Govt College University for Women Faisalabad

Department of Physics

Course Title: Advanced Physics lab

Course Code: PHY-621

Submitted to:

Mam Aatiqa

Summitted By:

Saira Afzal (01)

Jawaria Yasin (45)

Mehreen Mujahid (65)

Zainab Waseem (71)

Nazish Bulquess (77)

Date of Submission:
 FABRY-PEROT INTERFEROMETER

Introduction

The Fabry-Perot interferometer uses the phenomenon of multiple beam interference that
arises when light shines through a cavity bounded by two reflective parallel surfaces. Each
time the light encounters one of the surfaces, a portion of it is transmitted out, and the
remaining part is reflected back. The net effect is to break a single beam into multiple beams
which interfere with each other. If the additional optical path length of the reflected beam
(due to multiple reflections) is an integral multiple of the light's wavelength, then the
reflected beams will interfere constructively. More is the number of reflection inside the
cavity, sharper is the interference maximum. Using Fabry-Perot (FP) interferometer as a
spectroscopic tool, concepts of finesse and free spectral range can be understood.

Principle of Working

The basic principle of working of the Fabry-Perot interferometer is schematically explained

in the adjacent figure.

Two partial mirrors G and G2 are aligned parallel to one another at a distance d, forming a
reflective cavity. When irradiated by a monochromatic light (a laser here) of wavelength A at
an angle of incidence 8, multiple reflections takes place inside the cavity. Part of the light is
transmitted each time the light reaches the second reflecting surface. All such transmitted
light rays interfere with each other to give rise to a maxima or minima depending on the path
difference between them. Let n be the refractive index of the medium in the cavity (in this
case it is air). Then the optical path difference between two neighboring rays is:

∆=2 ndcosθ … … (1)

2π
Then the phase difference is given by δ = ∆ … … ..(2)
λ

In the figure below calculation of path difference is shown for a general cavity is shown
where α and β are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

Thus, the resultant transmitted light intensity IT is:

1
I T =I o
4R
1+ ¿
¿¿

where, lo is the incident intensity, R is the reflectivity of the mirrors. It can be noticed

that IT varies with δ .

IT is maximum when Δ = mλ (m = 0, 1, 2…) or δ = 2m π … … ..(4)

and minimum when Δ = (2m +1)λ/2 (m =0, 1, 2…) or δ = (2m+1) π … … ..(5)

The complete interference pattern appears as a set of concentric rings. The sharpness of the
rings depends on a parameter called coefficient of finesse, F, defined as
 4R
F=
¿¿

Determination of wavelength λ:

Using the relations 1 and 4 (or 5) wavelength of the incident light can be determined
accurately. Let the initial separation between the mirrors is d1. If one counts the number of
fringes (say maxima) appearing or disappearing at the center (θ ≈0) by varying the distance
between the mirrors to d2, then λ can be determined as follows:

2d1 =m1 λ, 2d2=m2 λ, m2 – m1 = Number of maxima counted

2 ( d 2−d 1 )
λ= … … … .. ( 6 )
m2−m1

Apparatus:

1. Optical Rail (1 meter)

2. Fabry-Perot setup (Fixed Mirror mount with Two Etalon)

3. Movable Mirror with Kinematic and fine linear Micrometer (0-10 mm)

4. Diode Laser mount with Kinematic (5 V) Power Supply

5. Achromatic Lens mount

6. Frosted Glass viewing Screen and mount with Micrometer

Procedure:

I. Alignment of Fabry-Perot Interferometer to observe concentric circular

fringes
 Mount and lock the diode laser on the optical rail towards one end.
 Mount the Fabry-Perot interferometer towards the middle of the optical rail (about 40
cm from laser). It has one fixed and one movable mirror as shown in Fig. 4.
 Adjust the three screws behind the movable mirror to make sure that the two mirrors
are visibly parallel to each other approximately and the distance between them is
about 2mm.
 Make sure that the two mirrors never touch each other's surfaces.
 Mount the ground glass screen at the other extreme end.
 Switch on the diode laser and adjust it such that the beam passes through the center
of the two mirrors. Adjust the two black screws (for movement in x and y directions)
behind the movable mirror to let the multiple reflected beams coincide on the screen.
It means both the mirrors are now nearly parallel.
 Place a lens (f= 100mm) in front of the laser to expand the beam to create a broad
source. Adjust the position of the lens so that the entire reflection cavity is
illuminated. With all the components perfectly set, the observer can find a series of
very intense, concentric circular interference rings on the ground glass screen.

II. Measurement of the Wavelength of a diode Laser

 Setup the F-P interferometer as described above to observe clear circular fringes at
the center of the ground glass screen.
 Determine the least count of the micrometer screw attached to the movable mirror.
Record the reading d1 of the fine micrometer. Movable Mirror Fixed Mirror 5
 Turn the micrometer slowly and count the number of fringes that appear (or
disappear) at the center of the ground glass screen. Keep on recording the
micrometer reading d2 after every count 50 fringes.
CAUTION:

The micrometer screw is extremely sensitive. So move it very slowly to avoid collapse of
many fringes while counting, which will lead to error.

 Acquire enough data and fill up the observation table. Plot a suitable graph to get a
straight line. Find slope of the graph and use Eq. 6 to determine λ.

Observation Table:

Least count of micrometer = .....

Initial position of micrometer, d1 = .....

Sr. No. of fringes No. of divisions rotated on d2-d1

No. appeared/disappeared micrometer (cm)
m2-m1
1 50

2 100

3 150

4 ……

5 ……

Graph:

From graph, using least square fit, find Slope = ....

Calculations: λ = ..... Estimation of error:

Precautions:

1. Do not touch or contact in any way either the front or back surfaces of the mirror
pieces. Doing so will permanently damage the mirror coatings.
2. Avoid eye exposure to the direct laser beam.
3. Move the micrometer screw very slowly.
Measurement of Electrical conductivity by Two-probes and Four-probe
Methods.

Electrical conductivity:

A material’s conductivity,
σ, (or the inverse property,
resistivity, ρ = 1/σ),
relates to its ability to
conduct electricity. In
metals, conduction of
electricity is tantamount to
conduction of electrons,
which depends on
charge density and on
scattering of the electrons
by the crystal lattice
(phonons) or by lattice
imperfections
A material’s conductivity,
σ, (or the inverse property,
resistivity, ρ = 1/σ),
relates to its ability to
conduct electricity. In
metals, conduction of
electricity is tantamount to
conduction of electrons,
which depends on
charge density and on
scattering of the electrons
by the crystal lattice
(phonons) or by lattice
imperfections
A material's conductivity, 6, (or the inverse property, resistivity, p = 1/6), relates to its ability
to conduct electricity. Its SI unit is Siemens per meter (S/m).

Electrical conductivity (o) is the reciprocal of the electrical resistivity (p):

σ = 1/p

where resistivity for a material with a uniform cross section is:

p = RA/1

where R is the electrical resistance, A is the cross-sectional area, and 1 is the length of the
material

In metals, conduction of electricity is amount to conduction of electrons, which depends on

charge density and on scattering of the electrons by the crystal lattice (phonons) or by lattice
imperfections. In semiconductors, conductivity is determined by the number of available
charge carriers (electrons or holes) and the carrier mobility.

Electrical conductivity in liquids is another matter entirely. Here, the charge carriers are ions:
electrically imbalanced atoms or molecules that are free to drift because they are not "locked"
into a lattice structure as is the case with solid substances. The degree of electrical
conductivity of any liquid is therefore dependent on the ion density of the solution (how
many ions freely exist per unit volume of liquid). When a voltage is applied across two points
of a liquid solution, negative ions will drift toward the anode and positive ions will drift
toward the cathode. Electrical conductivity in gases is much the same: ions are the charge
carriers.

Two-electrode conductivity probes

The electrical conductivity of a liquid solution can be measure by passing an

electric current through it. The most primitive form of conductivity sensor (sometimes
referred to as a conductivity cell) consists of two metal electrodes inserted in the solution,
connected to a circuit designed to measure conductance (G), the reciprocal of resistance
(1/R):

A general problem faced with electrical measurements of liquid conductance is that the
derived conductance value (G) does not tell us much about the liquid itself, because that
measurement depends just as much on the geometry of the plates (their area A and separation
distance d) as it does on the ionic activity of the liquid solution. If we are trying to analyze
the liquid all by itself, what we really need is a measurement of specific conductivity (k, or
conductance) independent of plate geometry.

The mathematical relationship between conductance (G), plate area (A), plate distance (d),
and the actual conductivity of the liquid (k) is expressed in the following formula:

A
G=k
d

Where,

G = Conductance, in Siemens (S)

k = Specific conductance (conductivity) of liquid, in Siemens per centimeter (S/cm)

A = Electrode area (each), in square centimeters (cm 2)

d = Electrode separation distance, in centimeters (cm)

Manipulating this formula to solve for conductivity (k) of the liquid:

Gd
k=
A

The unit of Siemens per centimeter for liquid conductivity may seem odd at first, but it is
necessary to account for all the units present in the variables of the equation. A simple
dimensional analysis proves this:

k=
[ ]
Gd S
A cm
=
[ S ][ cm ]
[ cm2 ]

In order to quantity the plate geometry for any particular cell, manufacturers typically express
the d/A fraction as a single value called the cell constant, symbolized by the Greek letter
"theta" (θ ) and expressed in the unit of inverse centimeters (cm−1)

θ=
[ ]
d 1
A cm
=[ cm ] =
−1 [ cm ]
[ cm2 ]

Substituting θ for the quotient d/A in the conductivity formula reveals conductivity to be the
simple product of measured conductance (G) and the cell constant:

k =Gθ

Where,

k = Specific conductivity of liquid, in Siemens per centimeter (S /cm)

G = Conductance, in Siemens (S)

θ = Cell constant, in inverse centimeters (cm−1)

The following photograph shows an example of such a direct-contact style of conductivity

probe, consisting of stainless-steel electrodes contacting the fluid flowing through a glass
tube:
Two-electrode conductivity cells are not very practical in real applications, because mineral
and metal ions attracted to the electrodes tend to "foul" the electrodes over time forming
solid, insulating barriers on the electrodes. While this "electroplating" action may be
substantially reduced by using AC instead of DC to excite the sensing circuit, it is usually not
enough. Over time, the conductive barriers formed by ions bonded to the electrode surfaces
will create calibration errors by making the instrument "think" the liquid is less conductive
than it actually is.

Four-electrode conductivity probes:

A very old electrical technique known as the Kelvin or four-wire resistance-measuring

method is a practical solution to the problem of electrode fouling faced by two-electrode
conductivity probe.

In the case of conductivity measurement, it is not wire resistance that we care to ignore, but
rather the added resistance caused by fouling of the electrodes. By using four electrodes
instead of two, we are able to measure voltage dropped across a length of liquid solution
only, and completely ignore the resistive effects of electrode fouling:
In the 4-wire conductivity cell, any electrode fouling will merely burden the current source
by causing it to output a greater voltage, but it will not affect the amount of voltage detected
by the two inner electrodes as that electric current pass through the liquid. Any fouling that
happens to occur on the two inner electrodes is of no effect to our conductivity measurement
because these inner electrodes carry negligible current. With little or no current through the
inner electrodes, there will be negligible voltage dropped across any resistive coating that
happens to form on them, and thus the voltmeter will still register the true voltage dropped by
the liquid solution.

If the solution's conductivity is defined as the product of the measured conductance and the
cell constant (k =Gθ ), and conductance is defined as the ratio of current to voltage
(G = 1/V), then we may determine conductivity from voltage and current measurements by
combining these two equations:

1
k =Gθ ∴ G=
V

1
k= θ
V
Some conductivity instruments employ a second voltmeter to measure the voltage dropped
between the "excitation" electrodes, to indicate electrode fouling:

Any form of electrode fouling will cause this secondary voltage measurement to
disproportionately exceed the first, thus providing an indicator that instrument technicians
may use for predictive maintenance (telling them when the probes need cleaning or
replacement). Meanwhile, the primary voltmeter will do its job of accurately measuring
liquid conductivity so long as the current source is still able to output its normal amount of
current.