, including:
– Room air-conditioning
– Production of domestic hot water
– Cooking
6.2.1.1 Industrial Use
Industrial use means the use of heat in production processes, whereas applications
for room air-conditioning and for the production of hot sanitary water (also present
in the industrial framework) are considered as a civil use. There are many
industries in which production processes demand thermal energy; among them:
• extraction
• steel
• metallurgic
• mechanic
• chemical and electrochemical
• oil
• textile
• food
• paper
• ceramic and glass
• brick
• other
The use of heat in production processes is mainly at high temperatures, and the
specific characteristics of the heat flow demanded, therefore the usable heat-
transfer flow, depend on the specific productive process. In these applications, heat
is traditionally produced by the combustion of fuels in boilers.
The analysis of the global energy needs of an industrial site, or of the industrial
park in which it is included, shows how to obtain the desired heat flows by strongly
improving the energy efficiency of the system thanks to the cogeneration of
electricity and heat. This evidence is making industrial cogeneration more and
more widespread.
Less widespread, although equally useful, are renewable energy sources and
theire conversion technologies. This is evident while moving from a standard
efficiency analysis to a more advanced analysis of system efficacy, which also
takes into consideration the parameters as the renewability of sources, the decrease
in the quantity of emissions produced and the local availability of energy
resources.
The two energy vectors mainly requested by the industrial system, that is heat-
transfer fluid and electricity, are both directly producible from the conversion
technologies of renewable sources that are almost always available, such as solar
radiation, wind energy, hydroelectric energy, biomass and geothermal energy. And
perspectively also from cogeneration plants based on the technology of high tem-
perature fuel cells, powered by syngas rich in hydrogen that can be equally pro-
duced locally and from renewable sources or distributed with the same procedures
as methane or other fuel gases of fossil origin already widespread for energy use.
6.2.1.2 Civil Use
As already mentioned, thermal energy in the civil sector is mainly used for
cooking food, for the production of hot sanitary water and for room air-
conditioning.
6.2 Thermal End Use 325
Production of Domestic Hot Water
The production of domestic hot water is a low-temperature application (which

makes the use of solar energy particularly efficient through simple, cost-effective
and reliable solar flat-plate collectors); in fact the temperature of use is normally
around 40–45C and usually does not exceed 60C.
As concerns the temperature of the water system, it obviously depends on the
season and the site, and on average is 5–10C; the temperature increase demand,
therefore, varies from 30 to 40C.
The thermal energy Q necessary to heat a water mass m is:
Q ¼ m c ðTf Ti Þ ¼ m c DT ð6:1Þ
indicating with c the water specific heat, Tf and Ti the final and initial temperatures
of water. Having considered water specific heat amounts as 4.186 kJ/kg, and
considering DT = 35C, the unitary heat necessary for the production of domestic
hot water is 146.5 kJ/kg.
The daily need for domestic hot water depends on the type of users (such as
households, hospitals and offices): based on the average data available in literature,
this need ranges between 50 and 200 l/person/day. Tipically the need is of 60 l/
person/day and DT = 35C, then daily energy need relating to the production for
one person amounts to about 8,790 kJ.
The use of heat in the civil sector is typically at low-temperature, with
predictable characteristics of the heat flow requested, then the usable heat-transfer
fluid is practically always water. In these applications, heat is produced in
many countries by electric boilers in single apartments, or by the combustion of
fossil fuels (gasoil and methane, more rarely coal) in traditional boilers, directly at
the point of need (as district heating in case of compounds or block of flats, but
also entirely autonomously for single flats). In other countries, whose urban areas
developed simultaneously with the electricity production system or with the
industrial system, heat is supplied by cogeneration plants located even at tens of
kilometres from the point of use (district heating).
A standard analysis of global energy needs of each single building, or of the
residential district in which a building is located, shows how it is possible to obtain
the desired heat flows by improving the energy efficiency of the system thanks to
the cogeneration of electricity and heat.
Moving from considerations linked to the pre-determination of fossil fuels,
electricity from the electricity grid and (where possible) the district heating heat-
transfer fluid as the only alternatives available, to more careful considerations of
energy analysis, it is then clear in this case as well how many more attractive
alternatives are available. A system efficacy analysis, which also takes into con-
sideration the parameters of renewability of the sources, and of lowering of
emissions, as well as the local availability of energy resources, certainly leads to
resort to renewable sources and to the relevant conversion technologies.
The energy vector requested by civil thermal needs–that is to say a largely

available and well-identified heat-transfer fluid as water, mostly at relatively low-
temperature (from 40 to 120C, according to the applications and to the resort to
local distribution grids for district heating)–can be produced directly or in
cogeneration also by renewable energy conversion technologies as solar radiation,
biomass and geothermal energy. Also small residential cogeneration plants can be
used, based on low-temperature fuel cell technology, and powered by hydrogen
that can be produced also locally from the mentioned renewable energies but also
by wind energy and hydro power.
Room Air-Conditioning
In this type of application, the useful effect is the thermal comfort of the rooms in
which human activities are carried out. Therefore, we better first define room comfort.
Room comfort: an univocal definition of room wellbeing is very difficult, since
the concept of wellbeing itself is part of the perception, intrinsically subjective
although influenced by objective and measurable magnitudes as temperature and
level of humidity. The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Con-
ditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) defines thermal comfort as the condition in which
men express their satisfaction for the surrounding environment. It is evident how
such definition, although simple and clear, is not objective at all: it stresses, on the
contrary, that the comfort is a personal feeling and that therefore there is no con-
dition identifiable through objective parameters (temperature, humidity, etc.) that
might be rigorously defined as optimal for all from the thermal comfort viewpoint.
In the same environmental conditions, different people can express different
opinions on their level of wellbeing. More frequently, however, that are some
ranges of climatic conditions in which anybody, or almost anybody, finds his
optimal comfort conditions.
The magnitudes that mostly influence these conditions are temperature and
relative humidity. One of the mostly accredited methods for the identification of
room comfort conditions is the Fanger method [1].
The human body exchanges heat with the surrounding environment by con-
vection, radiation and evaporation (conduction is little significant); the factors that
influence this exchange are the following:
• Environmental factors
– room temperature1
– radiant average temperature2
1
Average temperature measured close to individuals.
2
It is given by the weighted average of the temperature of walls and of the objects present in a
room, where weight is the surface of walls and of objects.
– air temperature
– relative humidity
• Personal factors
– metabolic activity3
– thermal insulation of clothes
• Physiological factors
– skin temperature
– fraction of body area covered with dresses
According to the Fanger model, the feeling of hot, neutral and cold is linked to
the energy balance of the human body that is, to say the difference between the
heat produced by the body metabolism and the heat exchanged by the body with
the surrounding environment.
Three objective conditions necessary for the achievement of the thermal
comfort can be identified:
1. in the human body there shall be neither accumulation nor release of heat;
2. the average skin temperature must be as close as possible to 35.7C;
3. the thermal exchange through sweating must be limited.
Through the study of significant samples of people it was possible to find a
correlation between the predicted mean vote (PMV) and the predicted percentage
of dissatisfied (PPD). This correlation (ISO 7730) considers room conditions as
acceptable when the PMV is included between –0.5 and +0.5 that is, to say when
the percentage of dissatisfaction is lower than 10%.
The ISO regulation 7730 describes the room conditions guaranteeing the
thermal comfort:
• The difference between the radiant temperature of the different vertical surfaces
must be below 10C;
• air temperature and speed must be:
– winter
temperature: between 20 and 24C
speed: below 0.15 m/s
– summer
temperature: between 23 and 26C
speed: below 0.25 m/s
• temperature difference between the heights of 0.1 and 1.1 m from the floor must
be below 3C
3
It is linked to the physical activity, to motion and to other individual factors.
Fig. 6.1 Heat transfer

through a wall
• the floor temperature must range between 19 and 26C, exception made for
radiant floors for which it shall not exceed 29C.
Calculation of the energy needs for room comfort: the thermal energy necessary
to keep in the surrounding environment the conditions requested for room comfort
is calculated on the basis of the following contributions:
• heat transmission through walls, windows, doors, ceiling and floor;
• energy necessary for the treatment of external air;
• thermal contributions to solar radiation;
• thermal contribution of people and equipment.
Heat Transmission
Dispersions Uc through walls, ceiling and frames (Fig. 6.1) depend on the dif-
ference of temperature (DT), the extension of the dispersing surface (S) and its
thermal characteristics that is, to say the thermal transmittance k (W/m2 K)
through the ratio:
Uc ¼ S k DT ð6:2Þ
Direct Solar Radiation
The contribution of direct solar radiation is calculated according to the maximum

thermal flow If and to the surface of the glass wall Sf. The value obtained must be
corrected using of coefficients that depend on room conditions (d1), on the char-
acteristics of the glass wall (d2) and on the thermal accumulation of facilities (d3).
The thermal flow Ui for a general section i is then given by the formula:
Ui ¼ d1 d2 d3 If Sf ð6:3Þ
Thermal Power Produced in a Room
They concern people who reside in the room to be air-conditioned and all the other
sources therein present. An important contribution is given by luminous sources;
other sources include machine tools, office machines (photocopiers, printers, PC,
etc.). Indicating with n the number of people present in the room under consid-
eration, Us the thermal flow generated by each individual and Ui the flow of an
equipment present, the total flow Ua of the thermal powers produced in the room is
given by:
X
Ua ¼ n Us þ Ui ð6:4Þ
Energy Necessary for the Treatment of External Air
In order to keep the room comfort, it is necessary to continuously renew the air in
the rooms, generally with external air, which has to be brought to the temperature
and humidity appropriate conditions, with subsequent energy spending.
Energy expenditure can be read in the psychrometric diagram: such energy
expenditure is partly due to temperature variation (sensible heat) and partly to the
variation of relative humidity (latent heat).
As concerns sensible heat, indicating with DT the difference in temperature,
with ca the specific heat of the air (1 kJ/kg) and with qa air density (1.2 kg/m3),
with m_ a the mass flow (kg/s) and with V_ a the volume flow (in m3/s), the flow of
sensible heat is given by:
Us ¼ m_ a ca DT ¼ V_ a qa ca DT ð6:5Þ
The range of air renewal is generally expressed as the number of air changes in
1 h (n), depending on how many times the entire air volume in the room under
consideration is renewed in 1 h. Therefore, indicating with V (m3) the volume of
the room, it follows that:
nV
V_ a ¼ ð6:6Þ
3; 600
Replacing (6.5) in (6.6) and the values of specific heat and air density, the flow
of sensible heat is obtained (W):
Us ¼ n 0:33 V DT ð6:7Þ
The flow obtained in this way can be referred to the unit of volume and to the
unit of temperature drop (W/K m3):
Uus ¼ n 0:33 ð6:8Þ
Fig. 6.2 Energy expenditure for the treatment of 1 kg of external air for summer air-
conditioning
For the calculation of the DT it is also necessary to consider the values of

humidity relating to the external and internal air (normally around 50%).
In the case of summer cooling (Fig. 6.2), it is possible to consider as an
example the external air at 33C with 50% of relative humidity4 (point A): by
cooling constantly (that is to say at a constant absolute humidity) up to the internal
desired temperature (24C in the example) point B is reached, where the relative
humidity is about 80%, not corresponding to the conditions required for the room
comfort. To dehumidify the air, constant cooling must be continued until reaching
the dew point (point C); by continuing to subtract heat, the vapour present in the
air condenses and, therefore, the absolute humidity decreases besides temperature.
Under the hypothesis that the internal air is at 24C and with 50% of relative
humidity (point E), cooling must be done up to (point D) obtained at the
intersection of isoconcentration from point E with the curve corresponding to
100% of relative humidity. Therefore the difference in temperature, having defined
Ti the internal temperature and Te the external one, is:
DT ¼ TA TD ¼ Te TD [ Te Ti ð6:9Þ
4
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio between the partial pressure of the steam present in
the air (that depends on the quantity of steam present in the air, namely the absolute
humidity 9 expressed in g/kg) and the pressure of saturated vapour at the air temperature.
Fig. 6.3 Energy expenditure for the treatment of 1 kg of external air for winter heating
From the energy viewpoint, the isoconcentration heating from TD and TE may
not be considered; in fact such heating can take place by using the external air (at
higher temperature) without any energy expenditure.5
In the case of winter heating (Fig. 6.3) considering, for instance, external air at
5C with 50% of relative humidity (point A) and internal air at 20C with 50% of
relative humidity (point B), DT is:
DT ¼ TA TB ¼ Te Ti ð6:10Þ
(in the case of winter heating). Part of the energy spending relating to sensible heat
can be retrieved by heating the input air in a heat exchanger using as hot fluid the
stale air to be expelled, that is at the internal temperature (in the case described in
the example, at 20C); in the example shown in Fig. 6.4 the internal air is at 20C
and the external one at 0C. In this case, without heat recovery there would be
DT = 20C that, with the exchanger is reduced at only 5C since air renewal is at
15C.
Sensible heat must be supplemented by the latent heat necessary to steam
condensation (in the case of summer cooling) or water evaporation (in the case of
summer cooling). Indicating with UA the absolute humidity and with m_ a the air
mass flow, the vapour mass flow, mv, to be generated (in the case of winter
heating) is:
m_ v ¼ m_ a ðUAe UAi Þ ¼ V_ a qa ðUAe UAi Þ ð6:11Þ
5
Alternatively, as it usually happens in practice, it cools up to temperature TD a fraction of the
air change that, subsequently mixed with non-cooled air, brings mixed air to temperature TE.
From the energy viewpoint, the two processes are equivalent.
Fig. 6.4 Heat exchanger to

recover the heat of internal
air
Table 6.2 Values of the crowd indexes and air changes per person
Room Crowd index (persons/m2) Air changes (m3/h person)
Recommended Minimum
Services 0.055 54–90 36
Areas of transit 0.055 12–18 9
Offices 0.111 27–45 27
Indicating with k the condensation, or evaporation, latent heat the latent heat
flow is:
Ul ¼ k m_ v ð6:12Þ
With considerations similar to the remarks above on the flows of air renewal
and considering k = 2,500 kJ/kg, the latent heat flow is obtained (W):
Ul ¼ 833 n V DUA ð6:13Þ
Air renewals are provided for by the regulations in force and refer to the air
renewals that are necessary for each individual; values depend on the destination
of use of the room under consideration. The quantity of air to be changed in a
given environment is calculated on the basis of the changes envisaged per person
and the value of the crowd index of the room itself; also the values of this index are
referred to by technical regulations. As an example, Table 6.2 shows some values
of the crowd indexes and the air changes per person.
On the basis of the above, it is evident that the energy need for air-conditioning
varies—also markedly—according to the climate of the site, the characteristics of
the building and the air changes necessary on the basis of the destination of use of
the rooms according to the regulations in force. In order to have an idea on the
level of these needs, considering the climate characteristics of Rome, Italy, a
building with average size and air changes for ‘‘normal’’ rooms (i.e. offices), the
winter heating needs are about 28 W/m3, whereas the needs for summer cooling
are slightly higher, amounting to nearly 32 W/m3.
From the energy viewpoint, also air-conditioning end use, as well as the heating
of domestic hot water, is low-temperature (hot) or at a temperature that can be
reached by simple refrigeration cycles (cold). The heat flow requested leads the
heat-transfer fluid traditionally used for heating purposes to often be water,
especially in those countries in which room heating became widespread before
room cooling.
In these applications, heat is produced by boilers in the single buildings or even
in the single apartments, through the combustion of fossil fuels (gasoil and
methane), or through a thermal exchange with water vapour distributed by district
heating originating from cogeneration plants in the electric sector (electricity and
heat) or the use of the waste heat of industrial processes (high-temperature heat for
the process, with a cascade distribution of low-temperature heat for residential
district heating).
In other Countries, whose electric energy is generally use electricity produced
by large-size nuclear power plants (i.e. France), heating mainly depends on the
electricity energy vector. The ‘‘all electric’’ model as an ideal reference of par-
ticular interest from the viewpoint of simplicity and standardisation of end use, in
these cases has prevailed over considerations of energy and non-energy nature,
bringing electricity to be used for all domestic uses, including food cooking.
The analysis of the global energy needs of each single building, or of the
residential district in which it is included, together with a structural (social and
cultural) analysis of the energy distribution model used until now (distribution of
liquid or gaseous fossil fuels, district heating with distribution of water steam heat-
transfer fluid, electricity network) leads to considerations on the most suitable and
largely realisable evolution of the system.
In this case, it is possible to carry not the same analysis of the possible solutions
relating to the production of domestic hot water. Moving from the pre-determi-
nation of fossil fuels, of electricity from the electric grid and, where possible, of
the district heating heat-transfer fluid as the only alternatives available, to real
considerations of energy analysis, it is evident how there are several and attracting
alternatives. A system efficacy analysis, that also takes into consideration
parameters dealing with the renewability of sources, the lowering of the produc-
tion of emissions, and the local availability of energy resources, certainly includes
in the scenario the resort to renewable sources and their conversion technologies.
If the energy vector requested heat-transfer fluid is water (at temperatures
ranging from 60 to 120C, according to the applications and to the resort to local
distribution networks for district heating), it can be produced either directly or in
cogeneration with conversion technologies of available renewable sources as solar
radiation, wind energy, hydroelectric power, biomass and geothermal energy.
Looking at the future, it is also possible to think about cogeneration plants based
on the technology of high or low-temperature fuel cells (according to the size
used), powered by gases rich in hydrogen or pure hydrogen, producible from
distributable or locally renewable sources.
6.2.2 Thermal End Use with Heat Pump
6.2.2.1 Room Air-Conditioning
The use of heat pumps for room air-conditioning is likely to be more and more
widespread, as an alternative to the conventional systems made up of a cooler and
a boiler. The same equipment in fact, through a simple valve, is able to exchange
the functions of the evaporator and the condenser, hence supplying heat in winter
and cold in summer (reversible heat pump).
The application of the heat pump to room air-conditioning (heating and cool-
ing) is interesting since it generally entails a cost amortisation time acceptable for
end users. In the case of existing buildings, the application of the heat pump for
room air-conditioning, both in winter and in summer, could demand an inter-
vention for the restoration of the entire thermal and electric plant, with a sub-
sequent increased cost.
There are different applications of the heat pump in the sectors of services and
industry, as in the case of the air-conditioning of sports facilities and venues, low-
temperature technological processes and drying in the agricultural and food sector,
etc.
6.2.2.2 Heating of Rooms and of Domestic Hot Water
Heat pumps can be used for heat production purposes both for room heating and
for domestic (sanitary) hot water, competing with traditional systems as electric or
gas boilers and water heaters.
In case of room heating, plants can be:
• Monovalent
• Bivalent
The monovalent configuration is used when the heat pump is able to entirely
meet the thermal needs necessary for heating purposes. If heat pumps use as source
the external air, this configuration can be adopted in the climate areas in which the
external temperature drops below 0C. Otherwise, it is necessary to develop a
bivalent system, made up of heat pump and of an auxiliary heating system, that is
to say a traditional boiler that meets thermal needs when air temperature drops
below 0C.
For the heating of domestic water, storage tanks larger than those used in
normal water heaters are needed, since the temperature of the water produced does
not exceed 50–60C.
Types of Plants
For small powers (up to nearly 2 kW), also usable for the heating of domestic
water, heat pumps can be as follows:
• Monobloc, all the components are grouped together;
• Split, the plant is made up of:
– External unit, including the compressor and a heat exchanger with the
function of evaporator or condenser;
Fig. 6.5 Scheme of a plant

for small, medium and large
sizes
– Internal unit, with a cabinet from which hot or cool air is released in the room,
depending on the different cases. This system allows to install the noisy
components of the plant in an area external to the room to be air conditioned.
In case of medium power (up to 10 to 20 kW) suitable for serve several rooms,
they can be:
• Monobloc, all the components are grouped together;
• Multisplit, the plant is made up of:
– External units, including the compressor and a heat exchanger with the
function of evaporator or condenser;
– Internal units, made up of several cabinets, regulated individually, from
which hot or cool air is released in the room, depending on the different cases.
This system allows to install the noisy components of the plant in an area
external to the room to be air conditioned.
In case of large power (exceeding 20 kW), destined to several apartments,
offices and commercial activities. The plants are made up of:
• External condensing units: they produce hot water and cool water;
• Fan-coils: internal cabinets, which release in the rooms hot air in winter or cool
air in summer, and keep a comfort temperature also in intermediate seasons.
The scheme of the different plant solutions is shown in Fig. 6.5.
In order to improve the efficiency of heat pump plants, very often a device is
installed that allows to recover (at least partially) the heat contained in the internal
Fig. 6.6 Internal air/external air heat exchanger
air to pre-heat the air coming from outside. This device is a heat exchanger, an
example of which is shown in Fig. 6.6.
6.3 Luminous End Use
6.3.1 Interior Lighting
Lighting engineer studies all the aspects relating to lighting, both natural and
artificial, in order to guarantee adequate visual conditions to human beings. In
particular, in a closed environment, lighting must guarantee the execution of the
visual tasks performed and to carry out conditions of visual comfort, that is to say
mental conditions of satisfaction expressed vis-à-vis the visual environment. These
requirements are met if all the internal elements can be clearly distinguished
without any difficulty and tasks performed without any effort whatsoever. To
obtain such a result, the lighting to be achieved can be essentially obtained either
by exploiting natural lighting or by integrating it with the artificial one.
These two options are not however equivalent: in fact, although artificial
lighting, different from the natural one, can be designed with more precise char-
acteristics in terms of quality and quantity, natural lighting has the advantage of a
better quality of light (better performance of colours) and the higher levels of
lighting that can be reached, which from the quantity viewpoint is practically
impossible to achieve with artificial lighting. Furthermore, natural lighting uses
6.3 Luminous End Use 337
solar energy, that is to say the renewable source of lighting par excellence,
allowing huge energy savings and a neutral impact for the environment.
6.3.2 Elements of Photometry
6.3.2.1 The Vision in Human Eyes
Light is the electromagnetic radiant energy that human eyes are able to perceive; in
particular, the white light is given by a mix of all the wavelengths of the visible
spectrum and also contains radiations belonging to infrared and ultraviolet rays.
The evaluation of the fundamental magnitudes that are used to measure the radiant
energy emitted or received by a surface in relation to the feelings produced on
individuals through their eyes represents the object of a preliminary part of light
engineering that falls within the name of photometry.
Photometric Magnitudes
The main photometric magnitudes include:

• luminous flux;
• luminous intensity;
• radiance;
• luminance;
• lighting.
Out of them, the first four characterise the source emission, respectively for
point sources (luminous flux and intensity) and extended sources (luminance and
radiance), whereas the last item refers to the incident light on the receiving
surface.
The luminous flux represents the luminous power u released by a point source
through a solid angle dx.
Luminous intensityI therefore represents the luminous flux released by a point
source in a basic solid angle dx around a direction r:
du
I¼ ð6:14Þ
dx
It is measured in candelas (cd).
Candela is the fundamental lighting unit in the International System: subse-
quently, the luminous flux is a derived magnitude, defined through (6.14) as ‘‘the
luminous flux emitted into a solid angle of one steradian by an isotropic point
source having a luminous intensity of one candela’’.
The radianceM in a point of a large surface is given by the ratio between the
luminous flux du emitted by a surface element containing the point and the area of
the surface itself:
du
M¼ ð6:15Þ
dA
It is measured in lm/m2 (lumen for square meter).
Radiance refers to the visibility curve: it is valid until the source observed has a
radiance of 100 lm/m2 (photopic vision); in scotopic vision, on the contrary,
radiance drops below 0.01 lm/m2.
6.3.2.2 Luminance
The luminance in a point of a large surface, in a particular direction a, is given by

the ratio between the luminous intensity dI emitted in that direction and the
emitting surface projected in a perpendicular plan to the direction itself dAn
(surface apparently seen from direction a), that is to say the intensity emitted by
the apparent unit of surface dAn.
Illumination E in a point of a surface is defined as the ratio between the
luminous flux du incident on a basic surface dA which contains the point and the
area of the surface itself:
du
E¼ ð6:16Þ
dA
Its unit of measurement is lumen/m2 called lux (lx).
The measurement of illumination is carried out through illuminometers,
equipment made up of photovoltaic cells containing a semiconductor sensor in
which, if invested by light, an electromotive force is generated, proportional to the
power of radiation according to a sensitivity curve that reproduces the normal
visibility curve of human eyes.
6.3.2.3 Secondary Sources
A body receiving an electromagnetic radiation sends back a fraction of it

amounting to its reflection coefficient r.6 Since the reflection coefficient can take on
different values in the different points of a surface, and also depends on the
radiation incidence angle, since generally its mean value is referred to.
Furthermore, since r is a function of the wavelength, it follows that the incident
radiation and the one sent by the surface differ, besides for the power, also for the
6
It must be observed how the reflexion coefficient is different from the one used in the thermal
radiation case, since lighting engineering only considers the one relating to the visible band.
composition of the spectrum. In particular, the sending back of the incident light
can take place through a spectrum reflection (a single incident ray produces a
single reflected ray) as it happens on glossy or smooth surfaces, diffused (the
presence of infinite infinitesimal surfaces specularly reflecting and oriented to all
direction leads the light to be globally reflected randomly), in the case of mat or
opaque surfaces that show a certain degree of roughness,7 or mixed (diffuse
reflection with a predominant component in the specular direction) on semi-glass
surfaces.
The reflecting body can be considered in turn as a luminous source that is
generally defined secondary source.
Point, Linear and Extended Source
On the basis of their geometry, luminous sources can be divided into:

• point sources;
• linear sources;
• extended sources.
A source can be considered as a point source if its size is small compared to the
distance from the points to be lighted (the distance must be at least 5 times higher
than the largest size of the source). It is conversely considered as linear if it shows
a size much larger than the others and comparable to the distance from the point to
be lighted. It can finally be considered as extended if at least two of its sizes are
comparable to the distance from the point to be lighted.
6.3.3 Natural Light
6.3.3.1 Natural Light Sources
The primary light sources are the sun and the celestial vault. In particular the light
can directly come from the sun, although partially absorbed by the atmosphere
(direct light), or consist in the diffused light of the celestial vault, which is made up
of the scattered radiation in the atmosphere by gases, water vapour and particulate,
and reflected by the different surfaces of the environment, being it natural (sky,
trees, mountains, etc.) and artificial (buildings, parts of the internal environment)
(diffused light).
The external space performs a role analogous to the one of a lighting equipment
(which has the task of filtering and distributing the artificial light) as concerns
natural light, scattering, reflecting and transmitting the light.
7
This happens when the size of the surface irregularities is of the same order of magnitude as the
wavelength of the incident light.
The entire set of direct and diffused light represents the global daily illumi-
nation; the average value of extraterrestrial solar radiation (called solar constant)
is 1,353 W/m2. The solar radiation, passing through the atmosphere, changes its
spectral composition, and the process in general strongly depends on climatic
conditions: it is however possible to assume that radiation, as it reaches the earth’s
surface, shows a spectral distribution that is close to a black body at a temperature
of nearly 5,760 K.
The normal curve of visibility of the human eye in a photopic vision8 is suitable
for this spectral composition: its peak (at k = 555 nm), in fact, corresponds to the
maximum of the spectral emittance of the black body at the temperature of 5,225 K.
In the field of visible and ultraviolet radiations and in wide bands of infrared
radiation, the spectral power of the solar radiation is however lower than the black
body, especially near the absorption bands typical of molecules of O2, N2, H2O, O3
and CO2 that is the chemical species. Among those that are present in the atmo-
sphere, that determine a higher absorption of the relevant spectral components.
When sheltered by the direct solar radiation, that is to say when the light arrives
only after undergoing the reflection diffused through the atmosphere and on the
surrounding bodies, the spectral composition is conversely variable according to
the presence of dust and clouds in the air, and is also affected by the presence of
buildings, mountains, trees, etc.: in general the diffused solar radiation has a colour
tending to light blue.
Obviously, the light on the earth’s surface depends on the position of the sun
(and therefore on its height and azimuth) and is variable in its spectral content, in
the different months of the year, both in terms of quantity, intensity and quality.
The possible extreme conditions are those of completely bright sky, without any
clouds, and the uniformly covered sky. The former case corresponds to a trans-
parent hemisphere, which disperses the light only in small angles (on the basis of
this phenomenon, the sky appears blue and not black), the latter corresponds to a
translucent hemisphere that disperses radiation in big angles; all the other condi-
tions can be considered as intermediate between these two.
The sky (or celestial vault) as light source can be characterised through the
distribution of luminance or illumination on a non-obstructed horizontal surface.
6.3.4 Artificial Light
6.3.4.1 Artificial Luminous Sources
Artificial light sources are needed to make up for the shortage of natural light.
They are generally made up of two parts, the lighting equipment and the lamp. In
particular, in electricity-powered sources, lamps are used for the conversion of
8
The photopic vision is only due to the activity of retina cones. It is the type of vision that occurs
when the level of lighting is ‘‘normal’’ (daylight) and allows to identify chromatic differences.
electric power into a luminous flux, whereas the lighting equipment has the task of
suitably distributing this flow.
Lighting Equipment
Lighting equipment represents a fundamental complement for any light source,

ensuring a threefold functions: electric, mechanic and photometric. From the
manufacturing viewpoint, lighting equipment can be considered as made up of two
components:
• the shell, with electric and mechanic functions;
• the optical system, which has the task of modifying the luminous flux going out
of a source and suitably addressing it.
Therefore, they represent technological products (chandeliers, ceiling light,
fixtures, spotlights, etc.) that act as a shell for the housing, the mechanic, the
thermal and the electric protection of the light source. In particular they include
the components that are necessary for the support, the fixing and the protection of
the lamp from whatever external agent that might entail a deterioration or a
decrease in optical qualities, also including, whenever present, the auxiliary cir-
cuits and devices (for instance, transformers) for the connection to the power-
supply. From the lighting engineering viewpoint, equipment performs the task of
distributing, filtering and/or transforming the light emitted by one or several lamps,
exploiting the properties of reflection, refraction and diffusion of the materials
composing it.
The performance, of an equipment is the ratio:
/device
e¼ ð6:17Þ
/lam
Generally, the values of g are included between 0.4 and 0.8. The fraction of the
luminous flux emitted by the source that is absorbed by the equipment is then
dispersed in the form of heat.
Types of Lighting Equipment
The characteristic equipments used in lighting services can be summarized as

follows:
Diffusers: they have the task of shielding the direct view of the lamp and—
thanks to their symmetric geometry, usually vis-à-vis an axis—changing its pho-
tometric solid in such a way as the outgoing luminous flux appears uniform in all
directions (Fig. 6.7).
They are mainly used for residential exteriors and from their manufacturing
viewpoint they are often shaped as a globe of translucent material (glass, poly-
meric material, etc.).
Fig. 6.7 Diffuser [3]
Fig. 6.8 Reflector [3]
Reflectors: they change the photometric solid of the source, exploiting the
reflection properties, and inhibit the vision of the lamp only in some directions.
From the manufacturing viewpoint, they are made up of a shell of opaque material
with the internal side treated in such a way that allows to have a high reflection
coefficient (Fig. 6.8).
Refractors: they are used to modify the emission photometric solid allowing the
directional control of the light and avoiding dazzling dangers. The change in the
spatial distribution of the flux emitted by the source takes place by exploiting in
particular the refraction phenomenon. From the manufacturing viewpoint, they are
made up of a glass or plastic shell that can partially or totally contain the source
(Fig. 6.9).
Projectors: they have the task of addressing the luminous flux emitted by a
source towards a given direction and within a limited solid angle, to particularly
light some areas or objects (Fig. 6.10).
Equipment Classification
According to the classification of the Commission Internationale de l’Eclaraige

(CIE), lighting equipments can be divided on the basis of the spatial distribution of
the luminous flux emitted above and below the horizontal plan passing through
their centre. Then one distinguishes the following types (Fig. 6.11):
Fig. 6.9 Refractor [3]
Fig. 6.10 Projector [3]
Fig. 6.11 Main types of

lighting
(a) Equipment for direct light, in which the flux is mainly emitted downwards (90–
100%) and for a minimum part (0–10%) upwards. It is the cheapest illumi-
nation, since the lighting equipment is generally simple, cost-effective and high
performing. With this type of lighting, the absorption by walls and ceilings is
negligible, but shadows are marked and it is advisable to use several luminous
sources to reduce them. It is convenient both in exteriors, and in laboratories or
offices;
Fig. 6.12 Examples of trend of photometric curves for the different types of lighting
(b) Semi-direct lighting equipment, in which the flux is mostly emitted downwards
(60–90%) and for a minor percentage (10–40%) upwards. By adopting this
type of lighting, shadows are softened. Furthermore, the part of the flux dif-
fused by the ceiling contributes to increase the global efficiency of the
installation and avoids the shadows above the equipment. It is mainly used in
offices, houses, canteens, etc;
(c) Equipment for diffused general lighting, in which the flux is emitted, with a
partly diffused distribution (40–60%) downwards and part of it (40–60%)
upwards. It is the type of lighting adopted in department stores;
(d) Equipment for mixed lighting (or direct–indirect), in which the flux is emitted
without any diffusion both upwards (40–60%) and downwards (40–60%). This
type of lighting can only be used in facilities with very much reflecting walls
due to luminous efficiency issues. Since the contribution of walls is funda-
mental, it is necessary to keep the rooms and the ceiling light fixtures clean;
(e) Equipment for semi-indirect lighting, in which the flux is mostly emitted (60–
90%) upwards and to a minor extent (10–40%) downwards. This type of
lighting entails a low efficiency, slightly improved by the direct component and
by the geometry of the diffuser, open towards to top; it also requires very light
ceilings;
(f) Equipment for indirect lighting, in which the flux is mainly emitted upwards (90–
100%) and in a minimum percentage downwards (0–10%). This type of lighting
gives a remarkable uniformity of lighting, but it obliges to install very powerful
lamps, since it generally has a low luminous efficiency. It is used to obtain
particular aesthetic results or to highlight architectural details: therefore, it is
mostly destined to showrooms, some restaurants, museums, monuments, etc.
Figure 6.12 shows an example of trend of the photometric curves relating to
different types of lighting. The same figure also shows a further organisation of the
types of equipment in 20 classes, indicated from A to T (ranging from the most
concentrated direct to the indirect one), and defined by the CIE to classify the large
number of possible spatial distributions of luminous flow.
Fig. 6.13 Solid reference

angles for the definition of the
class of an equipment
The class of an equipment is defined on the basis of the flux ui emitted in five
different spatial portions, obtained by dividing the space around the photometric
centre into five cones around the axis of the equipment, having a solid angle of p/2,
p, 3/p, 2p ster, respectively (upper and lower hemispheres) (Fig. 6.13.). The values
of the flux emitted in the different spatial portions are provided by manufacturers or
can be determined starting from the knowledge of the photometric curve.
By using the values of ui it is possible to define the efficiency of the equipment
gi, relating to the flow emitted by the source inside and not outside the equipment
itself, which is given by:
u1 þ u2 þ u3 þ u4 þ u5
gi ¼ ð6:18Þ
utot
where utot represents the total flow emitted in all directions.
Electricity is the main energy vector for the luminous end use, targeted to meet
the useful effect in terms of room luminosity in the absence of natural lighting, up
to its completion or independently from its availability.
The main characteristic of each energy vector usable to make the luminous end
use possible is its availability at night and in periods of scarce availability of solar
energy. Although it might appear trivial at a first sight, this is the key element for
the development of energy systems that exploit renewable energies (the main of
which is the direct solar source) to supply the energy quantity necessary to meet
lighting needs. If electricity is suitable for the achievement of all the applications
requested, both in closed rooms and in open ones, and also for large surfaces (as it
happens in the case of sports events, social meetings or the lighting of large areas
as car parks and airports) and it is therefore the most appropriate vector to reach
end users, much space—in the area of energy vectors—remains available to
optimise and improve the production procedure and sources, as well as the pos-
sibility of more or less distributed storage and close to the point of end use.
The technological progress of electricity-luminous energy conversion systems,
in fact, makes it possible for the implementation of energy systems that envisage
the integration of diffuse production of electric power as integration or as an
alternative compared to the systems based on the storage through the electric grid.
Low power and low requests for energy flux in fact increasingly allow to achieve
adequate luminous flows, able to meet a growing number of needs. The connection
to the distribution network always entails more or less complex infrastructural
works, and the presence of power-supply cables translates into a not always
foreseeable control and maintenance work, which cannot even be precisely eval-
uated in terms of resources requested.
The competitiveness of solutions exploiting the sources available at the point of
need of luminous energy, usually characterised also by the feature of being
renewable, with the further advantage of releasing zero emissions in the atmo-
sphere, depends on the capacity of the energy vector produced of being stored and
distributed, at least locally.
For its luminous use, electric power can therefore be certainly produced also by
renewable sources, besides from fossil and nuclear sources, the letter are not
limited by definition by the availability of the solar source, although under the
condition of reaching the point of need for a distribution grid. However,
production must occur also through a storable vector, and this opens large
perspectives to renewable energy sources based upon the development of
electrochemical accumulators:
Electricity production from renewable sources ) electrochemical storage )

electricity for lighting purposes
but also for applications that envisage hydrogen as a useful vector:
Hydrogen production from renewable sources ) hydrogen storage ) electricity

for lighting purposes:
6.4 Mechanic End Use
The mechanic end use of energy is aimed at the carrying out of tasks originally
performed directly by men with their bodies, with or without the use of any
equipment.
The replacement of human work, as well as the speeding up, the increase in
precision and repeatability of tasks and works is among the main purposes of the
6.4 Mechanic End Use 347
mechanic end use of energy. There are several useful effects in the industrial,
agricultural, civil and services fields, ranging from the processing and assembly of
industrial components and products, to the performance of household tasks
(movement of water and of the drum of the washing-machine), to carry out
agricultural tasks (digging, seeding, harvesting, etc.), up to the movement of things
and people in the sector of mobility.
All these applications have extremely variable needs in terms of characteristics
of the energy flow, and this determines the choice of the single technologies used
in the various cases. The mechanic energy demanded is presently obtained in
industrialised countries through the distribution network of the electricity vector
and by operating an electric power-mechanic power conversion with electric
machines and procedures. A specific predominance of the combustion of fossil
fuels is present in the sector of transports. In developing countries, animal energy
or human energy are still extensively used, with the manual carrying out of tasks
that are entirely performed by machines in industrialised areas.
Among mechanic use, it is possible to identify the following:
• Industrial, agricultural and agro-industrial uses, among which:
– Extraction, transportation and handling of raw materials and derivatives
– Handling and assembly for mechanised production
– Mechanic processing of parts and components
– Land cultivation, seeding and collection in agriculture
– Handling and processing of raw materials and agro-industry products
• Civil uses and Residential, among which:
– Operation of household appliances
– Operation of lifts, moving pavements, moving staircases
– Automatic doors
– Fans and ventilators
At present, the possible solutions for the production of mechanic energy for end
use are the following:
• conversion from chemical energy to mechanical energy in a thermodynamic
cycle that exploits the heat produced through the burning of fuel:
– gas turbine power plants
– steam turbine power plants
– internal combustion (or, more rarely, external combustion) volumetric
engines
• conversion from electric power to mechanic energy:
– electric motors
In consideration of their characteristics, gas and steam turbine power plants are
used in particular cases in which huge power is required. A typical application of
gas turbine power plants for the production of mechanic energy is air transport.
Steam plants are used for the production of mechanic energy in particular
industrial sectors; in these cases a part of the mechanical power generated by
turbines is normally used, while a part of it is converted into electric power.
As already mentioned internal combustion engines (external combustion ones,
of the Stirling type, have a limited use today), are extensively used in the sector of
transports and cover almost all transports on road, and part of the maritime and air
transport.
The most widespread solution is represented by electric motors; their wide-
spread use is due to various practical factors and to the fact that the global energy
efficiency of this solution is in any case similar to the possible alternatives that,
however, in many cases are not applicable or show practical problems. Electric
motors, in fact, represent now a widely fine-tuned, reliable and cost-effective
technology. Furthermore, in the different construction solutions (direct current,
alternating current, synchronous or asynchronous) they do not show any limit from
the size viewpoint, since they can supply power ranging from a few W to hundreds
of kW. An important characteristic is compactness that allows to integrate electric
motors in the utilisation equipment, being it a household appliance, or an equip-
ment for mechanical working. In many cases it is possible to take electricity
directly from the electric grid: alternatively, the electrochemical storage (with a
high efficiency) is in any case possible. Another fundamental aspect is represented
by the absence of whatever type of emission (almost always acoustic), which
makes them usable also in closed areas (including domestic use).
As far as the global energy efficiency of the solutions mentioned above is
concerned, the following must be underlined: in case of gas and steam plants, the
values of conversion efficiency (from chemical energy to mechanic energy) are
similar to those typical of these plants for the production of electric power (see
chapter on technologies). As widely known, electric motors have very high effi-
ciencies (exceeding 90%); for a global energy analysis, however, it is necessary to
consider the efficiency of the production of electricity.
As an example, considering a gasoil ICE, it is reasonable to hypothesise a
conversion efficiency from chemical energy to mechanic energy amounting to
36%; considering the losses due to fuel extraction, transportation, refining and
distribution as amounting to 10%, a global efficiency of nearly 32% (from the
primary source to the useful mechanic energy) is obtained. Considering, on the
contrary, an electric motor, it is possible to hypothesise a conversion efficiency
from electric power to mechanic power of 92%; considering the losses due to
transportation (5%) and the efficiency of electric power production (40%) as well
as the losses for the transportation of the fuel to the plant, a global efficiency of
33% is obtained. In terms of primary energy consumption, given the same useful
effect, this means that to obtain, for instance, 100 kJ of useful mechanic energy
there is a consumption of primary energy of 309 kJ in the case of ICE and of
304 kJ in the case of the electric motor. As in the case of the ICE the primary
energy is not renewable (oil), in the case of electric motor a part of the electricity is
produced from renewable sources for which, as underlined in several occasions, it
is not suitable to talk about ‘‘consumption’’. Assuming that 20% of the electric
6.4 Mechanic End Use 349
Fig. 6.14 Production of mechanic energy by ICE: energy cycle from the primary source to end
use
Fig. 6.15 Production of mechanic energy by electric motors: energy cycle from the primary
source to end use
power consumed is produced from renewable sources, the consumption of non-

renewable primary energy in the case of electric motor is 243 kJ.
Thus, attention has to be paid to the schemes relating to the entire energy cycle
(from the source to end use and useful effect). Let’s now analyse some cases
relating to the technologies devoted to the production of mechanic energy for end
use.
Figure 6.14 shows the scheme dealing with the entire energy cycle in the case
of production of mechanic energy with ICE fuelled with gasoil, whereas Fig. 6.15
shows the production of mechanic energy through electric motor by taking elec-
tricity from the grid.
6.5 Electric/Electronic End Use
The electric/electronic end use of energy entered in the group of the four end uses
only in the last decades. In a classic schematisation and in many texts, in fact, there
is still a classification limited to the three groups of mechanic, thermal and
luminous energy. As a matter of fact, with the advent of electronics and the
explosive growing of information Technologies (ITs) and information and Com-
munication Technologies (ICTs) in the economic and social lives of human beings,
this family of end use has played and will increasingly play a major role. The
power and quantity of energy requested, although still limited compared to the
typical ones of mechanic and thermal use, are becoming globally significant.
The electric/electronic use of energy is generally aimed at performing tasks that
were previously made through the resort to mechanic use or to the capacity of men,
therefore resorting to human energy. The development of numerical data man-
agement replaces and widens the capacity of mnemonic or management manual
calculation of men, as well as the previous generation of mechanic calculators,
theoretically able to perform all the tasks of electronic calculators but in practice
limited by insurmountable problems of size, reliability and speed of response.
Data transmission, with the subsequent possibility of sending information, voice
data and images, and increasingly complex digital products, replaced in this case
as well and widened the communication tasks previously carried out by type-
writing, drawing and photography of physical images, and their transportation
from the place of creation to the place of destination with animal means first and
mechanical means afterwards.
The replacement of human work, the speeding up, the increased precision,
repeatability and widening of possible tasks are among the main targets of electric/
electronic energy end use. Useful effects are continuously increasing, also thanks
to the continuous development of new applications and to the advent of new
technologies in the industrial, agricultural, civil and services sectors.
These applications show needs that are generally limited to the energy flow in
terms of power and current intensity; this opens large possibilities of choice of
energy technologies, of the sources and of vectors that can be used in the various
cases, before the necessary conversion into electric power as end use. The electric
power requested is obtained today both in industrialised and in developing
countries, with the electricity vector mainly being supplied by the distribution grid.
The growing demand for portable applications with end use of electric/elec-
tronic energy and the continuous growth of the networks dealing with the distri-
bution, repetition and transmission of signals for their operation have opened the
largest market in our history for energy electrochemical storage systems. The new
and growing demand in this sector, in fact, is the portability of equipment, being a
computer, a telephone, a sound or video player, a palmtop and much more, having
considered the continuous development and the continuous fusion and separation
between electronic devices able to perform one or several tasks with this family of
applications.
6.5 Electric/Electronic End Use 351
The electric/electronic uses are therefore usable nowadays either statically, with
fixed equipment, and dynamically, with portable equipment. Among them, it is
possible to identify working and extra-work use, including:
• working and extra-work use, including:
– Calculation and data processing
– Connection to telecommunications networks (Internet, wireless, telephone and
satellite)
– Inbound and outbound data transmission (voice, images and numerical data)
– Sound or image play
The electric/electronic use of energy opens interesting opportunities, in con-
sideration of its characteristics that make it particularly different from the three
other end uses, and in particular from the thermal and mechanic ones: the low or
very low power at stake, and portability as an element of certain and growing
success.
The low power also allows to consider particularly interesting some energy
sources that in the past were particularly ignored by classic energy studies, mainly
concentrated on the use of industrial and agricultural energy applications, typi-
cally involving a high power. Small power and limited quantity of energy pave the
way to the possibility of exploiting renewable sources that are practically avail-
able all over the world, in the same way as all over the world there are electric/
electronic applications that are the symbol of development and of global relations
that ask to operate and to be powered. All the conversion technologies of
renewable energy sources allow the production of the quantities of electricity
requested. Therefore, for the first time all the sources are fully involved in energy
competition. In many cases with the advantage (once considered as a disadvantage
and still wrongly presented in this way by many authors) of being distributed all
over the earth and not focussed in single areas of availability, from which it is
necessary to organise a complex, little safe and expensive distribution system.
Conversely, the request for portability paves the way for the development of
better and better new solutions of energy storage, which, thanks to their distri-
bution and acceptance in the market of electric/electronic use, show today to the
large public and to the global market their existence and their potential usefulness
also in other sectors. The characteristic of this sector—new but that can already be
considered as dominating from the viewpoint of energy trends—is the precondi-
tion for the creation and development of new generations of electrochemical
accumulators, increasingly efficient and competitive, in order to allow the access
in world markets of new energy vectors that are only competitive in niche
applications, such as hydrogen and new chemical, physical or chemical–physical
solutions for their storage, and the appearance of mechanical storage systems,
easily convertible into electric energy, such as micro and mini flywheels, springs
or pressurised fluids.
References
1. ISO regulation 7730. Moderate thermal environments—determination of the PMV and PPD
indices and specification of the condition for thermal comfort
2. Nucara A, Pietrafesa M (2001) Elementi Di Illuminotecnica, Universita’ degli studi
‘‘Mediterranea’’ di Reggio Calabria facolta’ di Ingegneria Dipartimento Di Informatica
Matematica Elettronica e Trasporti
3. Jokem E (2000) Energy End Use Efficiency, World Energy Assesment: Energy and the
Challenge of Sustainability, Chapter 6, UNDP and World Energy Council, New York.
Index
A B
Absorption heat pumps, 277, 283–284, Balance Of System, 201
288, 318 Barrel of oil equivalent, 7
Accumulators, 126–130, 132, 135–136, Benzene, 80–81, 165
138–140, 155, 169, 201, 234–235, Bernouilli
346, 351 theorem, 48
Activation polarisation, 226 Betz theory, 47–48
Aerobic bacteria, 66–67, 74, 76 Bi-directional power flows, 295
AFC, 229–230, 232 Biodiesel, 164–165, 168
Air Biofuels, 164, 167
heating, 22 Bio-fuels, 52–53
mass, 28, 32, 191, 204, 331 Biogas, 52, 164, 167, 292
Aleatory sources, 292 Biomass energy, 13, 53, 55
Aliphatic, 70, 81 Biomass index, 25
Alkali metal, 54 Bio-refinery, 52
Alkaline batteries, 129, 135 Bitumen, 73, 83, 86, 110–111, 113
Alkaline electrolysers, 258–259 Bituminous coal, 64–66, 68
Alkaline solutions, 256 Bituminous Schist, 9, 13
Alkylation, 111 Black absorbing plate, 240
AM, 28, 31–32, 42, 49 Bliss equation, 243
American Petroleum Institute, 73 BOE, 7
Ammonia, 144, 158–162, 177, 286, 289 Boiling point, 80, 115, 165
Anaerobic digestion, 282 BOS, 201–202
Anaerobic process, 282 Bosch-Haber process, 160
Anemometer, 43, 46, 196 Bottomer, 219
Anthracite, 64–66, 68–69, 71 British Thermal Unit, 7
API, 73, 79–80 BTU, 7, 9
Aquifers, 56–57, 59, 247 Bulk Volume, 54–55
Aromatic rings, 65 Burning point, 80
Aromatic series, 81, 83 Butane, 80, 87–88, 111–112.
Artificial light, 97, 336–338
Artificial radioactivity, 6
Ash, 54–55, 64, 82 C
ASHRAE, 326 Calorific Value, 7–9, 51–52, 54–55, 64,
Atlas, 34–37 68, 79, 89, 167
Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-0-85729-244-5,
Ó Springer-Verlag London Limited 2012
354 Index
C (cont.) Concentrated production, 294, 296, 298

Candela, 7, 337 Concentration polarisation, 226
Carbon Dioxide, 16–17, 57, 67, 70, 75, 87–88, Condensation nucleus, 65
159, 165–166, 176, 233, 280, 282 Conventional (or commercial)
Carbon Monoxide, 16, 67, 70, 159, 166, 280 energy sources, 63
Carbon nanostructures, 144, 156 Conventional systems, 141, 180, 234, 333
Carbon substances, 52 Conversion efficiency, 176, 191–192, 199,
Carboniferous period, 65, 67 301, 348
Carbonisation degree, 65 Conversion factors, 8–9
Carbonisation process, 67 Conversion processes, 1, 4, 55, 176–177,
Carnot efficiency, 180, 221, 311, 313 179–180, 277
Catagenesis, 75, 77 COP, 262–264, 266, 288–289.
Catalytic sites, 220–222 Cost-effective, 11, 64, 73, 83, 123, 245, 296,
Cell rated tension, 259 325, 343, 348
Cell reactions, 222 Cost-effectiveness, 11
Cell temperature, 199 Counter electromotive force, 254
Cellulose, 54–55, 282 Cracking, 77, 111, 113
Cemf, 254–255 Crude oil, 7, 22, 77, 79–83, 88–89, 105, 108,
Central heating, 22, 169 110, 111, 113
Central receiver concentrators, 250 Crystal microspheres, 144, 158
CES, 12 Current efficiency, 227, 257
Characteristic curve, 197–198, 272, 273 Cut-in, 195–196
Characteristic velocity, 183–184 Cut-out, 196
Charge controller, 200–201 Cycle lifetime, 128
Charge voltage, 128, 138 Cyclic behaviour, 138
Chemical energy, 2, 4, 6, 13, 99, 126–127,
180, 182, 203, 220–221, 235–236,
251–253, 259, 277, 347–348 D
Chemical polarisation of electrodes, 255 Darcy-Weisbach equation, 107
Chemical reactors, 182 Darrieus turbine, 192
CHP, 301–302 Dedicated network, 104–105, 119
CIE, 342, 344 Demand site management, 295
Civil use, 324, 347 Derivatives of Petroleum, 110
Clapeyron’s law, 284 Deuterium, 95
Climate change, 17, 176 Developing Countries, 37, 51–52, 60, 64,
Climate instability, 17 347, 350
Closed cycles, 13–19, 53 Diagenesis, 75–77
Cloud of wax, 80 Diesel
Cloud point, 80 cycle, 236, 238–239
Coal oil, 83, 88, 110–111, 113
gasification, 280–281 Diffuse radiation, 33, 35, 37, 250
oil, 16, 70 Diffused general lighting, 344
water, 70 Diffused light, 339–340
Coefficient of performance, 262 Direct conversion, 4, 30, 182, 197
Collective transportation, 22 Direct light, 339, 343–344
Colour-rendering index, 269, 271, 276 Direct radiation, 32–33, 35
Combined heat power, 301 Direct systems, 180
Combined plants, 220, 309 Discharge allowed, 138
Combined production, 300, 303, 313 Discharge lamps, 182, 269, 271, 273
Complex energy system, 21, 99 Discharge potential, 133, 135, 137, 139
Complex metal hydrides, 153 Discharge voltage stability, 138
Compression heat pump, 182, 260–261, 287 Discontinuity, 30
Compression ratio, 116, 145, 205–209, Distributed Generation, 234, 291–298, 301
219, 317 Distributed production
Index 355
of type I, 298 Energy

of type II, 298 chain, 20, 53, 322
District heating, 169, 305, 313–318, conversion plants, 179, 182, 235, 240, 251,
325–326, 333 253, 259, 266, 292
DMFC, 230–232 crops, 9, 13, 51–52, 54
Domestic heating, 1, 299 cycle, 1–2, 8, 20, 26, 315, 349
Domestic kerosene, 112 density in mass, 120, 146–147, 150,
Downwind, 192 155, 159
Dry distillation, 282 density in volume, 120, 146–147, 150,
DSM, 295 155, 159–160
Dynamic systems, 180 efficiency, 13, 128, 167–168, 298–300,
318, 324–325, 348
farm, 52
E flows, 1, 3, 9, 11, 25, 30, 241
Earth system, 8–9, 11, 13, 19, 26 needs, 11, 30, 51, 181, 294, 296,
Earth’s energy balance, 9–11, 26 324–325, 328, 333
Economic potential, 26 of wave motion, 5
Ecosystem, 99 policy, 25
EDL, 139 potential, 25, 103
Effective potential, 26 recovery braking, 141
Electric capacitance, 8 resources, 13, 16–22, 25, 96, 98, 174, 295,
Electric charge, 8, 128, 221 297, 324–325, 333
Electric conductance, 8 saving, 13, 255, 271, 289, 312–314
Electric inductance, 8 sources, 3, 9, 11–13, 22, 25, 37, 51, 53, 60,
Electric potential, 8, 38, 225, 228 63–64, 87, 98, 105, 175, 293, 321,
Electric power, 2–4, 13, 22, 28, 30, 34, 39, 99, 324, 346, 351
101, 120–124, 126–127, 129, 139, spending, 19, 97, 102, 105–107, 109,
141–142, 179–183, 189, 191–194, 114–116, 119–121, 160–163,
197–199, 201, 203, 210, 218, 220, 173–175, 190, 298–300, 329, 331
226, 227–231, 234–236, 240, 253, stored, 100, 114, 120, 146, 171
257–258, 261, 265–266, 269, systems, 1, 6, 13, 16, 18–21, 25, 57, 63,
291–292, 294, 299–305, 307, 97–98, 103, 142, 167, 174, 176,
309–311, 313–323, 333, 341, 291, 296–297, 321, 346
346–348, 350 transformation plants, 277, 283
Electric resistance, 8, 255 transportation and storage, 97–98,
Electric voltage, 8 102–103, 105
Electrochemical generators, 126–127 vector, 1–3, 14, 18–19, 22–23, 25, 53, 64,
Electrochemical systems, 220 97–103, 105, 114–116, 120, 139,
Electrolysers, 146, 182, 257–259 143, 159, 164, 167–168, 170,
Electrolysis, 130, 161, 182, 222, 253–259 173–177, 179–180, 277, 291, 294,
Electromagnetic, 3–5, 26–27, 40, 142, 173, 296, 298–300, 314, 321–322, 324,
180, 274, 337–338 326, 333–346, 351
Electromotive force, 8, 254, 338 wasting loop, 18
Electronic flow, 103, 126 Engine diesel oil, 113
Electronuclear plants, 13 Enriched materials, 17
Elementary (or simple) Enthalpy, 4, 57, 106, 116–117, 145, 151,
energy system, 20 153–154, 160–161, 213, 223–224
Emission spectrum, 271–272 Entropy, 16, 19, 153, 224, 228
End use, 1–2, 4, 11, 20–22, 53–54, 99, 167, Environmental balance, 4, 15, 17
169, 174–177, 179, 294, 313, Environmental compatibility, 175–176
322–323, 325, 332–333, 336, Environmental imbalance, 14–15
345–347, 349–350, 352 Environmental impact, 63–64, 70, 98–99, 101,
End uses, 1, 13, 18, 322, 350–351 123, 138, 234, 291–292, 297
End voltage of the discharge, 128 Equivalent hours, 197, 202
356 Index
E (cont.) Fossil fuels, 4, 13, 16–17, 25, 29, 60, 65, 68,
ETBE, 165 70, 98–103, 105, 114, 159, 164,
Ethane, 52, 59, 70, 74–75, 77, 80, 87–89, 92, 167, 174, 293, 315–316, 323, 325,
112, 115, 119, 143, 162, 166–167, 332–333, 347
220, 236, 242, 247, 278, 280, 294, Fractional distillation, 80, 165
300, 313, 324–325, 332 Francis, 183–185, 187–190
Ethanol, 52, 159, 162, 164, 165–166, 168, Freezing point (pour point), 80, 342
230–232 Frequency, 8, 28, 123–125, 180, 192–195,
Ethyl tertiary buthyl ether, 165 210, 264, 273, 276
ETP, 295 Froude’s Theorem, 47
European solar radiation atlas, 34–35 Fuel cell, 102, 154, 162, 177, 180, 182,
European technology platform, 295 220–235, 281, 293–294, 302–303,
Evaporation latent heat, 332 305, 312, 318, 234, 236, 333
Evaporator, 260–261, 263–264, 283, 286–288, Fuel global utilisation index, 311
334–335 Fuel oil, 22, 72, 83, 105, 110, 111, 113, 215
Exhaustion, 109, 237, 285, 320 Fuel qualified utilisation index, 311
Exothermic reactions, 4
Expansion valve, 149, 260–262
External Condensing Units, 335 G
External unit, 334–335 Gas hydrates, 87
Extra-atmospheric solar spectrum, 332 Gas pipelines, 89, 104, 109, 115–116, 119, 163
Extraction of resources, 14 Gasification, 70, 89, 114–115, 119–120, 166,
Extraterrestrial radiation, 31, 37 168, 277, 280–281, 318
Gasoil, 22, 105, 204, 313, 325, 332, 348–349
Gasoline, 70, 83, 93, 112
F Geopressed, 59
Fanger method, 326 Geothermal, 6, 9, 25, 29–30, 53, 55–60, 62–63,
Faraday 75, 324, 326, 333
constant, 131, 257 GHG, 17
law, 257 Gibs’ free energy, 4, 149, 223–224
Faradic current, 227 Global development, 98
Faradic efficiency, 259, 304 Global energy efficiency, 298–300, 348
Fermentation, 75, 165, 277, 282, 292 Global occurrences, 25
Fermi level, 264–265 Global solar radiation, 32, 36
Final charge voltage, 138 GLS, 265–266
Final discharge voltage, 128 Gravitational Energy, 9, 142
Finished cells, 200 Gravitational interaction, 10, 26
First Law of thermodynamics, 106, 223, 313 Gravitational potential energy, 141
Fischer-Tropsch process, 70, 114 Greenhouse gas, 17
Fission, 6, 8, 92–94, 251–252 Grid-connected systems, 200, 203
Fixed carbon, 54–55, 69 Ground solar spectrum, 32
Fixed resources, 25
Flash Point, 80
Flat-plate collectors, 182, 244, 325 H
Flat-plate solar collector, 240–241, Haber-Bosch synthesis process, 161
245, 250 HAWT, 41, 50
Flow rate, 38–40, 47, 49, 62, 88–89, 181, HDPE, 142
183–184, 188–189, 191, 209–210, Heat exchanger, 332
216–218, 226, 229, 243, 245, Heat pump, 182, 259–267, 283–288, 318,
305, 308 323–335
Fluid bed, 281 Heating diesel oil, 113
Fluorescent lamps, 271, 274–276 Heat-transfer fluid, 14, 98–99, 102–104,
Flux of light, 8 168–169, 175–177, 240, 242,
Flywheels, 105, 142, 170, 172, 351 246–247, 250, 325–326, 332–333
Index 357
High voltage, 121–122, 124, 135–136 Intrinsic overvoltage, 255

High-current charge, 138 Inverter, 193, 200–201, 226, 264
High-density polyethylene, 142 Irreversible phenomena, 126, 225
Hirn Cycle, 211, 213 Iso-radiation, 35
Horizontal Axe Wind Turbine, 41 Isotopes, 6, 9–10, 26, 30, 56, 93–95
Horizontal axis turbines, 192 IT, 321
Hot dry rocks, 57
Humidity content, 52, 54
Hydraulic drives, 172 J
Hydraulic heads, 25, 190 Joule
Hydraulic loads, 40, 184 cycle, 203, 205, 207
Hydrocarbons, 2, 16–17, 70, 72–74, 76–78, effect, 122–123, 182, 225, 323
80–83, 86–88, 110, 112–114, 162, Joule-Thompson
279–281 coefficient, 147
Hydroelectric power plants, 28, 39, 180, expansion process, 147
182, 191
Hydroelectricity, 28
Hydrogen K
isotopes, 9, 95 Kaplan, 183–185, 187–189
photoproduction, 283 Kerosene, 83, 111–112
production, 2, 177, 191, 253, 346 Kinetic storage, 142
sulphide, 74, 87–88, 167
use coefficient, 227
Hydrogenase, 283 L
Hydrogenation, 70, 114, 170 Lead batteries, 129
Hydropower, 1, 5, 9, 28, 37–38, 53, 181 Leaded petrol, 112
Hydrothermal systems, 56–57 Lead-free petrol, 112
LED, 322
Light diesel oils, 88
I Light Emitting Diode, 322
ICE, 324, 236, 294, 302–304, 348–349 Light metal hydrides, 153
IEA, 28, 96 Lighting engineer, 336, 338, 341
Illumination, 8, 283, 338, 340, 343 Lighting equipment, 339–344
Illuminometers, 338 Lignite, 64–66, 68–69, 71, 77
Impulse turbines, 185, 187 Limit temperature, 138, 262
Incandescent halogen lamps, 268 Linear parabolic concentrators, 250
Incandescent lamps, 182, 266, 268–269, Liquefaction, 70, 88, 114–115, 119–120, 147,
275–276 149–151, 160–161, 163
Indirect lighting, 344 Liquefied petroleum gas, 88
Indirect storage, 102, 121, 126, 141, 177 Liquid hydrogen, 143–144, 147, 149–151,
Induction lamps, 276 159, 163
Industrial use, 234, 322, 323, 347 Liquid phase, 57, 87, 283, 286
Industrialised countries, 51–52, 54, 92, 121, Lithium
323, 347 accumulators, 136
Information Technology, 321 batteries, 129, 137, 139, 201
Inorganic element, 54 ion batteries, 134
Intake works, 181 LNG, 115, 119
Integrated plants, 249–250, 296 LPG, 22, 88, 105, 110–112, 236
Integrated storage reservoir, 248 Lubricant bases, 83, 110–111, 113
Internal combustion engines, 112–113, 129, Lumen, 8, 338
150, 182, 234–235, 302, 348 Luminance, 271–272, 275, 337–338, 340
Internal Energy of the Earth, 9 Luminous flux, 337–338, 341–342.
Internal unit, 335 Luminous intensity, 337–338
International System, 3, 6–7, 337 Luminous use, 346
358 Index
M Negawatt (energy that was not consumed), 13

Magma, 57, 59 Net head, 40–41, 184–188
Magmatic systems, 57 Neutral solutions, 256
Magnetic induction, 8 New and renewable energy sources, 12–13
Magnetic storage, 142 New universal fuel, 102
Mass defect, 93 NiCd batteries, 132, 136–137
Maximum power point tracker, 200 NiMH batteries, 132, 136–137, 139
Maximum power voltage, 198–199 Nitrogen oxides, 16
MCFC, 229–230, 233 Nominal conversion efficiency, 199
Means of transport, 104, 141, 321 Nominal current, 138
Mechanic energy, 322, 347–349 Nominal frequency, 123
Mechanic use, 323, 347, 350 Nominal speed, 183, 195–196
Mechanical transmission, 98, 104, 170 Nominal voltage, 123, 127–129, 138
Mechanical transmission Non-dedicated network, 104
systems, 98, 170 Non-hydrothermal systems, 57
Memory effect, 136–137 NRES, 13
Metagenesis, 75, 77 Nuclear Energy Agency, 95
Metal hydrides, 129, 133, 144, 151–155, Nuclear fusion, 26, 95
162, 201 Nuclear power, 4, 6, 17, 92–94, 96, 174,
Metamorphism, 75, 78 176, 252, 333
Methane, 278, 280, 294, 300, 313,
324–325, 332
Methanol, 166, 230–232 O
MeV, 94 Ocean thermal energy conversion, 61
Micro-grids, 296 OCV, 131
Micro-hydraulic, 38, 190 Ohm’s law, 253
Mini-hydraulic, 190 Ohmic overvoltage, 259
Mixed lighting, 344 Ohmic polarisation, 225–226
Mixed petroleum, 82 Oil
Mixed-light lamp, 275–276 and its derivatives, 98, 105
Mixture of hydrocarbons, 112 pipelines, 104–106, 108–110, 116
Modules, 31, 200–202 reserves, 83–85
Moisture, 54–55, 68 sands, 9, 13
MPPT, 200 Olefins, 81, 88
MSW, 52, 54 Oleodynamic transmission, 104
Municipal solid waste, 52, 54 OOIP, 83
Open circuit voltage, 131, 199
Original oil in place, 83
N Orography, 46
Naftogenesis, 75–76, 78 OTEC, 9, 61
Nanostructured carbon films, 140 Otto cycle, 236–239
Naphthenic petroleum, 81–82 Outlet works, 183
Naphthenic series, 81 Overvoltage, 126, 132, 255, 257–259
Natural circulation plants, 246 Oxygen, 4, 17, 29, 50, 54, 65–67, 72, 74–77,
Natural gas, 1–2, 9, 16–17, 52, 69–70, 72–73, 82, 87, 130, 132, 148, 162, 167,
87–92, 98, 112, 115–117, 119–120, 220, 222, 224, 233, 251, 258,
145, 163–164, 166, 208, 215, 294, 279–283
299–300
Natural light, 321, 339–340
Natural radioactivity, 6, 56 P
Natural radioisotopes, 9–10, 26, 95 PAFC, 229–230, 232
Natural Uranium, 94 Parabolic dish concentrators, 250
NCV, 54 Paraffin series, 81, 88
NEA, 95 Partial load operation, 195
Index 359
Partial oxidation, 277, 279–280 Pressure-Composition Isotherms, 153

Particulate, 16, 89, 166, 220, 281, 339 Pressure-dynamic, 102–104
Peak power, 199, 201 Pressurised fluids, 170, 172, 351
Peat, 29, 64–66, 68 Primary energy sources, 9, 11–13, 22, 51,
Peltier 87, 175
coefficient, 265 Primary forms, 2
effect, 182, 164–166 Primary sources, 1–2, 11, 88, 94, 98–100, 163,
Pelton, 183–190 174–175, 179
PEM, 235, 259 Private transportation
PEMFC, 229, 305 Product reuse, 14
Perfluoropropene, 232 Propane, 80, 87–88, 111–112
Peripheral area, 65 Psychrometric diagram, 329
Permeable rocks, 56–57, 78 PTFE, 232
Petrol, 22, 79, 105, 110–112, 147, 158, Pulverisation, 69, 114
165, 236 Pumping plants, 126, 141, 189
Petroleum, 7, 9, 72–83, 86–89, 92, 96, PVDF, 232
110–111, 114 Pyrolysis, 114, 166, 277, 280, 282
Petroleum wax, 81
PFA, 232
Photoelectrolysis, 182, 259 Q
Photometric magnitudes, 337 Quantity of electricity, 8, 256
Photoproduction, 277, 283 Quick charge, 138
Photovoltaic cell, 197–199
Photovoltaic field, 200–201
Photovoltaic plants, 180, 182, 197, 200, R
292, 299 Radiance, 337–338
Physical phenomenon, 103 Radiant energy, 26, 99, 173, 182, 197, 240,
Pitch control, 196 251–252, 259, 266, 337
Planck’s constant, 273 Radiation
Planet-system, 19 dose, 8
Planck’s Law, 26, 266 intensity, 198–199
PMV, 327, 352 Radioactive materials, 17, 56, 58, 63
Pneumatic drives, 172 Radioactive waste, 17, 60
Polarisable electrodes, 140 Radioactive waste disposal
Polyvinylidenefluoride, 232 Radioisotopes, 6, 9–10, 26, 30, 93, 95
Polluting agents, 30 Rare gases, 87, 270, 274
Polluting emissions, 175–176 Rated current density, 259
Polycyclic, 80–81 Rational use of energy, 13
Polymer electrolyte membrane, 229–235 Raw materials, 13, 15, 75, 100, 347
Polymer membrane, 229–231 Reaction
Polymeric membrane, 230 energy, 4
Polysaccharides, 54 heat, 4
Polytetrafluoroethylene, 232 Reaction turbines, 185–187
Potential and pressure, 3, 5 Rechargeable batteries, 126, 139
Pour point, 50 Recommended temperature, 138
Power Refining process efficiency, 111
coefficient, 194 Reflected radiation, 33
control speed, 196 Reflectors, 342
density, 28, 50, 123, 128, 139–141 Reformer, 277
factor, 122, 125 Reforming, 111, 230, 233, 277–281, 294, 300
kerosene, 112 Refractors, 342
regulation, 195–196, 210 Re-generation, 16
Power-chemicals, 52 Regenerative braking, 141
PPD, 327, 352 Relative humidity, 326–327, 329–331
360 Index
R (cont.) Solar panel, 240

Remote transmission, 104 Solar power, 62–63
Renewability of energy resources, 297 Solar radiation, 5, 9, 25–26, 31–37, 42, 58, 63,
Renewable energy sources, 12–13, 25, 53, 60, 103, 198–200, 202, 240–243,
324, 346, 351 249–250, 253, 272, 299, 324, 326,
Renewable fuels, 164, 323 328, 333, 340
Repeated superheating, 213–214 Solar radiation equivalent, 25
RES, 25–26, 62–63, 295 Solar spectrum, 31–32, 50, 199
Reservoir plants, 181 Solar thermal concentration plants, 250
Restrictions for end-use, 174–175 Solid polymer electrolysers, 259
Reversible heat pumps, 260 Space and time, 11, 98–99
Reynolds number, 107 Specific capacity, 128, 140
Room air-conditioning, 323, 326, 333–334 Specific energy, 128, 135, 139, 152, 158,
Room comfort conditions, 326 201, 259
Roughness, 46, 107–108, 339 Specific energy consumption, 259
Run-of-river plants, 181, 191 Specific power, 128, 235
Specific resistance, 122
Specific speed, 183
S Specific work, 204–206, 208–209,
Saline gradient of the sea, 9, 13 212, 214
Sanitary hot water, 243, 313, 317, 334 Speed distribution of the site, 197
Saturated vapour, 57, 160, 330 Springs, 56, 59, 105, 170, 173, 351
Saving index, 312 Stack, 200, 222, 226–228, 254
Savonius, 41 Stagnation temperature, 244
Scale economies, 293 Stall, 296
Scattering, 31, 33, 339 Stand-alone systems, 200
Sea currents, 62 Standard conditions, 199, 202, 224
Sea waves, 9 Standstill rotor, 195
Seasonal basis, 248 Start up, 209
Seasonal storage, 248 Static systems, 180
Second law, 6, 18–19, 223, 313 Steam
Secondary energies, 2, 105 electrolyser, 259
Secondary forms, 1–2 generator, 211–213, 216, 285–288,
Self-discharge, 131–132, 136–139 307–308
Self-ignition, 237, 239 plants, 211, 215–216, 218, 230, 292,
Semi-direct lighting, 344 305, 319, 348
Semi-indirect lighting, 344 reforming, 277
Shafts and mechanical transmission Step-down transformers, 122
systems, 170 Step-up transformers, 122
Short circuit, 127, 137, 198–199 Storage and distribution, 14
SHW, 242 Storage capacity, 23, 102–103, 120, 146–147,
SI, 6 150, 154–156, 159–160, 208
Simple energy system, 20–21 Storage tanks, 144, 334
Simple metal hydrides, 153–154 String, 200
Small-hydraulic, 190–191 Subsidence, 75, 77
Small-size applications, 200 Sulphur analysis, 68
Smart energy networks, 296–297 Sulphur oxides, 16, 89
SmartGrids, 295–296, 320 Supercapacitors, 139–141, 235
SOFC, 162, 230, 233, 305 Superficial resistance, 259
Solar constant, 9, 27, 31, 63, 340 Superheated, 57, 169, 212, 214, 309
Solar energy, 8–10, 18, 29–30, 35, 50–51, Survival speed, 196
58–59, 63, 173, 181, 201–202, Sustainability, 14, 16, 18, 63, 167, 352
240–243, 249, 252–253, 323, 325, Sustainable development, 14–16, 18, 294
337, 345 Syngas, 164–166, 168, 318, 324
Index 361
Synthetic fuels, 102–103, 164, 167, Transformation processes, 22, 52, 77, 98, 126,
175–176, 300 177, 179–180, 277, 292
Synthetic gas, 70 Transportation
capacity, 23, 101, 119
or storage needs, 174
T procedures, 103
TAR, 86, 166, 281 Tritium, 95
Tar sands, 86
TCE, 7, 9
Technical potential, 25–26, 28, 59, 62–63 U
Technology used, 2, 280, 301–302, Ultraviolet radiations, 274, 340
315, 318 Unidentified risk, 17
Temperature interval, 139 Unidirectional, 294–295
Tension efficiency, 259 Uniformly covered sky, 340
Theoretical available potential, 25 Unlimited duration, 30
Theoretical potential, 25, 28, 53, 58–59, 62–63 Unsustainable increase, 17
Thermal energy, 2–4, 6, 10, 13, 20, 26, 30, 52, Upwind, 192
56, 61, 99, 158, 182, 213, 218, 221, Uranium, 6, 9, 56, 93–96
231, 240, 248–249, 251, 259, 261, Useful effect, 1–2, 13, 20–22, 99, 175–176,
269, 277, 283, 300–301, 309, 316, 262, 264, 266, 300–301, 321–322,
319, 321, 323–325, 328 326, 345, 347–350
Thermal insulation, 102, 240, 242, 270,
313, 327
Thermal loss coefficient, 244 V
Thermal radiation, 241, 338 Van der Waals, 146–147
Thermal radiators, 22 Van’t Hoff equation, 153
Thermal regeneration, 206–207, 210, 213 Vapour-dominated, 57
Thermal removal factor, 244 Verifiable reserves, 26
Thermal solar plants, 240 Vertical axis turbines, 192
Thermal use, 305, 350 Virtual power plants, 296
Thermochemical decomposition, 282 Volatile matter, 54, 68–69
Thermodynamic cycle, 211, 236, 261–264, Volcanic zones, 58
302, 347
Thermoelectric plants, 2, 22, 182, 190, 218,
252, 292 W
Thermoelectric power plants, 2 Waste
Thermolysis, 182, 251–253 disposal, 14–15, 17, 60
Tidal power, 61 formation, 14, 18
Tides, 5, 9, 29, 61 heat, 2, 333
Tilt, 33–37, 196, 201–202 Water
Times of cultivation, 54 capacity, 25
Tip speed ratio, 193 cycle on Earth, 37
TOE, 7, 9, 50 Water gas conversion reaction, 278, 281
Ton of coal equivalent, 7 Water-dominated, 57
Ton of oil equivalent, 7, 79 Watt peak, 199
Topper, 219 Wave energy, 61
Topping Atmospheric Residue, 281 Wavelengths, 31, 241–242, 266–267, 271, 337
Tractor kerosene, 112 Weirs, 181
Transfer Well to use, 22
in long range, 101 Wien’s Law, 26, 241, 267
in medium range, 100 Wind
in short range, 100 energy, 1, 5, 9, 41–42, 46, 59, 299,
Transformation and conversion processes, 1, 324, 326, 333
179, 277 map, 46
362 Index
W (cont.) Z
power plants, 41, 180, 182, 191–192 Zenith, 31, 199
speed, 25, 28, 43, 46, 50, 193–196, 244 Zero
Wood, 9, 13, 51–52, 54, 73, 166, 217 consumption, 13, 18
Working voltage, 128 emission vehicles, 234
World coal reserves, 71 emissions, 176, 346
waste, 13–14, 18
ZEV, 234
X
Xenon, 270–271
Y
Yaw, 192, 196
Yield (potential annual production
capacity), 54

Energy Vectors

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Green Energy and Technology

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Energy Systems in the Era

ISSN 1865-3529 e-ISSN 1865-3537

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Ó Springer-Verlag London Limited 2012

Cover design: eStudio Calamar, Berlin/Figueres

Printed on acid-free paper

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2.4.3 Tar Sands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3 Energy Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 97

4 Energy Conversion and Transformation Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 179

4.2.7 Electric Power-to-Chemical Energy

5 Distributed Generation and Cogeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

6 Energy Useful Effect and End Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

1.1 The Energy Cycle

F. Orecchini and V. Naso, Energy Systems in the Era of Energy Vectors, 1

Fig. 1.1 General reference

1.1.2 Energy and Power: Natural Forms of Energy

Energy, according to the most widespread definition, is the capacity of a system to do

1.1.2.1 Chemical Energy

1.1.2.2 Electric Power

Fig. 1.2 Water stored in a

1.1.2.3 Electromagnetic Energy

Linked to the interaction between electric and magnetic fields, it is a kind of

1.1.2.4 Mechanical Energy

Potential and Pressure Mechanical Energy

Kinetic Mechanic Energy

It is linked to the movement of bodies (solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies); it is

1.1.2.5 Nuclear Energy

1.1.2.6 Thermal Energy

1.1.3 Units of Measurement in Energy Systems

Table 1.1 Main units of Magnitude Unit of measurement

Owing to its marked interdisciplinary character, as well as to the huge range of

The use of so many units of measurement is due to the variety of energy

1.1.4 Energy Availability in Nature

Table 1.3 Comparative Energy phenomenon Energy (J)

Table 1.4 Conversion factors of the main energy units of measurement

Table 1.5 Conversion of the units of measurement relating to calorific values

Fig. 1.3 Global energy balance of the earth [1]

1.1.5 Classification of Energy Sources

1.1.5.1 Primary Energy Sources

In the field of energetics, different subdivisions of primary sources have been

Fig. 1.4 Classification of primary energy sources

source is practically destined to the production of electric power alone (electro-

1.2 Closed Cycles of Energy Resources

1.2.1 The ‘‘Measurable’’ Definition of Sustainability

1.2.1.1 Open Cycles, Closed Cycles and a New Definition

A New Definition of Sustainable Development

Several statements are commonly quoted for defining sustainable development.

The trinomial ‘‘resource, use, re-generation’’, as opposed to the current model

The Application to Energy Systems

Radioactive materials ! Enriched materials ! Nuclear power production

Closed Cycles of Energy Resources

1.2.2 The Earth, as an ‘‘Open’’ Energy System, Allows

1.3 Energy Systems

What is an energy system?

Fig. 1.5 Elementary (or simple) energy system/theoretical

INTERACTION WITH NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Fig. 1.6 Simple energy system/real