LECTURE NOTES

Engineering Mathematics-I

Course Code: MA101

Jamkhongam Touthang
Assistant Professor
Department of Applied Mathematics
Delhi Technological University
Delhi-110042
 MA101 Mathematics-I

Syllabus: MA101 Mathematics-I

Unit-I. Infinite series: Test for convergence of series (Comparison, Ratio, Root,
Integral Test, Raabe’s, Logarithmic), Alternating series, Absolute convergence,
Conditional convergence.
Unit-II. Differential and Integral Calculus of a single variable: Taylor’s &
Maclaurin’s expansion, Radius of curvature, Tracing of some standard curves,
Applications of definite integral to Area, Arc length, Surface Area and Volume
(in cartesian, parametric and polar coordinates).
Unit-III. Calculus of several variables: Partial differentiation, Euler’s theo-
rem, total differential, Taylor’s theorem, Maxima-Minima, Lagrange’s method
of multipliers, Application in estimation of error and approximation.
Unit-IV. Mutiple Integrals: Double integral (Cartesian and polar co-ordinates),
Change of order of integration, Triple integrals (Cartesian, Cylindrical and
Spherical co-ordinates), Beta and Gamma functions, Applications of multiple
integration in area and volume.
Unit-V. Vector Differential Calculus: Continuity and differentiability of vector
functions, Scalar and Vector point function, Gradient, Directional derivative,
Divergence, Curl and their applications.
Unit-VI. Vector Integral Calculus: Line integral, surface integral and volume
integral, applications to work done by the force, applications of Green’s, Stoke’s
and Gauss divergence theorems.

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Unit-IV

Vector Functions
If a vector ~r varies continuously as a scalar variable t changes, then ~r is called
a vector function of t and is written ~r(t). Thus, a vector function is simply
a function whose co-domain is Rn . It takes on vector values rather than real
values.
Suppose ~r : R → R3 . In this case, we may write ~r(t) = hf (t), g(t), h(t)i or
~r(t) = f (t)î + g(t)ĵ + h(t)k̂ or ~r(t) = f (t)ı̂ + g(t)̂ + h(t)k̂.
The functions f (t), g(t) and h(t) are called the component functions and the
independent variable t the parameter.
Real-valued functions are referred to as scalar functions to distinguish them
from vector functions. The components of a vector function are scalar functions
of t.

Continuity and Differentiability of Vector Functions

We write lim ~r(t) = ~r0 if for every  > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that |~r(t)−~r0 | <
t→t0
 whenever 0 < |t − t0 | < δ.
In fact, lim hf (t), g(t)i = h lim f (t), lim g(t)i.
t→t0 t→t0 t→t0

A vector function ~r(t) is continuous at t0 if lim ~r(t) = ~r(t0 ).

t→t0

d~r
The derivative of a vector function ~r(t), denoted by ~r0 (t) or , is defined as
dt
d~r ~r(t + h) − ~r(t)
= lim
dt h→0 h
provided the limit exists.
In practice, if ~r(t) = hf (t), g(t)i, then ~r0 (t) = hf 0 (t), g 0 (t)i.

Types of products
For a scalar function φ and vector functions f~, ~g of a scalar variable t, we can
define different products.
Scalar multiplication φf~ which yields a vector. Scalar or dot product f~.~g which
yields a scalar. Vector or cross product f~ × ~g which yields a vector.

Rules of differentiation
If φ is a scalar function and f~, ~g , ~h vector functions of a scalar variable t, then

d ~ df~ d~g
(i) (f + ~g ) = +
dt dt dt

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d ~ df~ d~g
(ii) (f − ~g ) = −
dt dt dt
d ~ df~ dφ ~
(iii) (φf ) = φ + f
dt dt dt
d ~ d~g df~
(iv) (f .~g ) = f~. + .~g
dt dt dt
d ~ d~g df~
(v) (f × ~g ) = f~ × + × ~g
dt dt dt
" #   " #
d ~ ~ df~ ~ ~ d~g ~ ~ d~h
(vi) [f ~g h] = ~g h + f h + f ~g
dt dt dt dt
!
df~ d~h
 
d h ~ ~
i
~ ~ d~g
(vii) (f × ~g ) × h = × ~g × h + f × × ~h + (f~ × ~g ) ×
dt dt dt dt

d~r
Remarks. If ~r(t) has a constant magnitude, then ~r. = 0. If ~r(t) has a
dt
d~r ~
constant (fixed) direction, then ~r × = 0.
dt
Examples
1. If f~ = 3t2 î + tĵ − t4 k̂, ~g = sin tî − cos tĵ, then

d ~ d~g df~
(f . ~g ) = f~. + .~g
dt dt dt
= (3t2 î + tĵ − t4 k̂).(cos t~i + sin t~j) + (6t~i + ~j − 4t3~k).(sin tî − cos tĵ)
= 3t2 cos t + t sin t + 6t sin t − cos t
= 3t2 cos t + 7t sin t − cos t

and

d ~ d~g df~
(f × ~g ) = f~ × + × ~g
dt dt dt
= (3t2 î + tĵ − t4 k̂) × (cos tî + sin tĵ) + (6tî + ĵ − 4t3 k̂) × (sin tî − cos tĵ)
= 3t2 sin tk̂ + t cos t(−k̂) − t4 cos tĵ − t4 sin t(−î) + 6t cos tk̂ + sin t(−î) − 4t3 sin tĵ − 4t3 cos t(−î)
= (t4 sin t − sin t + 4t3 cos t)î − (t4 cos t + 4t3 sin t)ĵ + (3t3 sin t − t cos t + 6t cos t)k̂

d ~
One may compute (f × ~g ) using
dt
     
d  î ĵ k̂
   î ĵ k̂   î ĵ k̂ 
d ~  
 =  f0
  
(f × ~g ) = f1 f 2 f3   1 f20 f30  +  f1 f2 f3 
dt dt   
  g0

g1 g2 g3   g1 g2 g3 1 g20 g30 

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where f~ = f1 î + f2 ĵ + f3 k̂ and ~g = g1 î + g2 ĵ + g3 k̂.

2. If ~r = ~a cos ωt + ~b sin ωt, where ~a and ~b are any constant noncollinear vectors
and ω is a constant scalar, show that
d~r d2~r
(i) ~r × = ω(~a × ~b), (ii) 2 + ω 2~r = ~0.
dt dt
Scalar and Vector Point Functions
Let R be a region in space. If to each point of R there corresponds a definite
scalar φ = φ(x, y, z), then φ is called a scalar point function in R. The region
R so defined is called a scalar field.
If to each point of a region R in space, there corresponds a definite vector
~r = ~r(x, y, z), then ~r is called a vector point function in R. The region R so
defined is called a vector field.

Vector differential operator ∇

The vector differential operator ∇ is defined as
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ≡ î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
and is called del or nabla.

Gradient
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
Let φ = φ(x, y, z) be a scalar point function. The vector î + ĵ + k̂ is
∂x ∂y ∂z
called the gradient of the scalar point function φ and is denoted by grad φ.
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
Thus, grad φ = ∇φ = î + ĵ + k̂.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Geometrically, ∇f is a vector normal to the surface f (x, y, z) = α (a constant)
and has a magnitude equal to the rate of change of f along this normal.

Directional Derivative
The directional derivative of a scalar point function f , in the direction of a
vector ~v , is given by
df ~v
D~v f = = ∇f .
dr |~v |

It is the rate of change of a scalar point function f in the direction of a unit

vector. ∇f gives the maximum rate of change of f . Thus, the maximum value
of the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) = c, in a direction of ~v is |∇f |. Partial
derivatives may be considered as special cases of directional derivatives. For
example, the partial x-derivative is the directional derivative in the direction of
the unit vector î.

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Examples
1. If (i) f (x, y, z) = x3 + y 3 + 3xyz, (ii) f (x, y, z) = log (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ), then
∂f ∂f ∂f
(i) ∇f = î + ĵ + k̂ = (3x2 + 3yz)î + (3y 2 + 3xz)ĵ + 3xy k̂.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f 2x 2y 2z
(ii) ∇f = î+ ĵ + k̂ = 2 î+ 2 ĵ + 2 k̂.
∂x ∂y ∂z x + y2 + z2 x + y2 + z2 x + y2 + z2

2. Find a unit vector normal to the surface 3xy 2 − 2x2 z + yz 2 = 1 at (1, −1, 3).

A vector normal to the given surface is

 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇(3xy 2 − 2x2 z + yz 2 ) = î + ĵ + k̂ (3xy 2 − 2x2 z + yz 2 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂
= î (3xy 2 − 2x2 z + yz 2 ) + ĵ (3xy 2 − 2x2 z + yz 2 )
∂x ∂y
∂
+ k̂ (3xy 2 − 2x2 z + yz 2 )
∂z
= (3y 2 − 4xz)î + (6xy + z 2 )ĵ + (−2x2 + 2yz)k̂
= −9î + 3ĵ − 8k̂ at the point (1, −1, 3).

Hence, the required unit normal vector is

−9î + 3ĵ − 8k̂ 1

p =√ (−9î + 3ĵ − 8k̂).
2 2
(−9) + 3 + (−8) 2 154

3. To compute the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) = xy 2 + yz 3 at (2, −1, 1)

in the direction of î + 2ĵ + 2k̂, we have
 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇f = î + ĵ + k̂ (xy 2 + yz 3 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= y 2 î + (2xy 2 + z 3 )ĵ + 3yz 2 k̂

∇f at (2, −1, 1) is î − 3ĵ − 3k̂.

Hence, the directional derivative of f in the direction of ~v = î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ is

~v î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ −11

∇f. = (î − 3ĵ − 3k̂). √ =
|~v | 1+4+4 3

4. Find the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) = 2xy + z 2 at (1, −1, 3) in the

direction of î + 2ĵ + 2k̂.
5. In what direction from (3, 1, −2) is the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) =
x2 y 2 z 4 maximum and what is its magnitude?

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The directional derivative of f is maximum in the direction of ∇f .

We have,

∇f = 2xy 2 z 4 î + 2x2 yz 4 ĵ + 4x2 y 2 z 3 k̂

and (∇f )(3,1,−2) = 96î + 288ĵ − 288k̂.

Thus, at (3, 1, −2) the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) = x2 y 2 z 4 is maximum

√
in the direction of 96î + 288ĵ − 288k̂. Also the maximum value is |∇f | = 96 19.

6. Show that ∇rn = nrn−2~r, where ~r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ and r = |~r|.

We have,

r = |~r| = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 so that rn = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )n/2 = f (say).

Then
∂f n
= (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )(n−2)/2 .2x = nxrn−2
∂x 2
∂f ∂f
Similarly, = nyrn−2 and = nzrn−2 .
∂y ∂z
Therefore,
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇rn = ∇f = î + ĵ + k̂ = nrn−2 (xî + y ĵ + z k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= nrn−2~r.

7. If u = x + y + z, v = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , w = yz + zx + xy, prove that ∇u, ∇v and

∇w are coplanar.
Hint. The vectors ∇u, ∇v and ∇w are coplanar if their scalar triple product
[∇u, ∇v, ∇w] is zero. Recall that the scalar triple product of three vectors
~a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂, ~b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ and ~c = c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂ is given by
 
a1 a2 a3 
[~a, ~b, ~c] =  b1 b2 b3 .
 
 c1 c2 c3 

8. Find the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) = x2 yz + 4xz 2 at (1, −3, 1) in the

direction of the vector 2î − ĵ + 3k̂.
9. Find a unit vector normal to the surface x3 + y 3 + z 3 + 3xyz = 3 at the point
(1, 1, −2).
~r
10. Show that ∇(1/r) = − , where ~r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ and r = |~r|.
r3

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Divergence and Curl

Let f~ be a continuously differentiable vector point function. The divergence of
f~ is defined by
 
∂ ∂ ∂
divf~ = ∇.f~ = î + ĵ + k̂ .f~
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ f~ ∂ f~ ∂ f~
= î. + ĵ. + k̂.
∂x ∂y ∂z

and the curl of f~ is defined by

 
∂ ∂ ∂
curlf~ = ∇ × f~ = î
+ ĵ + k̂ × f~
∂x ∂y ∂z
~
∂f ~
∂f ∂f ~
= î × + ĵ × + k̂ ×
∂x ∂y ∂z

If f~ = f1 î + f2 ĵ + f3 k̂, then
 
~ ∂ ∂ ∂
curl f = î + ĵ + k̂ × (f1 î + f2 ĵ + f3 k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
 î ĵ k̂ 

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
=  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 f1 f2 f3 
     
∂f3 ∂f2 ∂f3 ∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f1
= − î − − ĵ + − k̂
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
     
∂f3 ∂f2 ∂f1 ∂f3 ∂f2 ∂f1
= − î + − ĵ + − k̂
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

The divergence of a vector field measures its tendency to diverge (positive di-
vergence) or converge (negative divergence). The curl of a vector field measures
its tendency to rotate. A vector field f~ is said to be solenoidal if div f~ = 0 and
is irrotational if curl f~ = ~0.

Laplacian Operator
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
The Laplacian operator, denoted ∇2 , is defined by ∇2 = + + and
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∇2 f = 0 is referred to as the Laplace equation.

Del Identities
Suppose φ and ψ are scalar functions, and f~ and ~g are vector functions.

1. grad (φψ) = φ(grad ψ) + ψ(grad φ) i.e., ∇(φψ) = φ∇ψ + ψ∇φ

2. div (φf~) = (grad φ).f~ + φ(div f~) i.e., ∇(φf~) = ∇φ.f~ + φ∇.f~

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3. curl (φf~) = (grad φ) × f~ + φ(curl f~) i.e., ∇ × (φf~) = ∇φ × f~ + φ∇ × f~

~g ) = (f~.∇)~g + (~g .∇)f~ + f~ × curl ~g + ~g × curl f~
4. grad (f~
~g ) = (f~.∇)~g + (~g .∇)f~ + f~ × (∇ × ~g ) + ~g × (∇ × f~)
i.e., ∇ (f~
5. div (f~ × ~g ) = ~g .(curl f~) − f~(curl ~g ) i.e., ∇.(f~ × ~g ) = ~g .(∇ × f~) − f~.(∇ × ~g )
6. curl (f~ × ~g ) = f~(div ~g ) − ~g (div f~) + (~g .∇)f~ − (f~.∇)~g
i.e., ∇ × (f~ × ~g ) = f~(∇.~g ) − ~g (∇.f~) + (~g .∇)f~ − (f~.∇)~g
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f
7. div grad f = ∇2 f = + +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
8. curl grad f = ∇ × ∇f = ~0
9. div curl f~ = ∇.∇ × f~ = 0
10. curl curl f~ = grad div f~ − ∇2 f~ i.e., ∇ × (∇ × f~) = ∇(∇.f~) − ∇2 f~
11. grad div f~ = curl curl f~ + ∇2 f~ i.e., ∇(∇.f~) = ∇ × (∇ × f~) + ∇2 f~
Proof. Left as exercises.
Remarks. (i) ∇.∇f = ∇2 f since ∇.∇ = ∇2 , (ii) ∇ × ∇f = ~0 since ∇ × ∇ =
~0,(iii) ∇.∇ × f~ = ~0 since [∇∇f~] = 0, (iv) ∇ × (∇ × f~) = ∇(∇.f~) − ∇2 f~ (using
vector triple product).

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Examples
1. If ~r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, then
 
∂ ∂ ∂
div ~r = ∇.~r = î + ĵ + k̂ .(xî + y ĵ + z k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (x) + (y) + (z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
=3
 
∂ ∂ ∂
and curl ~r = ∇ × ~r = î + ĵ + k̂ × (xî + y ĵ + z k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
 î ĵ k̂ 

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
=  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 x y z 
     
∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x
= − î + − ĵ + − k̂
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
= 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂
= ~0.

2. If f (x, y, z) = x2 yz and ~r = xz î − y 2 ĵ + 2x2 y k̂, then

 
∂f ∂f ∂f
gradf = ∇f = î + ĵ + k̂ = 2xyz î + x2 z ĵ + x2 y k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂ ∂ ∂
div ~r = ∇.~r = î + ĵ + k̂ .(xz î − y 2 ĵ + 2x2 y k̂) = z − 2y
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂ ∂ ∂
curl ~r = ∇ × ~r = î + ĵ + k̂ × (xz î − y 2 ĵ + 2x2 y k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
 î ĵ k̂ 

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
= 
 ∂x ∂y2 ∂z 
 xz −y 2x2 y 
     
∂ 2 ∂y 2 ∂ ∂ 2 ∂ 2 ∂
= (2x y) − (−y ) î + (xz) − (2x y) ĵ + (−y ) − (xz) k̂
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
= 2x2 î + (x − 4xy)ĵ
 
∂ ∂ ∂
div(f~r) = ∇.(f~r) = î + ĵ + k̂ .(x3 yz 2 î − x2 y 3 z ĵ + 2x4 y 2 z k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 3 2 ∂ 2 3 ∂
= (x yz ) − (x y z) + (2x4 y 2 z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 3x2 yz 2 − 3x2 y 2 z + 2x4 y 2

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∂ ∂ ∂
curl(f~r) = ∇ × (f~r) = î + ĵ + k̂ × (x3 yz 2 î − x2 y 3 z ĵ + 2x4 y 2 z k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 

 î ĵ k̂ 

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
=  
 3∂x 2 ∂y ∂z 
 x yz −x2 y 3 z 2x4 y 2 z 
   
∂ ∂y ∂ 3 2 ∂
= (2x4 y 2 z) − (−x2 y 3 z) î + (x yz ) − (2x4 y 2 z) ĵ
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
 
∂ ∂ 3 2
+ (−x2 y 3 z) − (x yz ) k̂
∂x ∂y
= (4x4 yz + x2 y 3 )î + (2x3 yz − 8x3 y 2 z)ĵ + (−2xy 3 z − x3 y 2 )k̂

3. Prove that (i) div curl ~r=0, (ii) div(f~r)=(gradf ).~r+f (div ~r) if f is a scalar
function and ~r = r1 î + r2 ĵ + r3 k̂.
(i) We have
 
 î ĵ k̂ 

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
div curl ~r = ∇.(∇ × ~r) = ∇. 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 r1 r2 r3 
      
∂r3 ∂r2 ∂r1 ∂r3 ∂r2 ∂r1
= ∇. − î + − ĵ + − k̂
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
     
∂ ∂r3 ∂r2 ∂ ∂r1 ∂r3 ∂ ∂r2 ∂r1
= − + − + −
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
2 2 2 2 2 2
∂ r3 ∂ r2 ∂ r1 ∂ r3 ∂ r2 ∂ r1
= − + − + −
∂x∂y ∂x∂z ∂y∂z ∂y∂x ∂z∂x ∂z∂y
=0

assuming that ~r has continuous second order partial derivatives so that

∂ 2 r3 ∂ 2 r3 ∂ 2 r1 ∂ 2 r1 ∂ 2 r2 ∂ 2 r2
= , = and = .
∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂y∂z ∂z∂y ∂x∂z ∂z∂x

(ii) We have,
 
∂ ∂ ∂
div (f~r) = î + ĵ + k̂ .(f r1 î + f r2 ĵ + f r3 k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= (f r1 ) + (f r2 ) + (f r3 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂r1 ∂r2 ∂r3
= r1 + r2 + r3 + f + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

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∂f ∂f ∂f
div (f~r) = î + ĵ + k̂ .(r1 î + r2 ĵ + r3 k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂ ∂ ∂
+f î + ĵ + k̂ .(r1 î + r2 ĵ + r3 k̂)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= (∇f ).~r + f (∇.~r) = (grad f ).~r + f (div ~r)

4. Prove that div (rn~r) = (n + 3)rn , if ~r = xı̂ + y̂ + z k̂ and r = |~r|. Hence
show that ~r/r3 is solenoidal.
5. Prove that div (grad rn ) = ∇2 (rn ) = n(n + 1)rn−2 .
6. Prove that f~ × ~g is solenoidal if f~ and ~g are solenoidal.
7. Prove that ∇f is a vector perpendicular to the surface f (x, y, z) = α, where
α is a constant.
8. If φ = xy + yz + zx and ~r = x2 y î + y 2 z ĵ + z 2 x k̂, find (i) ~r.∇φ,
(ii) φ∇.~r, (iii) (∇φ) × ~r at the point (1, −1, 2).
9. Find the divergence of
(i) ~r = e2x cos 2y î+e2x sin 2y ĵ +5e2z k̂, (ii) ~r = (x2 +y 2 ) î+2xyz ĵ +(z 2 +x2 ) k̂
10. Find the curl of
(i) ~r = ex cos y î + ex sin y ĵ, (ii) ~r = sin y î + cos z ĵ − tan x k̂

Note: Solutions to unsolved problems would be either solved in the classes or

left as exercises. Use this material as supplementary to class lectures.

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