Y9 Science

FUELS &
FAIRNESS
STUDY GUIDE
South Island School
 Know what fossil fuels are and the three types.

Know how fossil fuels are formed.

KLOs Fuels & Fairness
Know that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons.

KEY Understand what a chemical formula is and be able to state the chemical
formula of some common chemicals including water, carbon dioxide and
oxygen.

LEARNING
Understand how to use valency to deduce the chemical formula of a
compound containing a metal and a non-metal.

Know the general formula for alkanes.

OUTCOMES
Be able to draw the structural and displayed formula for alkanes with up
to 5 carbon atoms per molecule, and to name the unbranched chain
isomers.

Know the chemical formulas of the first 5 alkanes.

Know that a hydrocarbon is a compound containing only carbon and

• The KLOs are a list of everything hydrogen atoms.
that you need to know from this
unit. To understand the meaning of the term ‘viscosity’.

To understand that the longer a molecule becomes the more viscous it

• You can use these as a revision becomes.
resource. After revising this unit
look at each KLO and see if you To understand that boiling points increase as molecules get larger.
can explain it.
Understand that distillation can be used to separate a solution in which
the liquids have different boiling points.
• Each KLO is covered in this study
guide. To know the meaning of the words evaporation and condensation.

Understand that fractional distillation is a better method for separating

mixtures of liquids than distillation.

Describe how the industrial process of fractional distillation separates

crude oil into fractions.

Know the names and uses of the main fractions obtained from crude oil:
refinery gases, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil and bitumen.

Know the trend in boiling points, viscosity and colour of the fractions
obtained from crude oil.

Know that a fuel is a substance that, when burned, releases heat energy.

Know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of

hydrocarbons.

Be able to write chemical equations for simple chemical reactions.

Index

How to use this study guide 1

Fossil Fuels 2

How was crude oil made? 2

Atoms, Elements, Molecules, Compounds & mixtures 3

What is Crude Oil? 4

Chemical Formulas 6

Valency 8

Separating two liquids from each other 10

Separation of Crude Oil 11

Chemical Reactions 12

Combustion Reactions 12

Uses of the fractions obtained from crude oil 13

The Alkanes 14

Different types of formula 15

Chemical Equations 17

Balancing a Chemical Equation 18

Practise Questions 22

Glossary 25

Answers to Questions 27
How to use this study guide

This study guide contains a comprehensive set of notes that covers all of the key Learning
Outcomes (KLOs) for this unit of inquiry. There is also a glossary of key words at the back of
the study guide and some practice questions that you can try after you have done your
revision.

These have practise questions that allow you to check your

Blue Boxes
understanding before moving on. Answers to these are in the
back of the study guide.

These have tasks / questions that are designed to help you

Pink Boxes
extend your knowledge and understanding beyond what you
have been learning about in class. Answers to these are also in
the back of the study guide.

These boxes contain information that will explain certain ideas

Red Boxes
in more detail than you have may have covered in class. This
information will help you to extend your knowledge and
understanding beyond the expected level for a year 9 student.

Statement of Inquiry: Geological conditions and chemical change leads

to issues of fairness when accessing global energy resources.

1
Fossil Fuels

Many of the fuels that are commonly

used in everyday life are fossil fuels.
Coal, crude oil, which gives us gasoline
(which is often called petrol) and other
useful fuels) and natural gas are all
fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are formed from
dead animals and plants, and this takes
millions of years to happen. Fossil fuels
are called non-renewable fuels. This is
because once they have been used up
they are gone forever. Figure 1 shows
how oil is extracted from underneath the
ground. Oil is located by aircraft, which
look for folds in the rock called anti- Figure 1. This diagram shows an oil rig, which is used to
clines. If oil is located, then an oil rig is extract oil out of the ground.
built that allows the oil to be extracted
from the ground using drills and pipes.

How was crude oil made?

Millions of years ago tiny plants and animals (plankton) that were living in the sea died. They
sank to the bottom of the sea. As the years passed by, layers of sediment covered the dead
animals and plants. As more and more sediment covered them they were exposed to high
pressure. They were also exposed to the high temperatures from within the earth. This
combination of high temperature and pressure turns the dead plankton into crude oil. Natural
gas is often also formed with crude oil. Figure 2 shows how oil is formed.

Figure 2. The formation of crude oil

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Atoms, Elements, Molecules, Compounds and Mixtures.

Below are the definitions for the words atom, element, molecule, compound and
mixture. It is important to fully understand the meaning of these words.

Atoms - The simplest type of particle (that cannot

be broken down into anything simpler). Everything
in the world is made from atoms. Atoms are often
drawn as coloured circles. This is shown in figure 3.

Figure 3. Atoms can be represented

by circles. Different colours means
atoms of different elements.
Elements - These are substances that are made
up of only one type of atom. The periodic table
displays all of the elements e.g oxygen, hydrogen
and carbon are all found in the periodic table, so
they are all elements.

Molecules – These are formed when two

or more non-metal atoms join (are bonded)
together. These can be formed from the
same type of atom (atoms of the same
element) or different types of atoms (atoms
of different elements). Figure 4 contains
two different types of molecule. Figure 4. This shows a mixture. This is because
there are two substances that are not chemically
joined (bonded) to each other. The first substance
consists of molecules that have two red atoms
Mixtures - Two or more substances (can be joined together. The second substance consists of
elements or compounds) which can be molecules containing one red atom and two white
separated. Figure 4 shows an example of a atoms.
mixture.

Compound - These consist of two, or

more, elements whose atoms are bonded
together. Figure 5 shows two different
compounds. These are water (H2O) and
carbon dioxide (CO2).
Key
Figure 5. This shows molecules
of water (H2O) on the left and Carbon atom
carbon dioxide (CO2) on the Oxygen atom
right. Water and carbon dioxide Hydrogen atom
are both compounds because
they are made from two different
elements.

3
Now You Try 1

1. State whether you think the following boxes contain an element, a compound or a
mixture.

2. Which box(es) contain molecules?

Challenge Yourself 1

Can you identify all of the

substances in boxes 1 - 6
(some of the substances
could be more than one
thing, so there are several
correct answers).

What is crude oil?

Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons. A

hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only
carbon and hydrogen atoms. Figure 6 shows this.
Crude oil contains lots of hydrocarbons. 

These all vary in size. Some hydrocarbons are very

small. These molecules contain only a few carbon
Figure 6. A hydrocarbon is a
and hydrogen atoms, whilst other hydrocarbons
compound that is made from only
have molecules containing over 100 atoms. Figure 7
carbon and hydrogen atoms.
shows three of the molecules that can be found in
crude oil.

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 Figure 7 - These molecules can all be found in crude oil.

The properties of a hydrocarbon depends upon the size of its molecule. Small molecules
have different properties to larger molecules. Figure 8 shows some of the trends in
properties.

Figure 8. Trends in properties that depend on the size of the molecule.

• Boiling Point – Larger hydrocarbon molecules have higher boiling points than
smaller molecules. This is because they have greater forces between the molecules
due to the greater surface area. These forces are known as intermolecular forces
of attraction. More energy is needed to overcome stronger intermolecular forces of
attraction, and this means the boiling point is higher.


• Smaller hydrocarbon molecules are more volatile. This means that they evaporate
(turn from a liquid to a gas easier). This is because they have weaker
intermolecular forces of attraction than larger hydrocarbon molecules.

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 • Larger hydrocarbon molecules are more viscous. This means they pour or flow
more slowly. Molecules of small hydrocarbons are less viscous (they flow easily /
they are runny). This, once again, is because larger hydrocarbons have stronger
forces between their molecules (stronger intermolecular forces of attraction).


• Flammability – Smaller hydrocarbon molecules are more flammable (burn more

easily) than larger hydrocarbon molecules.


• Larger hydrocarbon molecules are darker in colour than smaller ones.


Now You Try 2

1. CH4, C12H26 and C8H18 are all molecules that can be found in crude oil.

a) List these molecules in order of size from smallest to largest.

b) List these molecules in order from lightest in colour to darkest.

c) List these molecules in order from least volatile to most volatile.

d) List these molecules in order from least flammable to most flammable.

e) List these molecules in order from least viscous to most viscous.

Chemical Formulas

Before we look more at crude oil it is important to understand the term chemical formula.
This is sometimes called a molecular formula when it is referring to a molecule.

Water molecules have the chemical formula H2O.

This means that a water molecule contains two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Figure 9
shows a water molecule. Figure 9. A water molecule. This
contains two hydrogen atoms (white)
and one oxygen atom (red). Water
has the chemical formula H2O.

Figure 10. A carbon dioxide molecule. This Carbon dioxide has the chemical formula CO2. This
contains two oxygen atoms (red) and one means that molecules of carbon dioxide contain
carbon atom (black). Carbon dioxide has the
one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Figure 10
chemical formula CO2.
shows a molecule of carbon dioxide.

6
Oxygen is an element. However, its atoms pair up
into molecules. Oxygen has the chemical formula
O2. Therefore, an oxygen molecule consists of two
.

oxygen atoms bonded together. Oxygen molecules

are diatomic. Figure 11 shows a molecule of
oxygen. Figure 11. A molecule of oxygen.
This contains two oxygen atoms (red)
bonded together. Oxygen molecules
have the chemical formula O2.

Octane is a compound that is

found in crude oil. It has the
chemical formula C8H18. A
molecule of octane contains
8 carbon atoms and 18
hydrogen atoms. Figure 12
shows a molecule of octane. Figure 12. A molecule of octane. This contains 8 carbon atoms
(black) and 18 hydrogen atoms (white) bonded together. Octane
has the chemical formula C8H18.

Now You Try 3

1. Carbon monoxide is a compound. Its molecules contain one carbon atom and
one oxygen atom. Write the chemical formula for carbon monoxide.

2. Sulphur dioxide is a compound. Its molecules contain one sulphur atom and two
oxygen atoms. Write the chemical formula for sulphur dioxide.

3. Nitrogen dioxide is a compound. Its molecules contain one nitrogen atom and two
oxygen atoms. Write the chemical formula for nitrogen dioxide.

Challenge Yourself 2

Carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide all have something in
common in relation to burning fossil fuels. Find out what this is.

7
Valency

The valency of an element tells us how many bonds the atoms of that element can
form. For example, oxygen atoms have a valency of two. This means that oxygen atoms
form two bonds when they bond with other elements. The valency of an element can
easily be found by looking at the group number that the element is found in the periodic
table. Groups are the columns of the periodic table e.g. Group 1 is the first column of
the periodic table. Figure 13 shows how the valency of an element can be found from
the group of the periodic table that it is found in.

Figure 13. This table shows how the valency can be found for an element, if we
know what group of the periodic table it is in.

Valencies can be used to determine the chemical formula of compounds

containing a metal and a non-metal. Sodium oxide is a compound that is made
from the elements sodium (the metal) and oxygen (the non-metal). The chemical
formula of sodium oxide can be determined using valencies. This is shown below.

Step 1: Use a periodic table to find out the group number for sodium and oxygen.

Sodium is in group 1 and oxygen is in group 6 of the periodic table.

Step 2: Use the table in figure 13 to look up the valencies for sodium and oxygen.

Sodium has a valency of 1 and oxygen has a valency of 2

Step 3: Write down the symbols for sodium and oxygen and write down the valency
of each element underneath itself.

Step 4: Swap the valencies over.

8
Step 5: Write out the chemical formula. Since the 2 is pointed towards sodium (Na)
this means there are two sodiums. Since the one is pointed towards the
oxygen this means there is one oxygen.
Tip - We only write a number if there is
more than one atom of that type in the
molecule.

The following example shows how this method can be used for determining the
chemical formula of magnesium oxide.
Chemical Formulas
Step 1: Magnesium is in group 2 and
oxygen is in group 6 of the periodic table. The particles in compounds containing metal
and non-metal elements are called ions (not
Step 2 Magnesium has a valency of 2 atoms). These compounds exist in giant
and oxygen has a valency of 2. lattices containing millions of ions. For these
compounds the chemical formula shows the
Step 3 ratio of the ions e.g a sample of NaCl will
contain an equal number of Na and Cl ions,
whilst a sample of Na2O contains twice as
many Na ions as O ions. Chemical formulas
Step 4:
for compounds (or elements) containing only
non-metal atoms exist as molecules. The
chemical formula, often referred to as a
molecular formula, shows the actual number of
Step 5
each type of atom in the molecule.

Step 6 This chemical formula is not in its simplest ratio. 2:2 can be written as 1:1. The
chemical formula can therefore be simplified.

Valencies are not as useful when dealing with compounds that consist of only non-metal
elements and chemical formulas are not simplified to the simplest ratio e.g. ethane is a
compound that consists of only carbon and hydrogen atoms (it is a hydrocarbon).
Carbon and hydrogen are both non-metals and ethane has the chemical formula C2H6.
This chemical formula is not simplified to CH3 because a molecule of ethane always
contains two carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms.

Now You Try 4

Write chemical formulas for the following compounds that contain both a metal and a
non-metal.

1. Potassium oxide 3. Aluminium fluoride 5. Aluminium oxide

2. Sodium chloride 4. Magnesium chloride

9
Separating two liquids from each other.

Let’s imagine we have a solution that has

been made by adding two liquids together.
In this example, we will look at a solution
made from ink and water. Figure 14 is a
particle diagram to represent a mixture of
ink and water.

Ink and water have different boiling points

to each other, and this makes it easy to
Figure 14. A particle diagram to
separate them from each other using a
represent a mixture of ink and water.
technique called distillation. Figure 15 Ink particles are represented as purple
shows the experimental set up for circles. Water molecules are
distillation. This type of distillation is often represented with a red circle joined to
referred to as a simple distillation. two white circles. The purple circles are
not bonded to the red and white circles.
They are touching them because they
are both liquids, but they are not joined
(bonded) together.

Figure 15. Experimental set up for a simple distillation. Water has a lower
boiling point than ink so it is separated from the ink water mixture.

The boiling point of water is 100 oC and this is much lower than that of ink. When the
ink water is heated its temperature increases. Eventually it will get to 100 oC. The
water evaporates and turns from a liquid to a gas. This allows it to travel up from the
flask and through the condenser. The condenser has cold water running through it
cooling its inner tube. This causes the gaseous water in the inner tube to cool down
and condense. This pure water now drips through into the beaker and does not
contain any ink. In this way the water is separated from the ink.

10
Separating Crude Oil

Crude oil isn’t very useful when it has been extracted from the ground. It is a mixture
of hydrocarbons consisting of many different sized molecules. However, we can
separate this mixture into groups of similar sized molecules with similar boiling points.
These are called fractions. Fractions are very useful, and these can be obtained by
carrying out a type of distillation called fractional distillation.

The fractional distillation of crude

oil takes place in a fractionating
tower. The tower is hotter at the
bottom and cooler at the top. The
crude oil is heated at the bottom
of the tower and most of the
fractions evaporate making them
gaseous.

The gases move up the column

and condense at different heights
depending on their boiling point.
Gases with lower boiling points
condense higher up the tower
because the tower gets cooler
higher up.

This means if a gas has a boiling

point of 50 oC then it will
condense at 50 oC, which is
towards the top of the tower. If
Figure 16. The fractionating column that is used during the
another gas has a boiling point of
fractional distillation of crude oil. This is very big and heights
200 oC then it will condense can vary between around 6 to 60 meters.
around half way up the tower, as
the temperature at this height is
200 oC. Figure 16 shows the
Simple distillation vs fractional distillation. 
names of the fractions that are
obtained during the fractional
In a simple distillation the liquid in the mixture
distillation of crude oil.
with the lowest boiling point evaporates enters
the condenser and is then condensed. In
The molecules in the refinery gases fractional distillation, the column or tower, is
are very small and this means their designed so that the liquid evaporates and
boing points are very low. They do condenses many times before being
not condense to a liquid because separated. This means that the separated
the top of the tower is at a higher liquid is purer. Fractional distillation should
temperature than their boiling point. always be used when the liquids have similar
Refinery gases are tapped off as boiling points.
gases.

11
At the bottom of the tower the
hydrocarbons are very large
molecules. This means they have
very high boiling points. The tower is
not hot enough for them to evaporate
into a gas. They remain as a liquid,
even after heating, and are tapped off
from the bottom of the fractionating
tower.
Figure 17. A mnemonic to help you remember
the names of the fractions in crude oil, and the
order that they come off from the fractionating
tower.

Now You Try 5

Write a mnemonic to help you

remember the order that the fractions
come off in the fractional distillation of
crude oil. Figure 17 shows an example
this.

Chemical Reactions

In a chemical reaction the substances that react together are known as the reactants.
The substances that they change into are known as the products. This can be written
as a word equation as shown below. The arrow shows that the reactants are
changing into new substances (the products).

Reactants Products

Colour changes, bubbling (meaning a gas is being produced) and temperature

changes are all signs that a chemical reaction is taking place.

Combustion Reactions
A fuel is a substance, that when
Combustion is the name that is given to a chemical burned, release lots of energy.
reaction in which a fuel is burnt in oxygen. Oxygen makes
up about 20% of the air. Hydrocarbons can be used as
fuels and they burn in air (oxygen) to produce carbon
dioxide and water. A large amount of energy is released
as heat during this reaction. This release of heat energy
makes fuels very useful.

12
An example of this reaction is burning methane in oxygen. This can be written as a
word equation.

Methane + Oxygen    Carbon dioxide + Water

When this reaction is carried out in plenty of oxygen then only carbon dioxide and
water are produced. This reaction is known as complete combustion.

If a hydrocarbon undergoes combustion and there isn’t enough oxygen, then carbon
(soot) and carbon monoxide are formed instead of carbon dioxide. 

Methane + Oxygen    Carbon + Carbon Monoxide + Water

This reaction is known as incomplete combustion. The carbon monoxide that is

formed is dangerous as it is a toxic gas. Carbon monoxide combines with
haemoglobin . This is the molecule that carries oxygen in the red blood cells. This
stops the red blood cells from being able to carry oxygen. If you breath in a lot of
carbon monoxide then the body does not get enough oxygen and this can cause
death.

Uses of the fractions obtained from crude

oil.

Many of the fractions obtained from the

fractional distillation of crude oil are flammable.
This means that they burn easily and this
makes them very good fuels. Figure 18 shows
the main uses for the different fractions.

Refinery gases - This is a mixture of gases

whose molecules are of similar size. These
gases are commonly used as liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG). LPG can be used for
domestic heating and cooking.

Gasoline (petrol) - Gasoline is a mixture of

hydrocarbons with similar boiling points (its
molecules are of similar size). It is used to fuel
cars.
Figure 18. Main uses of the
Kerosene - Kerosene is used to fuel aircraft. fractions obtained from the
fractional distillation of crude oil.

13
Diesel - used as a fuel for lorries, buses and some Molecular Formula vs Chemical
cars.
Formula
Fuel Oil - used as a fuel for ships.
A chemical formula shows the
Bitumen - not very flammable. It consists of large number of atoms in a molecule of
molecules and is dark in colour. It can be mixed a substance e.g. the chemical
with small rocks to make a material that can be formula of water is H2O. A
used to make the top surface of a road. molecular formula is the same
thing as a chemical formula, but
The Alkanes only refers to compounds that
consist entirely of non-metals.
The fraction of crude oil that is separated at the top
This is because molecules are
of the fractionating tower is called the refinery
only formed from non-metal
gases. This mixture of hydrocarbons contains
methane, ethane, propane and butane. These four atoms. If a compound contains a
compounds are the first four alkanes. metal the term molecular formula
should not be used. This means
The alkanes are the simplest family of that the term chemical formula
hydrocarbons. Each member of the family differs by can be used for all substances,
the previous member by having an extra carbon but the term molecular formula
atom and two extra hydrogens. For example, can only be used for substances
methane is the first member of the alkane family. It consisting of only non-metals.
has the molecular formula CH4. The next member
of the alkane family is ethane. It has the molecular
formula C2H6. Figure 19 shows the names and
molecular formulas for the first 5 alkanes.

Name of Alkane Molecular Formula

Methane CH4

Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8
Butane C4H10
Pentane C5H12

Figure 19. Names and molecular formulas of the first 5 alkanes.

14
 An easy way to remember the first four alkanes
is Monkeys Eat Peanut Butter. This is shown in
figure 20.

Different types of formula.

A molecular formula shows the number of

atoms in a molecule of a compound.
Figure 20. An easy way to remember
e.g. Methane’s molecular formula is CH4. the first four alkanes.
This means a molecule of methane contains
one carbon atom and four carbon atoms.

A displayed formula shows all of the bonds in

a molecule as lines. Figure 21 shows the
displayed formula of butane, C4H10.

A structural formula shows how the atoms in

a molecule are joined together. The structural Figure 21. The displayed
formula for butane is CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 . formula for butane, C4H10. This
shows all of the bonds as lines.

An easy way of writing a structural formula is shown below. The structural formula being written is for
butane, C4H10.

Step 1: Draw the displayed formula for butane, C4H10. See figure 21 for this.

Step 2: Write down C to represent the carbon atom that is furthest left in the displayed formula.
C

Step 3: Write down the atoms that are bonded to this carbon, ignoring the carbon that is bonded to its
right. In this case, we have 3 hydrogen atoms. Write this down next to your C using a
subscript for the 3.
CH3

Step 4: Move across to the next (second) carbon atom. Write this down.
CH3 C

Step 5: Write down the atoms that are bonded to this carbon, ignoring the carbon that is bonded to its
right. In this case we have 2 hydrogen atoms. Write this down next to your C using a subscript
for the 2.
CH3 CH2

Step 6: Continue to repeat steps 4 and 5 until you have accounted for every atom in the displayed
formula.
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3

15
Figure 22 is a table that shows the molecular formula, displayed formula and

Figure 22. A table to show the name, molecular formula, displayed formula and structural formula of
the first 5 alkanes.

You may notice a pattern in the chemical Empirical Formula

formulas of the alkanes. Each member differs
from the next by having an extra CH2. Every An empirical formula is another type of
member also has the same relationship formula that can be useful when looking
between its number of carbon atoms and at compounds that form molecules. The
hydrogen atoms. The number of hydrogen empirical formula shows the lowest ratio
atoms for each member is twice plus two its of atoms in a molecule.
number of carbon atoms (H = C x 2 + 2).This
e.g. Ethane has a molecular formula of
means that the alkanes have the general
C2H6. 2 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen
formula Cn H2n + 2 ,where n = any number
atoms can be simplified to a 1: 3 ratio.
e.g. propane contains 3 carbon atoms (n= 3). The empirical formula for ethane is CH3.
This means it must have 3 x 2 + 2 = 8
hydrogen atoms. The molecular formula for Sometime the empirical formula and
propane is C3H8. molecular formula are the same.
Methane’s molecular formula is CH4.
This is also the lowest ratio of atoms (1 :
4) so CH4 is also the empirical formula
for methane.

16
Now You Try 6 Challenge Yourself 3

1. Write down the molecular formula for alkanes Look at your answer to
containing: question 2 on Now You
Try 6. Some of the
a) 6 carbon atoms compounds are not
alkanes, but they all have
b) 8 carbon atoms
things in common with
c) 24 hydrogen atoms each other. They are a
different family of organic
2. Identify the compounds below that are compounds. Find out
alkanes: what this family is called
and any other facts that
C10H22 , C9H18. , C20H40. , C15H32. , C4H8
you can about this family.

Organic Compounds

Most compounds containing carbon are referred to as organic compounds. Organic compounds
can be split into different families. The alkanes are the simplest family of organic compounds.
Each family is referred to as a homologous series. A homologous series, such as the alkanes, is a
series of compounds with similar chemical properties (they react in similar ways). Each member
differs by one carbon and two hydrogen atoms (CH2).

Chemical Equations

We have already been introduced to word equations. This shows the reactants in a
chemical reaction and shows the products that they turn into. Hydrogen reacts with
oxygen gas to produce water. The word equation for this reaction is shown below.

Hydrogen + Oxygen Water

A chemical equation shows the same information as a word equation, but does it using
the chemical formulas of the reactants and products instead. It is important to balance a
chemical equation so that there are the same number of atoms on both sides (reactant's
side and product’s side) of the equation. This is because atoms are not created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction. They just reassemble themselves into new products.

17
Let's try writing a chemical equation for the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen.

Step 1 - Write out the chemical formulas of the reactants.

H2 + O2

Step 2 - Draw an arrow to the right.

H2 + O2

Step 3 - Add the chemical formulas of the product(s).

H2 + O2 H 2O

Step 4 - The chemical equation now needs balancing. This is explained below.

Balancing a chemical equation

A balanced chemical equation has the same number of atoms on both the
reactant’s side and the product’s side. Our chemical equation currently looks like
this.

H2 + O2 H 2O

Both sides of the equation have two hydrogen atoms, so these are balanced.
However, the left hand side contains two oxygen atoms, but the right hand side
only has one. The oxygen atoms need balancing. When balancing a chemical
equation numbers can only be placed in front of the reactants and products as
shown below.

__H2 + __O2 __H2O Numbers can only be placed on the lines.

You might be tempted to balance this example as follows:

H2 + O2 H2O2 X This is completely wrong!

Water has the chemical formula H2O and it is essential to drink this as part of a
healthy diet. H2O2 is not water. It is a substance called hydrogen peroxide and
drinking it will make you very ill!

18
So, it is important that you only balance a chemical equation by placing numbers in
front of the reactants and products as shown below.

__H2 + __O2 __H2O Numbers can only be placed on the lines.

The oxygen atoms are currently unbalanced. We have two on the left hand side,
but only one on the right hand side. We can place a two in front of H2O to balance
this.

__H2 + __O2 2 H 2O

The oxygen atoms are now balanced. Previously, the hydrogen atoms were
balanced, but by putting a two in front of H2O we have unbalanced them. The
hydrogens should now be balanced again. We can do this by placing a two in front
of H2.

2 H2 + O2 2 H 2O

This chemical equation is now balanced. We have four hydrogen atoms and two
oxygen atoms on both sides of the equation.

Example 1. Write a chemical equation for the complete combustion of

methane.

Steps 1 + 2: Methane reacts with oxygen during complete combustion

CH4 + O2

Step 3: Carbon dioxide and water are formed in this reaction.

CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Step 4: Balance the equation. Carbon is already balanced, but hydrogen isn’t. We
will balance the hydrogen atoms.

CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2 H2O

19
The carbon atoms (one on each side) and the hydrogen atoms (four on each side)
are now balanced. The oxygen atoms are left and they are currently unbalanced.
We have two oxygen atoms on the left hand side, but four on the right hand side.
We will now balance the oxygen atoms

Tip - Oxygen was balanced last

CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O because it appears twice on the
products side (in H2O and CO2). This
This chemical equation is now balanced as makes balancing the equation much
there are the same number of each atoms on easier!
both sides of the arrow.

Example 2. Write a chemical equation for the complete combustion of ethane.

Steps 1 + 2: Ethane reacts with oxygen during complete combustion

C2H6 + O2

Step 3: Carbon dioxide and water are formed in this reaction.

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Step 4: Balance the equation. Start with carbon:

C2H6 + O2 2 CO2 + H2O

Next balance the hydrogen atoms:

C2H6 + O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O

Next balance the oxygen atoms:

C2H6 + 3.5 O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O

This chemical equation is now balanced. However, we don’t normally

leave decimals or fractions in a balanced chemical equation. We can
remove these by multiplying everything in the equation by two. This gives
us:

2 C2H6 + 7 O2 4 CO2 + 6 H2O

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Now You Try 7

Write chemical equations for the following:

1. When sodium (Na) reacts with oxygen (O2) to produce sodium oxide (Na2O).

2. When Sodium (Na) reacts with chlorine (Cl2) to produce sodium chloride
(NaCl).

3. When propane reacts with oxygen (O2) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O)

4. When Carbon (C) undergoes complete combustion.

5. When hydrogen undergoes complete combustion.

6. When octane undergoes complete combustion.

There are some practise questions to help with your revision on the next page.

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Practise Questions

1. Write definitions for the following:

a) Atom

b) Molecule

c) Compound

d) Mixture

e) Hydrocarbon

f) Alkane

g) Molecular Formula

h) Chemical Formula

i) Chemical equation

2. List the first five alkanes and write their molecular formulas.

3. Outline how crude oil was formed.

4. Write the molecular formula for alkanes containing:

a) 10 carbon atoms

b) 12 hydrogen atoms

c) 30 hydrogen atoms

d) 16 carbon atoms

e) 80 carbon atoms

5. Draw the displayed formula and the write the structural formula for hexane,
which is an alkane with the molecular formula C6H14.

6. List the 6 fractions of crude oil in the order that they come off the fractionating
tower (from top to bottom).

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7. Using your answers from Q6 identify the fraction of crude oil:

a) The fraction that is the most viscous.

b) The fraction that has the second darkest colour.

c) The second most volatile fraction.

d) The most flammable fraction.

e) The fraction with the third lowest boiling point.

f) The fraction with the third longest chain.

g) The fraction that doesn’t evaporate when the oil is heated during
fractional distillation.

8. Name the element that is always a reactant in a combustion reaction.

9. Name the products of complete combustion

10. Name the products of incomplete combustion.

11. Name the main use for the following fractions of crude oil:

a) Refinery gases

b) Diesel

c) Bitumen

12. Use the table below to answer the questions.

Alkane A B C D E
Boiling Point 91 -28 430 65 33
(oC)

a) What technique would be most suitable for separating a mixture of these

alkanes.

b) Which alkane has the longest chain?

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 c) Which alkane is the most viscous?

d) Which alkane is the most flammable?

e) Identify the alkanes that are gases at 45 oC.

13. Write the chemical formula for the following compounds

a) Potassium fluoride

b) Lithium oxide

c) Aluminium chloride

d) Magnesium fluoride

e) Magnesium nitride

f) Aluminium sulphide

14. Write a word equation and a chemical equation for the following reactions:

a) When magnesium (Mg) reacts with chlorine gas (Cl2) to produce

magnesium chloride (MgCl2).

b) When aluminium (Al) reacts with oxygen (O2) to produce aluminium oxide
(Al2O3).

c) The complete combustion of pentane.

d) The complete combustion of butane.

e) The incomplete combustion of propane, in which carbon, carbon

monoxide and water are produced (there is more than one way to balance
this).

15. Describe how fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into its
different fractions.

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Glossary

Alkane - a family of hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2

Atom - The simplest particle and is the building block for all other substances.

Bitumen - A fraction obtained from crude oil.

Boiling - When a liquid turns into a gas. This can happen throughout the liquid.

Boiling Point - The temperature at which a substance turns from a liquid into a gas.

Bond - These join atoms together.

Burn - Reacts with oxygen upon heating.

Butane - an alkane containing 4 carbon atoms in a chain.

Chemical formula - This shows the number of atoms of each element in molecules and
the ratio of particles in compounds containing metals. CO2 and NaCl are both chemical
formulas.

Complete combustion - When a substance burns completely in oxygen.

Compound - contains atoms of two or more elements that are bonded together.

Condensation - when a gas turns into a liquid.

Crude Oil - a fossil fuel. This is a mixture and contains fractions that are useful.

Diatomic - molecules formed from the bonding of two of the same type of atom.

Diesel - A fraction obtained from crude oil.

Displayed Formula - shows all of the bonds and atoms in a particular molecule.

Ethane - an alkane containing 2 carbon atoms.

Evaporation - when a liquid turns into a gas. This only happens at the surface of the
liquid.

Fossil Fuel - A fuel that formed from dead plants and animals millions of years ago. Coal,
crude oil and natural gas are all fossil fuels.

Fractional distillation - A separating technique used to separate crude oil into its
fractions.

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Fractions - The different parts of crude oil.

Fuel oil - A fraction obtained from crude oil.

Gasoline - A fraction obtained from crude oil.

Hydrocarbon - A compound that consists of only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Incomplete combustion - when a substance burns, but there is not enough oxygen for this
to happen completely.

Intermolecular forces of attraction - the forces of attraction that occur between all
molecules. Intermolecular forces of attraction are generally stronger for larger molecules.

Kerosene - A fraction obtained from crude oil.

Methane - an alkane containing 1 carbon atom.

Mixture- two or more substances that are mixed together, but that can be separated.

Molecular formula - Tells us how many of each type of atom are in a molecule e.g H2O.

Molecule - Two or more non-metal atoms bonded together.

Pentane - an alkane containing 5 carbon atoms in a chain.

Propane - an alkane containing 3 carbon atoms in a chain.

Refinery gases - A fraction obtained from crude oil.

Simple distillation - a separating technique that can be used to separate a liquid from
either a solid or another liquid (if its boiling point is different).

Structural formula - Shows the structure of a compound, but does not have to show all of
the bonds.

Valency - a measure of how many bonds an element can form. It can be a useful tool for
finding the chemical formula of a compound consisting of a metal and a non-metal.

Viscosity - the thickness of a liquid. Liquids with high viscosity flow more slowly than those
with low viscosity.

Volatile - how easily a substance evaporates. Substances with a high volatility evaporate
easily.

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Answers - Now You Try 1

1. Box 1 - Element, Box 2 - Compound, Box 3 - Mixture, Box 4 - Element, Box 5 -

Compound, Box 6 - Mixture or Element (mixture is the better answer here. There is
only one type of atom, so at this level, element is acceptable. The reason is that some
molecules contain two red atoms , whilst others contain three red atoms. This means
they are different substances, even though they are only made up from red atoms. An
example of this would be oxygen molecules (O2) and ozone molecules (O3).

2. Boxes 1, 2, 3, 5 & 6 all contain molecules.

Challenge Yourself 1

All the answers below are based on red atoms being oxygen, white atoms being
hydrogen and black atoms being carbon. Blue atoms are not defined.

Box 1 - Oxygen (O2)

Box 2 - Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Box 3 - Oxygen (O2) and Water (H2O)

Box 4 - There are several possible answers for this one. The substance is a gas because
the atoms are spread out. This substance does not form molecules. Helium, Neon and
Argon are some of the possible answers.

Box 5 - Carbon monoxide (CO)

Box 6 - Oxygen (O2) and Ozone (O3)

Now You Try 2

1. CH4, C8H18 and C12H26

2. CH4, C8H18 and C12H26

3. C12H26, C8H18 and CH4

4. C12H26, C8H18 and CH4

5. CH4, C8H18 and C12H26

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Now You Try 3

1. CO

2. SO2

3. NO2

Challenge Yourself 2

They are all pollutants that come from burning fossil fuels.

Carbon monoxide is formed during the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. It is

a toxic gas and can cause death.

Fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, contain sulphur. When the fossil fuel is burnt
sulphur dioxide is formed. When sulphur dioxide reacts with water in the air it forms
acid rain.

Nitrogen dioxide is formed in car engines. Nitrogen and oxygen don’t react together
under normal conditions, but they do at very high temperatures. Car engines are
very hot and this causes nitrogen dioxide to be formed as air is present and this
consists of mainly nitrogen and oxygen.

Now You Try 4

1. K2O

2. NaCl

3. AlF3

4. MgCl2

5. Al2O3

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Now You Try 6

1a. C6H14

1b. C8H18

1c. C11H24

2. Only C10H22 and C15H32 are alkanes

Challenge Yourself 3

They all belong to the family called the alkenes. Members of this family have the
general formula CnH2n and their members contain at least one carbon carbon double
bond.

Now You Try 7

1. 4 Na + O2 2 Na2O

2. 2 Na + Cl2 2 NaCl

3. C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

4. C + O2 CO2

5. 2 H2 + O2 2 H 2O

6. 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

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