Aqa Functionalism
Aqa Functionalism
Aqa Functionalism
AQA: Topics in Sociology: Families and Households
The relationship of the family to the social structure and social
change, with particular reference to the economy and to state policies.
The Functionalist theory of Families and Households
Functionalism is a structuralist or systems theory in that it believes that society and
the way it is organised (i.e. its social structure/system) is more important than the
individuals who comprise it. Functionalism examines the social institutions (such as
the economy, education, media, law, family, religion) that make up society. It sees
these social institutions as moulding and shaping the individuals who belong to
them. Functionalists often assume that if a social institution such as the family
exists, then it must have a function or purpose – it must do something useful.
Generally, functionalist theories of the family see the family as making a very
positive contribution to both society and the economy. They also share the view
that the family is beneficial to the individuals who constitute it.
You will have noticed that the word ‘functionalism’ includes the word ‘function’.
The essence or central focus of most functionalist theory is to work out how
particular social institutions such as the family function for the good of society.
Functionalism is therefore focused on working out the role or purpose of institutions
such as the family. When functionalists talk about ‘functions’, they aim to examine
the usefulness or benefit of that institution to society or the individual.
In contrast the word ‘dysfunction’ refers to the possible ‘harms’ that social
institutions might do to society or individuals. For example, most sociologists would
agree that domestic violence and child abuse are dysfunctions of the family.
When considering the Functionalist theory of the family, it is useful to divide the
theory up into three approaches to family life;
Approach 1 George Peter Murdock
Murdock (1949) argued that the nuclear family is such an essential component of
society in important institution that it is universal – meaning it can be found in
virtually every society in the world. He argued that the nuclear family functioned
to ensure social order in society.
Murdock claimed that his universal nuclear family performs four functions that
benefit society because they reduce the potential for chaos and conflict and
consequently bring about relatively well ordered, structured and predictable
societies. These functions are as follows;
The reproductive/procreative function – the nuclear family provides new
members of society, without which society would cease to exist.
The Sexual function the idea that sex should be confined to marriage
contributes to social order and stability because families regulate a
potentially disruptive activity – sexual relations. For example, engagements
and marriages, and the fidelity expected by such social arrangements set out
the moral rules for sexual behavior in general. For example, note how in the
UK fidelity or faithfulness is highly valued whilst adultery or an extra
marital affair are still generally viewed as deviant forms of behavior.
Economic parents take responsibility for the economic welfare of their
children by going out to work and earning a wage.
Educational parents socialize the next generation into social values and
norms that are shared by the majority of the society in which we live.
However, Murdock’s view that the nuclear family is universal has been criticised
because although families do tend to exist in most societies, his argument fails to
take account of the increasing diversity of modern family structures and
relationships. For example, in many societies today, reproduction and sex are no
longer exclusive to family and marriage. In some societies, households rather than
families (for example, communes and kibbutzim) have successfully raised children.
Finally, Murdock’s idea of a family is an ideological construct in that it is
conservative. He seems to suggest that marriage and heterosexuality are central to
the concept of family and consequently excludes alternative setups involving
single, gay or surrogate parents as not ‘proper’ families. For example, he dismisses
oneparent families as ‘broken’ nuclear families which are unable to effectively
carry out family functions and which are consequently responsible for many of
society’s social problems. This idea has been adopted by New Right sociologists.
However, the biggest problem of Murdock’s approach to the family is that it has
badly dated and consequently failed to take account of modern social trends such
as the largescale movement of women into the economy and mass migration
which has turned the UK into a multicultural society.
Approach 2 – the work of Talcott Parsons.
Parsons (1965), an American sociologist, was the most important contributor to the
functionalist theory of the family. His theory of the family examined how the social
and economic change associated with industrialisation and modernisation shaped
family structures and relationships. He argued that most preindustrial societies are
composed of relatively small farming or huntergatherer communities. Land and
other economic resources were commonly owned or rented by extended families.
For example, it was not uncommon to live with and work alongside extended kin on
the land either tending herds of animals or raising crops. Parsons claimed there was
a functional ‘fit’ between extended families and the social or cultural
requirements of preindustrial societies in that such families performed a range of
functions which were beneficial to both societies and the kin that made up such
families. In this sense, the preindustrial family was a multifunctional unit. The
extended family, therefore, functioned:
to meet the basic needs of extended kin through the production of food,
clothing and shelter. They would trade or barter with other family groups for
those things they could not produce or make themselves. In times of poor
harvest or famine, the extended family rallied around to provide a subsistence
living.
To educate children in whatever skills that the family specialised in. These
skills were not highly specialised and were probably limited to hunting,
gathering, growing particular crops, soldiering and providing the community
with basic services such as baking, brewing, metalwork, shoeing horses and
so on. Most of these skills were shared and passed down through
generations from parents to children. They skills were ascribed, for example
the son of a pig father was likely to become a pig farmer himself. However,
this socialisation rarely extends to literacy or numeracy because these skills
are rarely required in the social context in which these families live.
To take responsibility for the health of its members in the absence of a
system of universal health care. However, the high infant mortality rates and
low life expectancy of the preindustrial period suggest that this was probably
a constant struggle.
To take responsibility for the welfare of disabled and elderly members of
the family. For example, the relatively few family members who did make it
into old age would be cared for by extended kin, in exchange for services such
as looking after very young children.
Extended kin in the absence of a criminal justice system often pursued
vendettas to seek revenge for perceived slights. If a family member was
unlawfully killed, blood feuds between extended families could last for three
or four generations. For example, the War of the Roses in England in the 15th
century was a conflict between two extended families, as represented by the
Houses of Lancaster and York.
Parsons argued that extended families were very effective for the needs of pre
industrial society but he claims that they were too unwieldly and impractical to
continue in societies that experienced industrialisation and the urbanisation that
inevitably followed the industrial revolution. Parsons claimed that the extended
kinship network was generally unsuitable in meeting the needs of an economy
based on manufacturing industry.
Consequently, Parsons argued that the extended family evolved into the smaller
and more streamlined isolated nuclear family in order to function in a way that
effectively met the needs of an industrialcapitalist society. He argued then that
the industrial revolution brought about five fundamental social changes to the
family.
1. The new industrialeconomy demanded a more geographically mobile
workforce. The responsibilities and duties that underpinned extended
families (for example, members of such families felt a strong sense of
obligation to remain near to their extended kin and to defer to their elders)
did not suit these modern economic demands. Members of extended families
were consequently reluctant to move to the urban areas in which factories and
textile mills were being built. Nuclear families, on the other hand, because
they were smaller, were more geographically mobile than extended
families. Parsons, therefore, argues that as industrialisation spread nuclear
families broke away from their extended kin to move to the growing urban
centres to take advantage of the jobs and wages offered by the new
factories and textile mills. In the UK, in which the world’s first industrial
revolution occurred, this resulted in a mass migration from rural areas to
cities. Most of this urbanisation occurred between 1700 and 1830 when the
proportion of the UK population living in cities and towns increased from 15
per cent to 34 per cent.
We can see similar trends in countries which have experienced rapid
industrialisation during the past 20 years. For example, in 1982, China was
still a mainly rural society and only one in five Chinese people lived in cities.
However, the massive and rapid industrialisation and urbanisation that has
taken place in China over the past 20 years now means that just over 50% of
China's population now live in cities. It is predicted that 75 per cent of the
Chinese population will be living in cities by 2030.
2. Another social change brought about by industrialisation was the opportunity
to improve oneself materially. This is known as social mobility. In pre
industrial society and in extended families, social mobility and status was
ascribed. For example, the head of the household to whom all other members
of the family were expected to defer was usually the oldest male. However,
Parsons claimed that ascription was not suitable as a means of allocating
roles in an industrial society. This is because such societies need to ensure
that the most skilled and talented occupied the most important
occupational roles if they are to be economically successful. Parsons claimed
that industrial societies needed to be meritocratic in order make sure that the
most skilled and talented are allocated to jobs in which they will be most
effective.
3. Parsons believed that members of nuclear families were more independent
as individuals and less prone to the sorts of social pressures from extended
kin and community that might have made them less adventurous in their
social ambitions and choice of jobs or location. Parsons argued that the
ascribed roles that were part and parcel of the extended family were likely
to come into conflict with the roles required by a competitive industrial
capitalist economic system in which jobs and status were allocated on the
basis of ability and qualification rather than being passed down and/or
inherited. For example, the social stability of a family and community may
be undermined if junior members of an extended family wielded more
economic power than the traditional head of the household.
4. A key difference between rural extended families and urban nuclear families
was that the latter had experienced a separation between home and
workplace as they had become wageearners in the factory system. They were
no longer in a position to grow or rear their own food, build their own homes
or make their own clothing. Consequently as industrialisation extended its
influence over society, specialized agencies gradually took over many of
the functions of the preindustrial extended family. Parsons refers to this
process as ‘structural differentiation’ and argued that it was often
accompanied by a social process that he called ‘functional specialisation’.
This meant that more effective specialist institutions evolved to produce the
goods and services previously provided by extended families. Members of
urban nuclear families therefore became dependent on outside agencies –
businesses – which evolved to meet many of their needs. For example,
processed canned and frozen food was massproduced in factories and sold in
stores that eventually developed into supermarket chains. Other products
which had traditionally been produced by extended families such as clothing,
furniture and even homes were produced by businesses which specialized in
these commodities. In this sense, Parsons saw the nuclear family as largely
losing its most important economic function, that of production.
5. Industrialisation also encouraged the development of the modern
bureaucratic state as society and the economy grew more formal and
complex. For example, the development of a monetary system resulted in
people entering contractual relationships in which they were expected to
engage in an official legal exchanges such as money for goods. Bureaucratic
government increasingly took on the responsibility of regulating such
relationships. The state also increasingly took over the functions of
education, health, welfare and justice which prior to industrialisation had
largely been the responsibility of the extended family.
Parsons suggests this process of structural differentiation meant that the
multifunctional extended family effectively disappeared and was replaced
by the isolated nuclear family which focused on performing two crucial
functions: (a) the primary socialisation of children and (b) the stabilisation
of adult personalities.
(1) The primary socialization of children
Parsons believed that the family should bear the main responsibility for the
socialization of children into the core cultural values of industrialcapitalist
societies such as
achievement
competition
equality of opportunity
respect for private property.
According to Parsons them , the family is an important agent of primary
socialisation and plays an effective role in bringing about value consensus,
conformity, social solidarity – the main foundation stones of social order in society.
Parsons viewed the nuclear family as a ‘personality factory’ whose manufactured
products were young workers and citizens committed to the rules, patterns of
behaviour and belief systems that make positive involvement in economic life and
good citizenship possible. In this sense, Parsons saw the family as a crucial bridge
connecting the individual child/adult to wider society.
Parsons argued that the second major specialized function of the family is to relieve
the stresses of modernday living for its adult members. He observes that modern
day workplaces are very hectic, competitive and stressful places.
Members of a nuclear family no longer have extended kin easily available for advice
and guidance to help them cope with modernday living. However, Parsons saw this
as an opportunity for spouses and children in the nuclear family to positively
reinforce their relationships. He claimed that the nuclear family could act as a ‘warm
bath’ – he suggested that immersion in family life could relieve the pressures of
work and contemporary society just as a warm bath soothes and relaxes the body.
John Pullinger claims that Parsons viewed the nuclear family as a ‘retreat’,
especially for the male breadwinner, ‘from the competitive demands and formality
of the workplace, so as to provide replenishment within a haven of emotional
security. Moreover, it caters for the therapeutic needs of adults to act in childish
ways in order that they might relax – such affective, childlike behavior would not
be acceptable in the outside world but nonetheless requires release. The nuclear
family, therefore, provides a context in which stressed adults can relax and release
tensions, thus helping them cope with their busy working lives. Moreover, this
emotional support, security and the opportunity to engage in play with children,
acts as a safety valve that prevents stress from overwhelming adult family members.
As a result it both stabilizes the adult personality by destressing the individual and
strengthens social bonds within the family as well as stability in wider society.
Parsons particularly saw marriage as essential to the health, happiness and
stability of adults in modern societies. Parsons therefore viewed the family as a
positive and beneficial place for all its members – as ‘home sweet home’, as a
‘haven in a heartless world’ and a place in which people could be their natural
selves.
Parsons argued that this new nuclear unit provided the husband and wife with
very clear and distinct social roles. Parsons claimed that the male should be the
‘instrumental leader’ –responsible for the economic welfare and living standards of
the family group and the protection of other family members. He is the wageearner
and consequently the head of the household.
Parsons claimed that the female is best suited to being the ‘expressive leader’ – this
means that the mother and wife should be primarily responsible for the
socialization of children and particularly the emotional care and support of family
members. Parsons argued that this sexual division of labour is ‘natural’ because it
is based on biological differences. However, Parsons did see the relationship
between husbands and wives as complementary, with each equally contributing to
the maintenance of the family but in a qualitatively different way.
In conclusion, then, Parsons argued that extended families, with their emphasis on
tradition, hindered progress and modernity. In contrast, he argued that the nuclear
family unit was superior because it was more adaptable to the needs of modern
industrial societies. Parsons believed that only the modern nuclear family could
produce dutiful citizens and the achievementorientated and geographically
mobile workforce required to make modern industrial economies successful.
Evaluating Parsons
Ronald Fletcher (1988), argues that Parsons was wrong to suggest that the nuclear
family had undergone a ‘loss of functions’. Fletcher argues that the nuclear family
continues to perform three unique and crucial functions that no other social
institution can carry out in most of the societies in which it is found. These
include: satisfying the longterm sexual and emotional needs of parents; raising
children in a stable environment; and the provision of a home to which all family
members return after work, school and so on.
Moreover, Fletcher argues that the nuclear family continues to perform the functions
that Parsons believes it lost to the state. He observes that most parents continue to
take primary responsibility for providing their children with educational supports
and daily health care. Moreover, even after children have left home to marry or
have moved away to work, parents continue to provide welfare for their children
and extended kin. Deborah Chambers (2012) agrees and observes that many
nuclear families continue to ‘opt in’ to provide care or financial support to
extended kin.
Fletcher argues that the western governments never intended to replace the family
and that the role of social policy is actually to supplement the functions of the
family, for example by providing social, economic and educational supports such as
postnatal care, free health care from the cradle to the grave, and compulsory
education.
Fletcher accepts that the nuclear family has largely lost its economic function of
production, although many familybased companies continue to be successful.
However, Fletcher argues that the family functions as a major unit of economic
consumption because the modern nuclear family spends a great proportion of its
income on family or home orientated consumer goods, such as the family car,
garden paraphernalia, the latest electrical appliances for the kitchen and leisure use,
and toys. The consumption function of the family therefore motivates its members
as workers to earn as much as possible as well as motivating capitalist
entrepreneurs and businesses to produce and market what families want. In other
words, the nuclear family is essential to a successful economy.
Parsons has also been accused of neglecting agency and free will. Interactionist
sociologists argue that Parsons paints a picture of children as ‘empty vessels’ being
pumped full of culture by their parents. They claim that this is an over
deterministic and passive view of children which fails to acknowledge that in
reality socialization is a twoway interaction in which children have the power to
modify their parents’ behaviour, for example, by taking part in family decision
making with regard to consumer spending, television viewing, use of social media
sites and so on.
Historians suggest that Parsons was far too simplistic in his interpretation of the
impact of industrialisation on the family. They point out that the evidence suggests
that industrialisation follows different historical patterns in different industrial
societies. For example, until the 1980s, the Japanese experience of industrialisation
stressed the importance of a job for life with the same company. Employees were
encouraged to view the company and their workmates as part of a larger extended
family and consequently duty and obligation were encouraged as important cultural
values. As a result, Japanese extended kinship networks continue to exert a
profound influence on their members and the isolated nuclear family failed to gain a
significant foothold in Japanese culture.
Other social historians claim, that Parsons confuses cause and effect. For example,
Parsons hypothesises that industrialisation resulted in the decline of the extended
family and its replacement with the nuclear family. However, this is not supported
by the limited historical data that we have. Social historians now hypothesise that
industrialisation was able to take off so quickly and effectively in some societies
because nuclear families already existed in large numbers, so people could move
quickly to those parts of the country where their skills were in demand. Similarly,
studies of urban areas undergoing industrialisation suggest that the need for the
extended family was actually strengthened by migration to towns and cities. For
example, extended kinship networks probably functioned as a mutual economic
support system for migrants. It is very likely that migrants sought out extended kin
when they arrived in an urban area and that such kin pooled their wages in order to
share the high cost of rents and to help out kin who were sick, disabled and elderly.
Moreover, in European countries such as the UK, social surveys indicate that the
extended family continued to exist well into the late 20th century.
Parsons presents a very positive picture of relationships within the nuclear family,
but evidence suggests that living in such a unit can sometimes be very dysfunctional
or harmful to its members. As David Cheal (2002) notes, functional relationships
can easily slip into damaging relationships, and love can often turn into hate in
moments of intense emotion. He notes that ‘we have to face the paradox that
families are contexts of love and nurturance, but they are also contexts of violence
and murder’. (Cheal 2002, p. 8).
Feminists are critical of functionalists for ignoring the ‘dark side of family life’.
They point out that in many societies, most recorded murders of women and
children, assaults and abuse of children, sexual or otherwise, take place within the
family unit. For example, the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women
(UNCSW) estimated that of all women who were the victims of homicide globally in
2012, almost half were killed by intimate partners or family members, compared
to less than six per cent of men killed in the same year. The UNCSW also observed
that fortythree per cent of women in the 28 European Union Member States have
experienced some form of psychological violence by an intimate partner in their
lifetime. Feminists are particularly critical of functionalism which they describe as a
patriarchal ideology that justifies sexism, misogyny and gender inequality in its
insistence that family roles are somehow biological in origin, and that males and
females are somehow more ‘naturally’ suited to being instrumental leaders and
expressive leaders respectively. Feminists such as Cordelia Fine (2018) point out that
there is absolutely no scientific evidence for such assertions.
Approach 3 – the work of Young and Wilmott.
The British functionalists Michael Young and Peter Wilmott (1957) are often referred
to as ‘March of Progress’ theorists because they see nuclear families as an
improvement on the extended families which they argue preceded them in the UK.
They carried out a number of surveys between the 1950s and 1970s and came to the
following conclusions;
They found evidence that extended families were fairly common in workingclass
communities in Britain until the 1960s. Most families, maintained strong relations
with extended kin who would mutually support one another. Male relatives might
help others find jobs or lend one another money. Female relatives would help other
female relatives out with childcare and the care of elderly or sick kin.
However, Young and Wilmott (1973) found that most of these families had evolved
into a new type of nuclear family called the symmetrical family by the 1970s.
there are many reasons for this progress;
the movement of bright workingclass people into universities and their
movement away from the areas in which they were raised in search of work;
slum clearance and the building of new council estates,
the rise in wages and standard of living,
women going out to work in large numbers and the appearance of dual
career and dualincome families
improvements in technology which made the home a more attractive place
for both men and women.
However, despite the fact that most people now live in nuclear units, most people
are probably members of dispersed extended families which means that although
their extended kin (siblings, aunts, uncles, cousins) are geographically scattered,
family members still retain contact via digital technology platforms such as
Facebook, Skype and email. There is also evidence that extended kin still physically
come together for special occasions or because they feel a strong sense of duty or
obligation to help and support one another in times of family crisis, for example,
when children are born or when elderly relatives suffer debilitating illnesses.