MUSKAN JOSHI

210182
ASSIGNMENT: HISTORY OF INDIA IV
THE IQTA SYSTEM

Mohammad Habib in his writing stated that the Turkish conquest led to extensive societal and
economic changes. Literally the word iqta means a portion. Under the Abbasids Caliphate, land
grants were given to the memers of abbasid family, important courtiers and officials as a reward
for supporting the Abbasids. When the turks conquered the country, they divided into several
tracts called iqtas. The iqta was a territorial assignment to leading Turkish nobles called muqtis
or walis. The muqti was responsible for collecting tax revenue from the peasants, in the case of
profiteering the sultan had the power to take away the muqtis power. According to Nizamu'l
Mulk Tusi in his work Siyasatnama, the assignment of iqta was temporary to an officer in the
services of the sultan in lieu of his salary.

The tax income (Kharaj) from each iqta was estimated at a particular figure by the finance
department (Diwan-i-wizarat). The department remained on the constant look out for an
opportunity to enhance the estimate. Out of the estimated income of the iqta a certain amount
was allowed for the pay (mawajib) of the troops (hasham) placed under the muqti or wali. The
area expected to yield this amount was apparently set apart by the Diwan. The remainder was
treated as the muqti’s own personal iqta i.e. for his own salary and the expense of his personal
establishment of officials. He had to pay into the treasury all realization above the
amount allowed for the pay of the army and for his own income. The muqtis collected tax in
accordance with the sultan's order, he could increase or decrease the size of the iqta. The
revenue was used to fulfil certain obligations of the sultan, like maintaining the army, overseeing
the labour of the peasants, and providing security to the region. The muqti, thus, acted as a tax
collector, administrator and army paymaster all rolled into one.

No evidence suggests that the muqtis were to maintain a required number of troops. However,
according to Barani, each muqti was expected to raise one or three horsemen. Possibly in the
later 13th century, the importance of iqta was based on the number of horsemen maintained. For
example, according to Barani, Balban's slave -Malik Buqubuq had 4000 horsemen in his service.
Some muqtis achieved success by ensuring maximum prosperity. Balban was one such ruler who
brought prosperity to every territory conferred on him and when he first arrived at Hansi he
‘gave his attention to cultivation and the people derived contentment from the monuments of his
justice and the rays of his generosity.’

Before the Turkish invasion, India was ruled by Rajput feudal lords. The feudal system had
created a number of problems, it had led to the decentralization of power and proved to be
difficult to consolidate. The iqta system was a good turning point for the department, as there
was an autonomic central authority being formed.Iqta liquidated the feudal prder of Indian
society and linked the far flung parts of the empire with the centre. During Iltutmish period the
practice of transferring muqtis from one iqta to another was introduced. The iqtas were
temporary, they were given transferable property for a time period of 2-3 years so that there is no
concentration of power in one hand for a more extended period of time. This prevented
mobilisation among the population who could potentially rebel against the Sultan. With the
accession of new rulers to the throne, the distributive system of iqta went through changes. The
time period of tenure and the size greatly varied.

With the establishment of the Sultanate, these autonomous principalities evolved into real iqtas.
A new tradition of granting iqtas in lieu of salary had started. Iltutmish assigned village iqtas to
the cavalry soldiers. This practice continued even in the Balban period. Andre Wink in his
writing mentioned how iqta was able to integrate the political and fiscal space between the
frontier mode of organization and the sedentary mode of organization.

Mawardi refers to two types pf iqtas: 1) Iqta-i-tamlik and 2)Iqta-i-istighlal. The former refered to
uncultivated but cultivable wasteland with an objective to expand cultivation.. The latter related
to stipends, it was given to those who agreed to pay the centre fix sum of money in return for the
right to tax the peasantry.
All iqta assignments were inevitably of two types, big and small. The smaller assignments didnt
not have any financial liability or administrative duties to the central treasury. They were allowed
to receive revenue of some portions of land to maintain and army. The larger iqtas were given to
men of position. It carried administrative responsibility and assignee were to maintain law and
order, they were to help the centre in times of emergency.

The land that was not given as iqtas by the sultan, directly collected the land revenue for the
royal treasury.This land is known as khalisa. The sultans also enlarged their khalisa.In Delhi, the
surrounding districts including the doab were under Sultan's khalisa. Balban appointed
accountants along with muqti to keep a track of transactions taking place within the iqta.
Under Alauddin Khalji's rule, the khalisa covered the whole of middle Doab and parts of
Rohilkhand. During this time, the empire expanded and new areas were divided into iqtas. He
tried to limit the role of iqtas in the sultanate revenue system. The system of paying the Sultan's
cavalry soldiers in the form of iqta was abolished and they were paid in cash. There was an
increased intervention of the state and new measures of land assessment, due to which the iqtas
and the collection of revenue were maintained by the muqtis.

The finance department estimated a particular amount earned by tax revenue from each iqta. Out
of this amount, a certain percentage was given to the troops as payment by the muqti. The
remainder was used by the muqti's personal expenses and officials. Any surplus remaining above
the fixed salary was deposited to the treasury. The sultan had imposed strict measures in case of
fraud receipts, including imprisonment and physical torture.

Firuz Tughluq abandoned the project of his predecessor and wrote off all the loans extended by
the sultanate during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq. Instead, he sought to give fiscal
concessions; abolished agrarian cesses and forbade the levy of house and cattle taxes. However,
these taxes were replaced by new taxes. Earlier, the land tax was indifferently called jizyah and
no separate tax in the name of jizyah was levied in addition to the land tax. However, from his
reign onwards the jizyah was levied as a distinct tax on the non-muslim peasantry.
Revenue allocations to military leaders and personnel were extremely important during his reign.
There was an increase in the salaries of the nobles. He not only increased the part of the iqta set
aside for their own income, but he also set the revenue they would pay. Under his rule, the
Khalisa land was substantially diminished, and the notion of inheritance in the context of land
revenue allocation became immensely popular.Iqta was made hereditary during Firoz Tughlaq’s
reign. It was no longer the Sultan but local provincial or hereditary leaders who were collecting
them now.

During the reign of the Lodhis, the term iqta was replaced by 'sarkar's' and 'pargans'. Both were
territorial divisions in which each sarkar comprised a number of pargans. A noble was assigned a
sarkar who was given an estimated revenue which was to be utilised for the military and other
obligations by the noble. The chief beneficiary under Sikandar Lodhi, sub-assigned some portion
of their land to their subordinates.

This was the period where the iqta assignment was made on a large scale even on a tribal and
clan basis. These assignees had become de jure rulers of their territories and aspired for the
throne as well.

CONCLUSION

The Sultanate period was one of territorial expansion and consolidation throughout the 13th and
14th centuries. They faced administrative problems in faraway areas. However, the Turks
introduced the idea iqtas which made the administration centralised. The empire was divided into
several iqtas of varying sizes. It was a revenue-generating system by the appropriation of the
peasantry and distributing it among the ruling class. These tracts of land were assigned to the
nobles and officers in order to have an easy administrator as well as revenue collection. There
was no evidence of private ownership, all forms of tenure were according to the king's pleasure.
Thus, the iqta system introduced an agrarian system to the country while the ruling class
generated income without any attachment to any territory.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1)Cambridge economic history of India - Irfan Habib

2)Al-Hind (Volume II) - Andre Wink

3)The Delhi Sultanate – Peter Jackson

4)Agrarian System Of Muslim India- W.H Moreland

5) IGNOU

6)Class notes