What Is RAM?

RAM stands for Random Access Memory, and it gives computers

the virtual space needed to manage information and solve problems
in the moment.

RAM comes in a variety of shapes (i.e. the way it physically

connects to or interfaces with computing systems), capacities
(measured in MB or GB), speeds (measured in MHz or GHz), and
architectures. These and other aspects are important to consider
when upgrading systems with RAM, as computer systems (e.g.
hardware, motherboards) have to adhere to strict compatibility
guidelines.

Although all RAM basically serves the same purpose, there are a
few different types commonly in use today:

• Static RAM (SRAM)

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDRAM)
• Single Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDR SDRAM)
• Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM (DDR
SDRAM, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4)
• Graphics Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM
(GDDR SDRAM, GDDR2, GDDR3, GDDR4, GDDR5)
• Flash Memory

Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDRAM)

• Time in market: 1993 to present

• Popular products using SDRAM: Computer memory, video
game consoles

SDRAM is a classification of DRAM that operates in sync with the

CPU clock, which means that it waits for the clock signal before
responding to data input (e.g. user interface). By contrast, DRAM is
asynchronous, which means it responds immediately to data input.
But the benefit of synchronous operation is that a CPU can process
overlapping instructions in parallel, also known as ‘pipelining’—the
ability to receive (read) a new instruction before the previous
instruction has been fully resolved (write).

Although pipelining doesn’t affect the time it takes to process

instructions, it does allow more instructions to be completed
simultaneously. Processing one read and one write instruction per
clock cycle results in higher overall CPU transfer/performance rates.
SDRAM supports pipelining due to the way its memory is divided
into separate banks, which is what led to its widespread preference
over basic DRAM.

DDR
DDR stands for Double Data Rate. It is a technique in computing
with which a computer bus transfers data at double the rate sending
data at rising and falling edges of a clock cycle. This method allows
for sending 2 signals per clock cycle.

The simplest way to design an electronic circuit is to make it

perform one transfer per clock cycle (SDR technique uses this). This
requires the clock signal to change twice per cycle. When operating
at high bandwidth, signal integrity limitations constrain the clock
frequency. By using both edges of the clock, the data signals operate
with the same limiting frequency but doubling the total transmitted
data. It was an improved version of SDRAM which uses an SDR
technique for data transmission.
This technique was an improvement over its predecessor SDR
(single data rate) and has been succeeded by an improved version
named QDR (quad data rate). A double data rate clock cycle looks as
follows:-
Characteristics of DDR:
• Transmits data twice per cycle (wave/clock), firstly at the
the rising edge and tehn at falling edges of a clock cycle
• Each clock cycle has a unidirectional flow of data
• DDR SDRAM technology consumes less power than older
SDRAM modules, which expanded 3.3 volts compared to
DDR SDRAM’s 2.6 volts.
• DDR operates at same frequency as the clock cycle.
Advantages of DDR:
• Higher levels of transmission speeds are obtained
• Reduces the number of cycles required to perform a task
• Reduces the component cost required
• Allows for smaller form factor computing devices
Disadvantages of DDR:
• Slower compared to QDR (quad data rate) technique
• Devices accommodating DDR technique produces more heat
Applications of DDR:
This technique has widespread acceptance in applications requiring
high data transfer speeds such as:
• The technique is used extensively in building Volatile
components for a computer (RAM) and is commonly
referred to as DDR SDRAM (double data rate synchronized
dynamic random access memory). The technique found a lot
of success in the field, due to which the same technique has
been implemented in later iterations of the technology under
the name DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM, DDR4 SDRAM.
 • The technique is used to incorporate volatile storage
capabilities in Graphics Processors (graphic cards) and is
known as GDDR (graphics double data rate). Which is a
technology tailored to work with video cards
• Used in analog-to-digital converters
• Used in the bus of certain microprocessors (AMD’s
Athlon64 series), allowing transmission of data at faster rate
to-from the CPU.
DDR2

DDR2 was introduced in 2003 and operates external data twice as fast
as DDR due to an improved bus signal. DDR2 operates on the same
internal clock speed as DDR, however the transfer rates are faster due
to the improved input/output bus signal. DDR2 has a 4-bit prefetch,
twice that of DDR. DDR2 can reach 533MT/s to 800MT/s.

DDR3

In 2007, DDR3 brought about a reduction in power consumption,

roughly 40% compared to DDR2 and double the prefetch data to 8-
bits. This reduce usage allows for lower operating currents and
voltages. DDR operates are about 2.5 V and DDR2 averages about
1.8 V, with DDR3 the voltage is reduced to 1.5 V. DDR3 has transfer
rates between 800MT/s and 1600MT/s.

DDR4

DDR4 is the latest generation (2014) of double data-rate random

access memory. It has the lowest operating voltage of 1.2 V and has
higher transfer rates than previous generations. DDR4 introduced
bank groups to avoid having a prefetch of 16, which is not desirable.
With bank groups, each group can execute 8-bits of data
independently from the other. This means DDR4 can process multiple
data requests within a clock cycle.

DDR4 transfer rates are continually rising, DDR4 modules can reach
speeds 5100MT/s and even higher when overclocked. Crucial
Ballistix MAX modules broke numerous overclocking world records
in 2020.
DDR5
DDR5 memory (2021) marks a revolutionary jump in architecture for
better channel efficiency, improved power management, and
optimized performance to enable next-generation multi-core
computing systems. DDR5 launch speeds deliver nearly double the
bandwidth of DDR4. It also enables scaling memory performance
without degrading channel efficiency at higher speeds, not just during
testing, but under real-world conditions. Crucial DDR5 memory will
operate at 4800MT/s at launch, which is 1.5x the maximum standard
DDR4 speed.
Difference between single and 2 sided memory RAM

There is no difference in performance between single sided and

double sided memory. Single sided RAM has chips on only one side
of the PCB. Double sided has chips on both sides. The difference
between single-ranked and duel-ranked however is that they have
different bit-wide data areas.

Single Sided RAM Is referring to the Ram modules mounted only on

one side of the stick.
Double Sided RAM Is similar just that the RAM Modules are
mounted on both sides.
Single sided RAM usually do NOT exceed 512MB Whereas Double
Sided RAM normally cannot exceed 1GB.
Single Sided RAM Modules are thinner by a 1mm and there is one
side of the PCB which has no modules mounted on.

RAM Channels: The What

Simply put, memory channels are the links between your RAM
and your CPU through which data moves between the two. The
RAM is the computer’s short-term memory, and the CPU is the main
processor that does stuff with the information in the memory; the
RAM channels are how that information moves back and forth.
To be clear, these memory channels are actual wires that exist on/in
the motherboard. Though RAM kits may call their arrangements
“channels,” the actual number of channels and the number of RAM
sticks are independent of each other; any mention of channel count on
a RAM kit’s product/specification page is just an informal,
technically-incorrect way of referring to how many sticks of RAM
there are in the kit. In addition, the number of RAM slots on a
motherboard is independent of the number of memory channels. A
channel needs only one stick to be used, and any more than that
doesn’t necessarily stop things from working.
Most modern motherboards have two to four memory
channels. On the AMD side, every AM4 socket motherboard has two
memory channels, and every TR4 socket motherboard has four
channels. On Intel’s side, every LGA 1151 motherboard has two
memory channels, and every LGA 2066 motherboard has four
memorychannels. This means that, on our main chart, every
configuration up to and including the “Enthusiast” tier has two
memory channels. The “Extremist” and “Monstrous” tiers are the
only rows which have four memory channels.
In addition, CPUs also support a certain maximum amount of memory
channels. You don’t really need to worry about this, as every CPU
will handle the amount of memory channels available on their
supporting motherboards. There are only two notable exceptions:
Intel’s i5-7640X and i7-7740X, which are both LGA 2066 CPUs, and
very odd purchases anyway.

RAM FEATURES
Parity vs Non-Parity
Two methods have been used to protect the reliability of memory:
• Parity checking
• ECC (error-correcting code or error-correction code)
Both methods depend upon the presence of an additional memory
chip over the chips required for the data bus of the module. For
example, a module that uses eight chips for data would use a ninth
chip to support parity or ECC. If the module uses 16 chips for data
(two banks of eight), it would use the 17th and 18th chips for parity
(refer to Figure 4-2)

1. Unbuffered DIMM
2. Two groups of four (total eight)memory chips (no parity
chip)
3. Buffered (registered) DIMM with ECC
4. Eighteen memory chips (two banks of nine, including
parity chip)
5. Buffer chip
Parity checking, which goes back to the original IBM PC, works like
this: Whenever memory is accessed, each data bit has a value of 0 or
1. When these values are added to the value in the parity bit, the
resulting checksum should be an odd number. This is called odd
parity. A memory problem typically causes the data bit values plus
the parity bit value to total an even number. This triggers a parity
error, and your system halts with a parity error message. Note that
parity checking requires parity-enabled memory and support in the
motherboard. On modules that support parity checking, there’s a
parity bit for each group of eight bits.
The method used to fix this type of error varies with the system. On
museum-piece systems that use individual memory chips, you must
open the system, push all memory chips back into place, and test the
memory thoroughly if you have no spares (using memory-testing
software). Or you must replace the memory if you have spare memory
chips. If the computer uses memory modules, replace one module at a
time, test the memory (or at least run the computer for a while) to
determine whether the problem has gone away. If the problem recurs,
replace the original module, swap out the second module, and repeat.
Because parity checking “protects” you from bad memory by shutting
down the computer (which can cause you to lose data), vendors
created a better way to use the parity bits to solve memory errors
using a method called ECC.
ECC vs non-ECC Memory
For critical applications, network servers have long used a special
type of memory called error-correcting code (ECC). This memory
enables the system to correct single-bit errors and notify you of larger
errors.
Although most desktops do not support ECC, some workstations and
most servers do offer ECC support. On systems that offer ECC
support, ECC support might be enabled or disabled through the
system BIOS or it might be a standard feature. The parity bit in parity
memory is used by the ECC feature to determine when the content of
memory is corrupt and to fix single-bit errors. Unlike parity checking,
which only warns you of memory errors, ECC memory actually
corrects errors.
ECC is recommended for maximum data safety, although parity and
ECC do provide a small slowdown in performance in return for the
extra safety. ECC memory modules use the same types of memory
chips used by standard modules, but they use more chips and might
have a different internal design to allow ECC operation. ECC
modules, like parity-checked modules, have an extra bit for each
group of eight data bits.
To determine whether a system supports parity-checked or ECC
memory, check the system BIOS memory configuration (typically on
the Advanced or Chipset screens). Systems that support parity or ECC
memory can use non-parity checked memory when parity checking
and ECC are disabled. Another name for ECC is EDAC (Error
Detection and Correction).

SO-DIMM vs DIMM
Most desktop computers use full-sized memory modules known asDIMMs. However, laptop computers and
some small-footprint mini-ITX motherboards and systems use reduced-size memory modules known as
small outline DIMMs (SO-DIMMs or SODIMMS).

Figure 4-3 compares common DIMM and SODIMM modules.

Table 4-1 lists common DIMM and SODIMM form factors and their uses.

1. DDR2 SO-DIMM

2. DDR2 DIMM

3. DDR3 SO-DIMM

4. DDR3 DIMM
Parity vs Non-Parity
Two methods have been used to protect the reliability of memory:

• Parity checking

• ECC (error-correcting code or error-correction code)

Both methods depend upon the presence of an additional memory chip over the chips required for the data
bus of the module. For example, a module that uses eight chips for data would use a ninth chip to support
parity or ECC. If the module uses 16 chips for data (two banks of eight), it would use the 17th and 18th
chips for parity (refer to Figure 4-2).
Figure 4-2 A standard unbuffered module (top) compared to a buffered (registered) module with ECC
(bottom).

1. Unbuffered DIMM

2. Two groups of four (total eight)memory chips (no parity chip)

3. Buffered (registered) DIMM with ECC

4. Eighteen memory chips (two banks of nine, including parity chip)

5. Buffer chip

Parity checking, which goes back to the original IBM PC, works like this: Whenever memory is accessed,
each data bit has a value of 0 or 1. When these values are added to the value in the parity bit, the resulting
checksum should be an odd number. This is called odd parity. A memory problem typically causes the data
bit values plus the parity bit value to total an even number. This triggers a parity error, and your system
halts with a parity error message. Note that parity checking requires parity-enabled memory and support in
the motherboard. On modules that support parity checking, there’s a parity bit for each group of eight bits.

The method used to fix this type of error varies with the system. On museum-piece systems that use
individual memory chips, you must open the system, push all memory chips back into place, and test the
memory thoroughly if you have no spares (using memory-testing software). Or you must replace the
memory if you have spare memory chips. If the computer uses memory modules, replace one module at a
time, test the memory (or at least run the computer for a while) to determine whether the problem has gone
away. If the problem recurs, replace the original module, swap out the second module, and repeat.

Systems that lack parity checking freeze up when a memory problem occurs and do not display any
message onscreen.

Because parity checking “protects” you from bad memory by shutting down the computer (which can cause
you to lose data), vendors created a better way to use the parity bits to solve memory errors using a
method called ECC.

ECC vs non-ECC Memory

For critical applications, network servers have long used a special type of memory called error-correcting
code (ECC). This memory enables the system to correct single-bit errors and notify you of larger errors.

Although most desktops do not support ECC, some workstations and most servers do offer ECC support.
On systems that offer ECC support, ECC support might be enabled or disabled through the system BIOS
or it might be a standard feature. The parity bit in parity memory is used by the ECC feature to determine
when the content of memory is corrupt and to fix single-bit errors. Unlike parity checking, which only warns
you of memory errors, ECC memory actually corrects errors.

ECC is recommended for maximum data safety, although parity and ECC do provide a small slowdown in
performance in return for the extra safety. ECC memory modules use the same types of memory chips
used by standard modules, but they use more chips and might have a different internal design to allow
ECC operation. ECC modules, like parity-checked modules, have an extra bit for each group of eight data
bits.

To determine whether a system supports parity-checked or ECC memory, check the system BIOS memory
configuration (typically on the Advanced or Chipset screens). Systems that support parity or ECC memory
can use non-parity checked memory when parity checking and ECC are disabled. Another name for ECC is
EDAC (Error Detection and Correction).

SO-DIMM vs DIMM
Most desktop computers use full-sized memory modules known asDIMMs. However, laptop computers and
some small-footprint mini-ITX motherboards and systems use reduced-size memory modules known as
small outline DIMMs (SO-DIMMs or SODIMMS).

Figure 4-3 compares common DIMM and SODIMM modules.

Table 4-1 lists common DIMM and SODIMM form factors and their uses.
Figure 4-3 DDR2 SODIMM and DIMM modules compared to DDR3 SODIMM and DIMM modules.

1. DDR2 SO-DIMM

2. DDR2 DIMM

3. DDR3 SO-DIMM

4. DDR3 DIMM

Table 4-1 RAM Comparisons

RAM Type Pins Pins Common Type and Speed Defining Characteristic
(DIMM) (SODIMM)

DDR 184 2001

PC3200 = Double the transfers per clock cycle
SDRAM 400MHz/3200Mbps compared to regular SDRAM.

DDR2 240 2
2001
DDR2-800 (PC2-6400) = External data bus speed (I/O bus
SDRAM 800MHz/6400Mbps clock) is 2x faster than DDR SDRAM.

DDR3 240 2
204 DDR3-1333 (PC3-10600) External data bus speed (I/O bus
SDRAM = 1333MHz/10,600Mbps clock) is 2x faster than DDR2
SDRAM (4x faster than DDR
SDRAM).

DDR4 288 260 DDR4-2400 (PC4-19200)= External data bus speed (I/O bus
SDRAM *
2400MHz/19200Mbps clock) is 2x faster than DDR3
SDRAM (8x faster than DDR
SDRAM).

UniDIMM *3
— 260 DDR3 or DDR4 Designed for use with Intel Skylake
(6th generation Core i-series CPU);
memory controller on motherboard/
 processor must support both DDR3
and DDR4 memory

Some less-common SODIMM designs include:

• 214-pin MicroDIMM, used for DDR2 SDRAM

• 244-pin MiniDIMM, used for DDR2 SDRAM

SPDR CHIP
• What is an SPD chip?
• The SPD (Serial Presence Detect) chip on a memory module is an additional
chip holding 128Hex bytes of information about the module. This
identifies the module to the BIOS during POST so the Motherboard knows its
characteristics and timings that can be used. This was introduced at the same
time as SDRAM

Serial presence detect (SPD) is information stored on an EEPROM chip

when a computer is booted. It is located on an SDRAM memory module
and communicates to the BIOS the module size, data width, speed and
voltage, which are used to configure the module memory controller for
maximum reliability and performance.
The manufacturer of the memory module will put the SPD information on the
EEPROM chip. When a computer is turned on, if the BIOS is not provided with
SPD, it will assume the memory module information, which presents no problem
to some memory modules.

Mass Storage Device (MSD)

What Does Mass Storage Device (MSD) Mean?
A mass storage device (MSD) is any storage device that makes it possible
to store and port large amounts of data across computers, servers and
within an IT environment. MSDs are portable storage media that provide
a storage interface that can be both internal and external to the
computer.

A mass storage device may also be referred to as an auxiliary storage

device. The term is commonly used to describe USB mass storage
devices.

What Are the Different Types of

Mass Storage Devices?
Several different types of mass storage devices exist, including hard
drives, solid state drives, optical disks, floppy disks, flash drives, and
other pieces of technology such as MP3 players and secure digital (SD)
cards. Most types of storage devices can be used to store any type of
file, but the ones in MP3 players can only display certain types of file if
not connected to a computer. All of the mass storage devices require a
computer to function properly, because a computer is needed to move
files to and from the storage devices.

Hard drives are amongst the most common types of mass storage
devices. Most computers have a hard disk drive already built into them,
and they can offer a large amount of memory which can be accessed
easily by the user. Universal serial bus (USB) portable hard drives are
also available, which offer the storage of a hard drive in a more
transportable form. Most hard disk drives use magnetic discs which store
data as a magnetic pattern. Solid state drives are essentially an
alternative type of hard disk drive which work faster, more quietly, and
last for longer.
Working Principle of Hard Disk

Working Principle of Hard Disk

A hard disk is a storage device that makes use of the magnetization of

particles to save data on its surface. A hard disk is also known as a hard
drive. The data is stored in a hard disk drive in the form of a magnetic
pattern. The hard disk drive was invented by a team of people working at
the American computer manufacturing company known as IBM or
International Business Machines Corporation in the year 1956. Rey
Johnson led the team, which is why he is also known as the father of disk
drives. The first hard disk was launched by IBM on September 13, 1956.
Initially, the hard disk drives were capable of storing a limited amount of
data and were bulky in size; however, with improvisation in the technology
the data storing capacity of the drives was enhanced and the size of the
devices was effectively reduced. The maximum amount of data that a hard
disk drive is capable of storing to date is equal to 18 Terabytes. A hard disk
drive is capable of storing all types of data such as images, audio files, text
documents, etc. It can support the storage of a variety of file formats such
as jpeg, png, WAV, mp3, mp4, MKV, WEBM, and many more. Hard disk
drives are advantageous as they have a longer life span as compared to
other data storage devices and are readily available in the market at
affordable prices. Also, they have a better data storing capacity than other
devices such as SSDs. The limitations of hard disk drives include heavy
power consumption, high cost, and noise produced during usage. As
compared to RAM, a hard disk allows a slow rate of transferring and
accessing the data. The hard disk drives need to be handled carefully as
even a minor crack on the surface can cause rupturing of the device and loss
of data.

10 possible reasons for computer hardware

failure
1. Extremes of environments
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Ingress of dusts or liquids
5. Shock
6. Vibration
7. Signal screening
8. Cable separation
9. Power conditioning
10. Site-specific environment
So how do you overcome these failures?
When we look at computer hardware solutions fit for industrial applications,
there are a many possible solutions available, but they can be broadly
categorised as :
1. Re-engineering commercial hardware

Often, many of the problems above arise from commercial computer hardware
typically designed for benign rather than challenging environments.

Where possible, replace commercial components with appropriate industrial-

grade equivalents. Where some hardware must remain commercial computer
consider if this can be re-engineered or re-packaged for industrial
applications, without reducing operational life, reliability or product warranty.

For large scale programmes, we would typically revise the equipment design
or repackage solutions to deliver optimised volume manufacture.
This will provide a balance of high-speed build times with minimised
modification costs, and as the overall volume increases, will secure a more
cost-effective solution when compared to modifying existing equipment on a
case by case basis.
2. Partnering with the right vendors

The second approach is best used where the number of implementations is

low but the volume of equipment installed is high.

For this scenario, working with a partner to define a bespoke solution that
uses components from multiple vendors, where components can be selected
to best suit the potential problems it may encounter as it is specified.

This approach will unlock the best from each element and bring them together
into a product that secures the advantages of commercial performance while
being suitably protected to endure the challenges of its environment.
3. Changing your environment
It seems obvious, but preventing the problem, rather than protecting against it,
can be a valid approach. This can be a fundamental change in the
environment through the use of a protected building, shelter or room, or a
change in application scope and architecture that places the equipment into a
less hostile environment. Of course, this isn’t always a viable approach for lots
of reasons,

Symptoms and Signs Of A Failing Hard Drive

• Computer freezes, slows down or displays a blue screen.
• Data gets corrupted and the buildup of bad sectors.
• Unusual and Alien Sounds.
• The Read/Write – Heads Crashed.
• The Hard Drive's Spindle Motor Malfunctioned.
•
• The Hard Drive Exhibits PCB Problems.
• Adaptives Deviations.

SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF A

FAILING HARD DRIVE
Computer freezes, slows down or displays a
blue screen

Source: Wikipedia
So you’re finally free from a hard day’s work and looking forward to the next episode of
your favorite show. But the moment you’re about to dive into it, your computer freezes,
slows down or just starts displaying a blue screen.
Now such a breakdown can be caused by a host of reasons and a failing hard drive could
be a major driving factor behind it. Immediately call a DriveSavers expert in case the
problem persists. The recurrence of this problem is a major sign of an impending hard
drive failure.
Data gets corrupted and the buildup of bad
sectors

Source: Minitool Partition Wizard

Here are a few signs of corrupted data surfacing. If you encounter any of these, it’s a
major tell-tale sign your hard drive might be about to give up.
• File or folder name has become scrambled
• Open, move, or save files and receive random error messages
• User can’t open files
• Files contain corrupted data
• File or folder has disappeared
There are two main reasons for data corruption. Either it could be a virus or just an
accumulation of bad sectors on your hard drive.

Role of bad sector accumulation in hard disk failure?

Basically, the magnetic media that resides on the platters breaks down as time goes by.
This is simply a sign of aging hardware, so there’s nothing you can do to prevent this. In
fact, all new hard drives have defective or carry bad sectors.
When these bad sectors are discovered, they’re replaced with spare sectors on another
part of each platter. But once all the spare sectors are used up the hard drive’s data
integrity is compromised.
The more bad sectors in your hard drive, the higher your probability of issues will be
with corrupted data and hard drive health.
Unusual and Alien Sounds

If your hard drive has started emitting alien sounds, it usually spells trouble for your
hard drive. There are a couple of unusual sounds you should be on the lookout for.
• “Click of Death” This is a repetitive sound caused by the head trying to write
data but failing in its operations. It keeps on trying again and again causing it
to make a consistent clicking sound.
• Screeching noises or grinding could mean your hardware’s bearings
or spindle motor is failing.