Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research

Vol 33, September 2008, pp. 304-317

Characterization techniques for nanotechnology applications in textiles

M Joshia, A Bhattacharyya & S Wazed Ali
Department of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110 016, India

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are considered to be the key technologies for the current century. Efforts are being
made worldwide to create smart and intelligent textiles by incorporating various nanoparticles or creating nanostructured
surfaces and nanofibres which lead to unprecedented level of textile performance, such as stain resistant, self-cleaning,
antistatic, UV protective, etc. However, there are many challenges in the research and development of nanotechnology based
products. The precise control of nanoparticle size, size distribution, dispersion at nanolevel and deposition on textile
substrate needs sophisticated characterization techniques, such as particle size analyzer, electron microscopy
(SEM/TEM/HRTEM), atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photon spectroscopy, etc.
This paper discusses the basic principle and applications of these instrumental techniques in the field of nanotechnology
research in textiles.

Keywords: Atomic force microscopy, Electron microscopy, Nanocomposite, Nanofibres, Nanomaterials, Particle size analyzer

1 Introduction nanomaterial incorporated textiles for applications in

Over the past few decades nano size and nano medical, defence, aerospace and other technical
dimensional materials whose structures exhibit textile applications such as filtration, protective
significantly novel and improved physical, chemical clothing besides a range of smart and intelligent
and biological properties, phenomena, and textiles.
functionality due to their nanoscaled size, have drawn The fundamental of nanotechnology lies in the fact
much interest. Nanotechnology is an emerging that properties of materials change dramatically when
interdisciplinary area that is expected to have wide their size is reduced to the nanometer range. But
ranging implications in all fields of science and measuring this nano dimension is not a very easy task.
technology such as material science, mechanics, Although research is going on to synthesise
electronics, optics, medicine, plastics, energy, nanostructured and nanophasic materials,
aerospace, etc. Nanophasic and nanostructured characterizing these nano sized materials is also an
materials are also attracting a great deal of attention of emerging field posing lot of challenges to scientists
the textile and polymer researchers and industrialists and technonologists. Thus, nanotechnology has
because of their potential applications for achieving motivated the upsurge in research activities on the
specific processes and properties, especially for discovery and invention of sophisticated nano
functional and high performance textiles applications. characterization techniques to allow a better control of
The nanotechnology research in the textile area morphology, size and dimensions of materials in nano
mainly centres on creating unique properties in range. The important characterization techniques used
everyday fabric such as self-cleaning, water and oil for nanotechnology research in textiles widely
repellency, stain proof, antibacterial, UV protective, covering areas such as nanofinishing, nanocoating,
antistatic, improved moisture regain and comfort in nanocomposites and nanofibres have been reviewed
synthetic based textiles but without compromising the in this paper.
original hand, breathability and durability of the
fabric. It also shows promising applications in 2 Nanomaterial Characterization by Microscopy
developing advanced textile materials such as Optical microscopes are generally used for
nanocomposite fibres, nanofibres and other observing micron level materials with reasonable
resolution. Further magnification cannot be achieved
_________________
a
To whom all the correspondence should be addressed. through optical microscopes due to aberrations and
E-mail: mangala@textile.iitd.ernet.in limit in wavelength of light. Hence, the imaging
 JOSHI et al.: CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN TEXTILES 305

techniques such as scanning electron microscopy scattered electrons and characteristic X-rays are
(SEM), transmission electron microscopy generated that contain information about the sample's
(TEM/HRTEM), scanning tunneling microscopy surface topography, composition, etc. The SEM can
(STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), etc. have produce very high-resolution images of a sample
been developed to observe the sub micron size surface, revealing details about 1-5 nm in size in its
materials. Though the principles of all the techniques primary detection mode i.e. secondary electron imaging.
are different but one common thing is that they Characteristic X-rays are the second most common
produce a highly magnified image of the surface or imaging mode for an SEM. These characteristic X-rays
the bulk of the sample. Nanomaterials can only be are used to identify the elemental composition of the
observed through these imaging techniques as human sample by a technique known as energy dispersive X-
eye as well as optical microscope cannot be used to ray (EDX). Back-scattered electrons (BSE) that come
see dimensions at nano level. Basic principles and from the sample may also be used to form an image.
applications of all these imaging techniques used in BSE images are often used in analytical SEM along with
nanotechnology research are described below. the spectra made from the characteristic X-rays as clues
to the elemental composition of the sample.
2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) In a typical SEM, the beam passes through pairs of
The scanning electron microscope (Fig. 1) is an scanning coils or pairs of deflector plates in the
electron microscope that images the sample surface electron column to the final lens, which deflect the
by scanning it with a high energy beam of electrons. beam horizontally and vertically so that it scans in a
Conventional light microscopes use a series of glass raster fashion over a rectangular area of the sample
lenses to bend light waves and create a magnified surface. Electronic devices are used to detect and
image while the scanning electron microscope creates amplify the signals and display them as an image on a
the magnified images by using electrons instead of cathode ray tube in which the raster scanning is
light waves.1 synchronized with that of the microscope. The image
displayed is therefore a distribution map of the
2.1.1 Basic Principle
intensity of the signal being emitted from the scanned
When the beam of electrons strikes the surface of the
area of the specimen.
specimen and interacts with the atoms of the sample,
SEM requires that the specimens should be
signals in the form of secondary electrons, back
conductive for the electron beam to scan the surface
and that the electrons have a path to ground for
conventional imaging. Non-conductive solid
specimens are generally coated with a layer of
conductive material by low vacuum sputter coating or
high vacuum evaporation. This is done to prevent the
accumulation of static electric charge on the specimen
during electron irradiation. Non-conducting
specimens may also be imaged uncoated using
specialized SEM instrumentation such as the
"Environmental SEM" (ESEM) or in field emission
gun (FEG) SEM operated at low voltage, high
vacuum or at low vacuum, high voltage.
2.1.2 Applications
The SEM shows very detailed three dimensional
images at much high magnifications (up to ×300000)
as compared to light microscope (up to × 10000). But
as the images are created without light waves, they are
black and white. The surface structure of polymer
nanocomposites, fracture surfaces, nanofibres,
nanoparticles and nanocoating can be imaged through
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of SEM1 SEM with great clarity. As very high resolution images
306 INDIAN J FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

Fig. 2(a) Electrospun nylon 6 nanofibres with surface bound silver nanoparticles2, (b) peptide nanofibre scaffold for tissue
engineering3, and (c) SEM image of plied CNT yarn4

of the dimension 1 – 5 nm can be obtained, SEM is the

most suitable process to study the nanofibres and
nanocoatings on polymeric/textile substrate.
Electrospun nanofibres are extensively studied in
biomedical, environmental and other technical textile
applications for their huge surface area. Electrospun
nylon 6 nanofibres decorated with surface bound
silver nanoparticles used for antibacterial air purifier
can be characterized using SEM (Fig 2a).2 In tissue
engineering or cell culture applications, the SEM
image is the prime characterization technique for
scaffold construction, cell development and growth
(Fig 2b).3 SEM technique (Fig. 2c) is used to observe
Fig. 3 SEM surface images of (a) PP, (b & c) PP/clay
the plied CNT yarns in 3D braided structures.4 nanocomposite filament, (d) POSS nanofillers, and (e) cross
The SEM technique can also be used to view sectional view of HDPE/POSS nanocomposite fibre
dispersion of nanoparticles such as carbon nanotubes,
nanoclays and hybrid POSS nanofillers in the bulk 2.2.2 Applications
and on the surface of nanocomposite fibres and The composition or the amount of nanoparticles
coatings on yarns and fabric samples (Fig. 3).5,6 near and at the surface can be estimated using the
EDX, provided they contain some heavy metal ions.
2.2 Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDX) For example, the presence of Au, Pd and Ag
Energy dispersive X-ray analysis is a technique to nanoparticles on surface can easily be identified using
analyze near surface elements and estimate their EDX technique (Figs 4a-c). Elements of low atomic
proportion at different position, thus giving an overall number are difficult to detect by EDX. The Si-Li
mapping of the sample. detector protected by a beryllium window cannot
detect elements below an atomic number of 11 (Na).
2.2.1 Basic Principle In windowless systems, elements with as low atomic
This technique is used in conjunction with SEM. number as 4 (Be) can be detected. EDX spectra have
An electron beam strikes the surface of a conducting to be taken by focusing the beam at different regions
sample. The energy of the beam is typically in the of the same sample to verify spatially uniform
range 10-20keV. This causes X-rays to be emitted composition of the bimetallic materials. Figure 4d
from the material. The energy of the X-rays emitted shows how the incorporation of the silver
depends on the material under examination. The X- nanoparticles in the cotton cloths can be verified by
rays are generated in a region about 2 microns in EDX.8
depth, and thus EDX is not truly a surface science
technique. By moving the electron beam across the 2.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
material an image of each element in the sample can Transmission electron microscopy is a microscopy
be obtained. Due to the low X-ray intensity, images technique whereby a beam of electrons is transmitted
usually take a number of hours to acquire. through an ultra thin specimen and interacts as passes
 JOSHI et al.: CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN TEXTILES 307

Fig. 4 SEM images and EDX spectra of nanoporous materials made of (a) pure platinum, (b ) 1:1 gold-palladium, (c) 3:1 gold-
silver7 and (d) cotton cloth with silver nanoparticles8

through the sample. An image is formed from the

electrons transmitted through the specimen, magnified
and focused by an objective lens and appears on an
imaging screen.
2.3.1 Basic Principle
The contrast in a TEM image is not like the
contrast in a light microscope image. In TEM, the
crystalline sample interacts with the electron beam
mostly by diffraction rather than by absorption. The
intensity of the diffraction depends on the orientation
of the planes of atoms in a crystal relative to the Fig. 5TEM images of PP/MMT nanocomposites9
electron beam; at certain angles the electron beam is
diffracted strongly from the axis of the incoming polymeric nanocomposites or the textile samples are
beam, while at other angles the beam is largely not as hard as metals, they are cut into thin films
transmitted. Modern TEMs are equipped with (< 100 nm) using ultra-microtome with diamond knife
specimen holders that allow to tilt the specimen to a at cryogenic condition (in liquid nitrogen).
range of angles in order to obtain specific diffraction 2.3.2 Applications
conditions. Therefore, a high contrast image can be The TEM is used widely both in material
formed by blocking electrons deflected away from the science/metallurgy and biological sciences. In both
optical axis of the microscope by placing the aperture cases the specimens must be very thin and able to
to allow only unscattered electrons through. This withstand the high vacuum present inside the
produces a variation in the electron intensity that instrument. For biological specimens, the maximum
reveals information on the crystal structure. This specimen thickness is roughly 1 micrometer. To
technique, particularly sensitive to extended crystal withstand the instrument vacuum, biological
lattice defects, is known as ‘bright field’ or ‘light specimens are typically held at liquid nitrogen
field’. It is also possible to produce an image from temperatures after embedding in vitreous ice, or
electrons deflected by a particular crystal plane which fixated using a negative staining material such as
is known as a dark field image. uranyl acetate or by plastic embedding.
The specimens must be prepared as a thin foil so The properties of nanocomposites depend to a large
that the electron beam can penetrate. Materials that extent on successful nanolevel dispersion or
have dimensions small enough to be electron intercalation/exfoliation of nanoclays, therefore
transparent, such as powders or nanotubes, can be monitoring their morphology and dispersion is very
quickly produced by the deposition of a dilute sample crucial. Figure 5 shows the TEM image of the
containing the specimen onto support grids. As PP/MMT nanocomposite with the clay content of
308 INDIAN J FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

4.6 wt %. The dark line represents an individual clay 2.5 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
layer, whereas the bright area represents the PP The atomic force microscope (Fig. 7) is ideal for
matrix.9 TEM images reveal the distribution and quantitatively measuring the nanometer scale surface
dispersion of nanoparticles in polymer matrices of roughness and for visualizing the surface nano-texture
nanocomposite fibres, nanocoatings, etc. The extent on many types of material surfaces including polymer
of exfoliation, intercalation and orientation of nanocomposites and nanofinished or nanocoated
nanoparticles can also be visualized using the TEM textiles. Advantages of the AFM for such applications
micrograph. are derived from the fact that the AFM is non-
destructive technique and it has a very high three
2.4 High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy dimensional spatial resolution.
(HRTEM)
2.5.1 Basic Principle
High resolution transmission electron microscopy
The basic principle and applications of atomic
is an imaging mode of the transmission electron
force microscopy have been the subject of a number
microscope that allows the imaging of the
of excellent reviews.12-14 In atomic force microscopy,
crystallographic structure of a sample at an atomic
a probe consisting of a sharp tip (nominal tip radius is
scale.
in the order of 10 nm) located near the end of a
2.4.1 Basic Principle cantilever beam is raster scanned across the surface of
As opposed to conventional microscopy, HRTEM a specimen using piezoelectric scanners. Changes in
does not use absorption by the sample for image the tip specimen interaction are often monitored using
formation, but the contrast arises from the an optical lever detection system, in which a laser is
interference in the image plane of the electron wave reflected off of the cantilever and onto a position-
with itself. Each imaging electron interacts sensitive photodiode. During scanning, a particular
independently with the sample. As a result of the operating parameter is maintained at a constant level,
interaction with the sample, the electron wave passes and images are generated through a feedback loop
through the imaging system of the microscope where between the optical detection system and the
it undergoes further phase change and interferes as the piezoelectric scanners. There are three scan modes for
image wave in the imaging plane. It is important to AFM, namely contact mode, non contact mode and
realize that the recorded image is not a direct tapping mode.
representation of the samples crystallographic In contact mode, the tip scans the specimen in close
structure. contact with the surface of the material. The repulsive
force on the tip is set by pushing the cantilever against
2.4.2 Applications
Because of its high resolution, it is an invaluable
tool to study nanoscale properties of crystalline
material. At present, the highest resolution possible is
0.8 Å. At these small scales, individual atoms and
crystalline defects can be imaged. A typical HRTEM
image of the material is shown in Fig.6 (ref. 10).

Fig. 6HRTEM image of carbon onions10 Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of AFM11

 JOSHI et al.: CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN TEXTILES 309

Fig. 8AFM images of (a) nanofibres and (b) nanofibres laid on nonwoven substrate

the specimen’s surface with a piezoelectric

positioning element. The deflection of the cantilever
is measured and the AFM images are created. In non-
contact mode, the scanning tip hovers about 50–150 Å
above the specimen’s surface. The attractive forces
acting between the tip and the specimen are measured,
and topographic images are constructed by scanning
the tip above the surface. Tapping mode imaging is
implemented in ambient air by oscillating the
cantilever assembly at its resonant frequency (often
hundreds of kilohertz) using a piezoelectric crystal.
The piezo motion causes the cantilever to oscillate
when the tip is not in contact with the surface of a Fig. 93D views of non-contact mode AFM images of PET
textile surface (Scan area 1 µm × 1 µm) (a) untreated surface, (b)
material. The oscillating tip is then moved towards the
60s plasma treated surface, and (c) 120s plasma treated surface
surface until it begins to tap the surface. During
scanning, the vertically oscillating tip alternately consisting of fibres with diameters ranging from <300
contacts the surface and lifts off, generally at a nm to > 1000 nm. The fibres are randomly oriented
frequency of 50,000–500,000 cycles/s. As the and the pores with varying sizes are formed. The
oscillating cantilever begins to intermittently contact image also indicates that the diameter is uneven along
the surface, the cantilever oscillation is reduced due to an individual fibre. Figure 8b (ref. 15) is an AFM
energy loss caused by the tip contacting the surface. image showing the nanofibres laid onto an ordinary
The reduction in oscillation amplitude is used to nonwoven substrate.
measure the surface characteristics. A possible way to investigate the effect of plasma
processing on the morphology of the textile surfaces
2.5.2 Applications is given by AFM. AFM images of the untreated and
The use of this new tool is of importance in air plasma treated PET textile, after an exposure time
fundamental and practical research and development to the air plasma of 60 s and 120 s, are shown in Fig.
of versatile technical textiles for a variety of 9 (ref. 16). Changes in the morphology of surface
applications. Atomic force microscopy can be used to modified textile samples can also be quantified by
explore the nanostructures, properties, and surfaces root-mean-square (rms) surface roughness and surface
and interfaces of fibres and fabrics. For example, area values.16
structural characteristics of nanofibre materials,
nanolevel surface modification of textile surfaces (by 2.6 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
plasma or UV eximer lamp, etc) can be easily Scanning tunneling microscopy (Fig. 10) is an
assessed by this sophisticated technique. AFM instrument for producing surface images with atomic-
provides powerful tools for nondestructive scale lateral resolution, in which a fine probe tip is
characterization of textiles. The image in Fig. 8a scanned over the surface of a conducting specimen,
(ref. 15) shows the three-dimensional fibrous web, with the help of a piezoelectric crystal at a distance of
310 INDIAN J FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

Fig. 11Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite sheet under STM19

Fig. 10 Schematic view of an STM17

0.5–1 nm, and the resulting tunneling current or the

position of the tip required to maintain a constant
tunneling current is monitored.
2.6.1 Basic Principle
The principle of STM is based on the concept of
quantum tunneling. When a conducting tip is brought
very near to a metallic or semi-conducting surface, a
bias between the two can allow electrons to tunnel
through the vacuum between them. For low voltages,
this tunneling current is a function of the local density
of states at the Fermi level of the sample. Variations
in current as the probe passes over the surface are Fig. 12Schematic diagram of Raman spectrometer21
translated into an image. For STM, good resolution is
challenging technique, as it requires extremely clean
considered to be 0.1 nm lateral resolution and 0.01 nm
surfaces and sharp tips.
depth resolution. They normally generate images by
holding the current between the tip of the electrode 2.6.2 Applications
and the specimen at some constant value by using a Scanning tunneling microscopy is a powerful tool
piezoelectric crystal to adjust the distance between the in nanotechnology and nanoscience providing
tip and the specimen surface, while the tip is facilities for characterization and modification of a
piezoelectrically scanned in a raster pattern over the variety of materials. STM is successfully used to
region of specimen surface being imaged by holding detect and characterize materials like carbon
the force, rather than the electric current, between tip nanotubes (single-walled and multi-walled) and
and specimen at a set-point value. Atomic force graphine layer (Fig. 11) (ref. 18). The instrument has
microscopes similarly allow the exploration of also been used to move single nanotubes or metal
nonconducting specimens. In either case, when the atoms and molecules on smooth surfaces with high
height of the tip is plotted as a function of its lateral precision.19, 20
position over the specimen, an image that looks very 3 Nanomaterials Characterization by Spectroscopy
much like the surface topography results. The STM 3.1 Raman Spectroscopy
can be used not only in ultra high vacuum but also in Raman spectroscopy (Fig.12) is a spectroscopic
air and various other liquid or gas, at ambient and technique used in condensed matter physics and
wide range of temperatures. STM can be a chemistry to study vibrational, rotational, and other
 JOSHI et al.: CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN TEXTILES 311

low-frequency modes in a system. It relies on inelastic

scattering, or Raman scattering of monochromatic
laser light. The laser light interacts with phonons or
other excitations in the system, resulting in the energy
of the laser photons being shifted up or down. The
shift in energy gives information about the phonon
modes in the system.
3.1.1 Basic Principle
The Raman effect occurs when light impinges upon
a molecule, interacts with the electron cloud of the
bonds of that molecule and incident photon excites
one of the electrons into a virtual state. For the
spontaneous Raman effect, the molecule will be Fig. 13Shift in the Raman peak as a function of applied strain23
excited from the ground state to a virtual energy state,
and relax into a vibrational excited state, which modified MWCNT) as carbon nanotube (CNT) is a
generates stokes Raman scattering. If the molecule Raman active material.23
was already in an elevated vibrational energy state,
3.2 Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-VIS) Spectroscopy
the Raman scattering is then called anti-stokes Raman Ultraviolet spectrophotometers consist of a light
scattering. A molecular polarizability change or source, reference and sample beams, a
amount of deformation of the electron cloud, with monochromator and a detector. The ultraviolet
respect to the vibrational coordinate is required for the spectrum for a compound is obtained by exposing a
molecule to exhibit the Raman effect. The amount of sample of the compound to ultraviolet light from a
the polarizability change will determine the Raman light source, such as a Xenon lamp.
scattering intensity, whereas the Raman shift is equal
to the vibrational level that is involved. 3.2.1 Basic Principle
The reference beam in the spectrophotometer
3.1.2 Applications
travels from the light source to the detector without
Raman spectroscopy is commonly used in
interacting with the sample. The sample beam
chemistry, since vibrational information is very
interacts with the sample exposing it to ultraviolet
specific for the chemical bonds in molecules. It
light of continuously changing wavelength. When the
therefore provides a fingerprint by which the molecule
emitted wavelength corresponds to the energy level
can be identified in the range of 500-2000 cm-1. Raman
which promotes an electron to a higher molecular
gas analyzers have many practical applications. For
orbital, energy is absorbed. The detector records the
instance, they are used in medicine for real-time
ratio between reference and sample beam intensities
monitoring of anaesthetic and respiratory gas mixtures
(Io/I). The computer determines at what wavelength
during surgery. In solid state physics, spontaneous
the sample absorbed a large amount of ultraviolet
Raman spectroscopy is used to characterize materials,
light by scanning for the largest gap between the two
measure temperature, and find the crystallographic
beams. When a large gap between intensities is found,
orientation of a sample. The polarization of the Raman
where the sample beam intensity is significantly
scattered light with respect to the crystal and the
weaker than the reference beam, the computer plots
polarization of the laser light can be used to find the
this wavelength as having the highest ultraviolet light
orientation of the crystal.22
absorbance when it prepares the ultraviolet
Raman active fibres, such as aramid and carbon,
absorbance spectrum.24
have vibrational modes that show a shift in Raman
frequency with applied stress. Polypropylene fibres 3.2.2 Applications
also exhibit similar shifts. The radial breathing mode In certain metals, such as silver and gold, the
is a commonly used technique to evaluate the plasmon resonance is responsible for their unique and
diameter of carbon nanotubes. Study on remarkable optical phenomena. Metallic (silver or
polycarbonate/MWCNT composite shows Raman gold) nanoparticles, typically 40–100 nm in diameter,
shift (Fig. 13) under strain for both AR-MWCNT (as scatter optical light elastically with remarkable
received MWCNT) and EP-MWCNT (surface epoxy efficiency because of a collective resonance of the
312 INDIAN J FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

conduction electrons in the metal known as surface resolution TEM images of the corresponding particle
plasmon resonance. The surface plasmon resonance are shown above their respective spectrum. This
peak in UV absorption spectra is shown by these example is a representative of the principle conclusion
plasmon resonant nanoparticles. The magnitude, peak that the peak shifts as per the particle shape and the
wavelength, and spectral bandwidth of the plasmon triangular shaped particles appear mostly red,
resonance associated with a nanoparticle are particles that form a pentagon appear green, and the
dependent on the particle’s size, shape, and material blue particles are spherical.
composition, as well as the local environment. The optical absorption spectra of metal
Besides biological labelling and nanoscale nanoparticles shift to longer wavelengths with
biosensing silver nanoparticles have received
considerable attention to the textile and polymer
researchers due to their attractive antimicrobial
properties. The surface plasmon resonance peak in
absorption spectra of silver particles is shown by an
absorption maximum at 420-500 nm. The surface
peaks vary with size, shape and concentration of the
metallic nanoparticles. Figure 14 (ref. 25) shows how
the value of λmax is shifted towards higher
wavelengths with increasing Ag content (λmax = 398
nm at 5 × 10 -4 M Ag sol and λmax = 406 nm at 5%
Ag/kaolinite) in a silver nanoparticle/kaolinite
composites. It is reported26 that the truncated
triangular silver nanoparticles with a [111] lattice
plane as the basal plane displayed the strongest
biocidal actin compared with spherical, rod shaped
nanoparticles or with Ag+ (in the form of AgNO3).
This shape of the silver nanoparticles can be
identified by observing the corresponding peak. Fig. 14UV- Vis absorption spectrum of 5 × 10 -4 M Ag sol and
Figure 15 (ref. 27) shows the spectrum of an spectra of suspensions of Ag/kaolinite samples at different silver
individual red, green, and blue particle, and the high- contents (1, 1.5 and 5% Ag)

Fig. 15 (a) Optical spectroscopy measurements of individual silver nanoparticles of different shapes and (b) colour image of a
typical sample of silver nanoparticles as viewed under the dark field microscope (top picture), and a bright field TEM image of the same
collection of silver nanoparticles (bottom picture)27
 JOSHI et al.: CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN TEXTILES 313

increasing particle size.28 The position and shape of scattered rays from other atomic planes. Under this
the plasmon absorption of silver nanoclusters are condition the reflections combine to form new
strongly dependent on the particle size, dielectric enhanced wave fronts that mutually reinforce each
medium, and surface-adsorbed species.29 According other (constructive interference). The relation by
to Mie’s theory30 only a single surface plasmon which diffraction occurs is known as the Bragg’s law
resonance (SPR) band is expected in the absorption or equation.32 As each crystalline material including
spectra of spherical nanoparticles, whereas the semi crystalline polymers as well as metal and
anisotropic particles could give rise to two or more metal oxide nanoparticles and layered silicate
SPR bands depending on the shape of the particles. nanoclays have a characteristic atomic structure, it
The number of SPR peaks increases as the symmetry will diffract X-rays in a unique characteristic
of the nanoparticle decreases.30 Thus, spherical diffraction order or pattern.
nanoparticles, circular disks, and triangular nanoplates
of silver show one, two and more peaks respectively. 4.1.2 Applications
Figure 16 (ref. 31) shows some typical UV–VIS X-ray diffraction data from polymers generally
spectra of the suspension after the reactants had been provide information about crystallinity, crystallite
mixed and sonicated under an atmosphere of air for size, orientation of the crystallites and phase
different periods of time at 270C. In this case, the composition in semi crystalline polymers. With
colour of the solution started to change from appropriate accessories, X-ray diffraction
colourless to light brown after the reaction had instrumentation can be used to study the phase change
proceeded for 15 min. This change in colour suggests as a function of stress or temperature, to determine
the formation of silver nanoparticles in the solution. lattice strain, to measure the crystalline modulus, and
with the aid of molecular modelling to determine the
4 Characterization of Nanomaterials by X-ray structure of polymer.
4.1 Wide Angle X-Ray Diffraction Besides the above-mentioned characterization this
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation similar to sophisticated technique can also be used to
light, but with a much shorter wavelength (few characterize polymer-layered silicate (clay)
Angstrom). They are produced when electrically nanocomposites. Polymer/layered silicate nanoclay
charged particles of sufficient energy are decelerated. composites have attracted great interest, both in
In an X-ray tube, the high voltage maintained across industry and in academia, because they often exhibit
the electrodes draws electrons toward a metal target remarkable improvement in materials properties at
(the anode). X-rays are produced at the point of very low clay content (3–6 wt %), when compared
impact, and radiate in all directions. with virgin polymer or conventional composites. The
4.1.1 Basic Principle use of organoclays as precursors to nanocomposite
If an incident X-ray beam encounters a crystal formation has been extended into various polymer
lattice, general scattering occurs. Although most systems (thermoset and thermoplastic) including
scattering interferes with itself and is eliminated epoxy and others.
(destructive interference), diffraction occurs when For true nanocomposites, the clay nanolayers must
scattering in a certain direction is in phase with be uniformly dispersed and exfoliated in the polymer

Fig. 16(a) UV–Vis absorption spectra taken from a reaction solution after the reactants had been mixed and sonicated in air at 27 °C for
different periods, and (b) a plot of the intensity of the plasmon peak vs reaction time
314 INDIAN J FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

matrix. The structure of polymer/layered silicates

composites has typically been established using wide
angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) analysis. By
monitoring the position, shape and intensity of the
basal reflections from the distributed silicate layers,
the nanocomposite structure (intercalated or
exfoliated) may be identified. In an exfoliated
nanocomposite, the extensive layer separation
associated with the delamination of the original
silicate layers in the polymer matrix results in the
eventual disappearance of any coherent X-ray
diffraction from the distributed silicate layers. On the
other hand, for intercalated nanocomposites, the finite
layer expansion associated with the polymer
intercalation results in the appearance of a new basal
reflection corresponding to the larger gallery height.33
Organophilic clay (also known as nanoclay) can be
obtained by simply the ion-exchange reaction of
hydrophilic clay with an organic cation such as an
alkyl ammonium or phosphonium ion to make it
compatible with polymeric matrix. The inorganic
ions, relatively small (sodium), are exchanged with Fig. 17WAXD patterns for raw montmorillonite (MMT),
more voluminous organic onium cations.34 This ion- purified montmorillonite and organoclay
exchange reaction results in widening the gap
between the single sheets, enabling organic cations
chain to move in between them. This increase in d-
space or degree of exfoliation of the polymer
nanocomposite can be obtained from Bragg equation.
The X-ray diffractograms35 of the organoclay reveals
a shift in the position of [001] planes (2θ changed
from 5⋅7o to 4⋅32o), indicating an increase in the basal
spacing of these planes (Fig. 17). The increase is
relatively large from 1⋅5 nm to 2⋅06 nm and confirms
the occurrence of organic molecule intercalation
between silicate platelets.
Fig. 18Schematic view of XPS36
4.2 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (Fig. 18) is a material gives the XPS spectra. From the kinetic
quantitative spectroscopic surface chemical analysis energy, the binding energy of the electrons to the
technique used to estimate the empirical formula or surface atoms can be calculated. The binding energy
elemental composition, chemical state and electronic of the electrons reflects the oxidation state of the
state of the elements on the surface (up to 10 nm) of a specific surface elements. The number of electrons
material. XPS is also known as ESCA, an abbreviation reflects the proportion of the specific elements on the
of electron spectroscopy of chemical analysis. surface.
4.2.1 Basic Principle As the energy of a particular X-ray wavelength
X-ray irradiation of a material under ultra-high used to excite the electron from a core orbital is a
vacuum (UHV) leads to the emission of electrons known quantity, we can determine the electron
from the core orbitals of the top 10 nm of the surface binding energy (BE) of each of the emitted electrons
elements of the material being analyzed. by using the following equation that is based on the
Measurement of the kinetic energy (KE) and the work of Ernest Rutherford (1914):
number of electrons escaping from the surface of the
 JOSHI et al.: CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN TEXTILES 315

Ebinding = Ephoton - Ekinetic – Φ unmodified sample of woven cationic cotton. As

where Ebinding is the energy of the electron emitted expected, distinctive peaks at 281.91 and 528.91 eV
from one electron configuration within the atom; indicate the presence of carbon and oxygen
Ephoton, the energy of the X-ray photons being used; respectively. A trace amount of N (nitrogen),
Ekinetic, the kinetic energy of the emitted electron as generated during the cationization process, was also
measured by the instrument; and Φ, the work function detected at 398.91 eV. Figure 20b (ref. 43) shows a
of the spectrometer (not the material).37 survey spectrum of a 20-layer PSS/PAH
polyelectrolyte film supported on a woven cationic
4.2.2 Applications cotton substrate. The distinctive peaks at 398.91eV
XPS is used to determine the elements and the and 164.91 eV have been previously used by several
quantity of those elements that are present within ~10 research groups to monitor the presence of N and S
nm of the sample surface. It also detects the originated from the PAH and PSS layers respectively.
contamination, if any, exists in the surface or the bulk 5 Particle Size Analyzer
of the sample. If the material is free of excessive There are different techniques for the measurement
surface contamination, XPS can generate empirical of particle size and its distribution (PSD) such as sieve
formula of the sample and the chemical state of one or analysis, optical counting methods, electro resistance
more of the elements can be identified. Moreover, the counting methods, sedimentation techniques, laser
technique can be used to determine the thickness of diffraction methods, dynamic light scattering method,
one or more thin layers (1–8 nm) of different acoustic spectroscopy, etc. Among them dynamic
materials within the top 10 nm of the surface. It can light scattering is mostly used for obtaining size
also measure the uniformity of elemental composition
of textile surfaces after nanolevel etching, finishing or
coating of the surfaces. The only limitation is that it
cannot detect hydrogen (Z=1) or helium (Z=2),
because these two elements do not have any core
electron orbitals, but only valence orbitals.
Figure 19 (ref. 38) is an example of a wide scan
survey spectrum using XPS which can be used to
determine the elements present and not present on a
modified and unmodified textile surface. Figure 20a
(ref. 39) illustrates a survey spectrum of an Fig. 19Wide XPS scan survey spectrum for all elements

Fig. 20XPS spectra for (a) cationically charged woven cotton fabric and (b) cationically charged woven cotton fabric supporting 20
self-assembled layers of PSS/PAH
316 INDIAN J FIBRE TEXT. RES., SEPTEMBER 2008

Fig. 22Size distribution of TiO2 nanoparticles using DLS

size distribution (Fig. 22) can be studied using DLS

technique.42 The enhanced property is dependant on
the size of the applied nanoparticles, which generally
have a tendency to agglomerate. Therefore, size and
size distribution study of the nanoparticle in the
dispersion as well as suspension is important before
applying to the textile substrates.

Fig. 21Schematic diagram of particle size analyzer40 6 Conclusions

The current trend of R & D activities in advanced
distribution of nanoparticles. materials, polymers and textiles clearly indicates a shift
5.1 Basic Principle of Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)
to nanomaterials as the new tool to improve properties
Dynamic light scattering, sometimes referred to as
and gain newer multi functionalities. However,
photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS) or quasi-
challenges and the success for the researchers in this
elastic light scattering (QELS) (Fig. 21) is a non-
invasive, well-established technique for measuring the emerging field would depend to a large extent on the
availability, cost and ease of handling and performance
size of molecules and particles typically in the
submicron region, and with the latest technology of the sophisticated instrumental techniques described
in this paper. Further, the quality and extent of
lower than 1 nanometre.
information derived through these techniques i.e. SEM,
Particles, emulsions and molecules in suspension
TEM, AFM and Raman spectroscopy, also depends to
undergo Brownian motion. This is the motion induced
a large extent on the level of understanding of the user,
by the bombardment of solvent molecules that
expertise and right sample preparation. As far as textile
themselves are moving due to their thermal energy. If
materials such as fibres, yarns, finished and coated
the particles or molecules are illuminated with a laser,
fabrics are concerned, the dispersion, impregnation or
the intensity of the scattered light fluctuates at a rate
immobilization of nanoparticles on textile surfaces can
that is dependent upon the size of the particles as
be studied through appropriate use of these techniques.
smaller particles are “kicked” further by the solvent
However, handling of textile samples poses a lot of
molecules and move more rapidly. Analysis of these
challenges and limitations due to their flexible, uneven
intensity fluctuations yields the velocity of the
and non uniform surfaces. For TEM/HRTEM, the
Brownian motion and hence the particle size (radius
sectioning of ultra-thin wafers from resin embedded
rk) using the Stokes-Einstein relationship41, as shown
fibre, yarn or fabric on a cryo ultra-microtome requires
below:
skill and patience of the user. Thus, it can be
kT summarised that nanotechnology research in textiles
rk =
6πη D has a lot of potential as a futuristic approach but would
be largely governed by simultaneous progress in the
where k is the Boltzmann's constant; T, the newer, faster, simpler and more efficient
temperature in K; η , the solvent viscosity; and D, the characterization techniques for nanomaterials,
diffusion coefficient. nanocoatings and nanocomposites used in textile
applications.
5.2 Applications
Silver, titanium, silica and zinc oxide nanoparticle
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