SIG2003

STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY I

Lecture 4: Stress

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 STRESS TENSORS & PRINCIPAL STRESSES
◼ Scalar
 Physical quantities that are not dependent of direction, eg. temperature, density, mass
 Represented by a number (magnitude only)
◼ Vector
 Physical quantities that are dependent of direction, eg. force, velocity, acceleration,
displacement
 Represented by both magnitude and direction. Represented by two numbers
◼ Tensor
 Physical quantities that require 9 numbers for their full
specification in 3D, eg. stress, strain, conductivity
 Have 2 subscripts, eg. σxy

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 STRESS TENSORS & PRINCIPAL STRESSES
◼ On a single plane (2D) stress can be resolved into 2 components (normal
stress and shear stress)
◼ To analyze the full state of stress of a body at 3D, we have to reduce the
body to a point
◼ A point defines the intersection of an infinite number of planes, each with
different orientation
◼ Stress state at a point describe the stresses acting on all the planes

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 STRESS TENSORS & PRINCIPAL STRESSES
◼ Below is a plot of stresses acting on several planes, shown in 2D.
 Magnitude of stress (length of line) is a function of orientation
 The stress on each plane is balanced by one of the opposite sign (Newton’s 3rd Law
of Motion)
 The stress vector envelope is an ellipse
 If we draw the envelope in 3D, we will get a stress ellipsoid

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STRESS TENSORS & PRINCIPAL STRESSES
◼ Stress ellipsoid fully describe the state of stress at a
point
◼ Can be use to determine the stress for any plane
◼ It can be defined by 3 axes (the principal stresses, σ1,
σ2, σ3)
◼ The principal stresses are:
 orthogonal to each other (mutually perpendicular)
 perpendicular to 3 planes that do not contain shear
stresses (the principal plane of stress)
◼ The state of stress of a body can be fully described by
specifying the orientation and magnitude of 3 principal
stresses
◼ If the principal stresses are equal in magnitude, the
stress is isotropic and the state of stress is represented
by a sphere
◼ If the principal stresses are unequal in magnitude, the
stress is anisotropic (σ1> σ2> σ3)

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 STRESS TENSORS: COMPONENT OF STRESS
◼ The orientation and magnitude of stresses
can be projected in a Cartesian reference
frame (3 mutually perpendicular axes: x,
y, z)
◼ We consider the point as an infinitely
small cube with sides perpendicular to x, y
&z
◼ Stress on each face of the cube can be
resolved into 3 components (eg. for face
normal to x, σxx is the normal stress
component, σxy and σxz are the shear
stress components

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STRESS TENSORS: COMPONENT OF STRESS

◼ From the 3 faces, we obtain 9 stress components

In the direction of
x y z
stress on the face normal to x σxx σxy σxz
stress on the face normal to y σyx σyy σyz
stress on the face normal to z σzx σzy σzz

◼ From the 9 stress components, 3 are normal stress components

(σxx, σyy, σzz), the other 6 are shear stress components
◼ Of the 6 shear stress components, 3 sets are equivalents (σxy =
σyx, σxz = σzx, σyz = σzy)
◼ So we have only 6 independent stress components, which can
fully describe the state of stress at a point in a Cartesian
reference frame

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 STRESS TENSORS: COMPONENT OF STRESS

◼ For any given state of stress, there is at least one set of 3 mutually
perpendicular planes on which the shear stresses are zero.
◼ These are the Principal Planes of Stress, and they intersect in 3 mutually
perpendicular axes (principal stress axes).
◼ The stresses acting along these axes are the principal stresses
◼ If the 3 principal stresses are equal in magnitude, the stress is isotropic (eg.
for a body submerged in water).
◼ If the 3 principal stresses are unequal in magnitude, the stress is
anisotropic.
◼ Maximum principal stress σ1 > intermediate principal stress σ2 > minimum
principal stress σ3

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 Common states of stress
General triaxial stress: σ1> σ2> σ3
◼ This is the polyaxial stress. It is probably the most common state of stress
in the brittle part of the crust, with all the principal stresses positive
(compressive).

Biaxial (plane) stress: one axis=0, eg. σ1>0> σ3

◼ Biaxial tension: Both σ2 and σ3 are nonzero and negative, whereas σ1 is
zero.
◼ Biaxial compression: Both σ1 and σ2 are non-zero and positive, whereas
σ3 is zero. This is a commonly assumed stress field for analyzing faulting in
the crust.

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 Common states of stress
Uniaxial tension: σ1= σ2=0; σ3<0
◼ Only one principal stress, namely σ3, is non-zero, its value being negative.
It is commonly used as a model when analysing fracture formation in areas
undergoing extension.

Uniaxial compression: σ2= σ3=0; σ1>0

◼ One principal stress, namely σ1, is non-zero and positive.
◼ This state of stress is often used in modelling of faulting and folding. It is
assumed that one of the horizontal compressive stresses, σ1, completely
drives the deformation, so that the other principal stresses can be taken as
zero.

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 Common states of stress
Hydrostatic stress: σ1= σ2 = σ3
◼ Isotropic compression: All possible planes are subject to equal compressive
stress and all the principal stresses are equal and compressive. There is
thus no shear stress on any plane. This state of stress may be quite
common at great depths in the crust.
◼ Isotropic tension: All possible planes are subject to equal tensile stress and
all the principal stresses are equal and tensile.

Pure shear: σ1 = −σ3 and both are non-zero, σ2 = 0.

◼ The material is simultaneously subject to tension in one direction and
compression, of equal magnitude to the tension, at right angles to the
tension.

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 Common states of stress
◼ Simple shear: The material is compressed vertically and pushed or pulled
horizontally so that it is subject to simultaneous tensile and compressive
distortion in the direction of movement (slip).
◼ This is a common model for fault zones where the fault rocks are subject
simultaneously to fault-perpendicular normal stress (analogous to the
vertical pressure) and fault-parallel shear stress (analogous to the push or
pull).

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◼ Lithostatic Stress Problem
◼ Calculate the normal stress placed on the crust by a
granite cube 1000 m on a side with a density of 2700
kgm-3

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Mass of granite cube
m=ρxV
= 2700 kgm-3 x (1000 m)3
= 2.7 x 1012 kg

Force at base of cube

F = ma
= 2700 kgm-3 x (1000 m)3 x 9.8 ms-2
= 2.65 x 1013 kg ms-2
= 2.65 x 1013 N

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Stress at base of cube:
σ=F/A
= 2700 kgm-3 x (1000 m)3 x 9.8 ms-2 / (1000 m x 1000 m)
= 2700 kgm-3 x 1000 m x 9.8 ms-2
= 2.65 x 107 Pa = 26.5 MPa
Answer
The granite block exerts a force of 26.5 MPa

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 Lithostatic Stress Gradient
◼ The stress we have calculated is called the lithostatic stress
 the vertical stress produced by column of overlying rock
 in upper crust gradient is about 26.5 MPa/km
 mantle gradient is about 35 MPa/km
 geothermal gradient approx 30 °C per 1 km
◼ Note that we can also write the lithostatic stress in terms of depth, z:
σ = F/A
= mg/A
= Vρg/A
= Azρg/A ; cancel area
= ρgz
◼ Example: lithostratic stress at 40 km depth in the continental crust :
σ = ρgh
= 2700 kgm-3 x 9.8 ms-2 x 40,000 m
= 1.05 x 109 Pa

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Relationship between Normal, Shear and Principal Stresses
◼ Maximum principal stress=σ1; intermediate principal
stress σ2 > minimum principal stress σ3
◼ Under atmospheric condition σ2= σ3
◼ To simplify the analysis we consider σ1 – σ3 plane only
(2D visualisation)
◼ Plane of maximum normal stress is when θ=0°
◼ Plane of maximum shear stress is when θ=45°
◼ For details read page 48 & 49 in van der Puluijm &
Marshak, 2003, or any structural geology text book.

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 Mohr Diagram
◼ Mohr diagram is used to calculate normal and shear stresses from the orientation and magnitude of
two of the three principal stresses.
◼ This diagram graphically illustrates in two dimensions (σn & σs) the complex mathematical
relationships between the stress components.
◼ It can be defined as a circle with radius (σ1 - σ3)/2, centred on the x-axis at a distance of (σ1 + σ3)/2
from the origin.
◼ Centre of the circle is the mean stress (σm).
◼ Maximum shear stress = (σ1 - σ3)/2.
◼ Differential stress = σ1 - σ3

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Mohr Diagram
General triaxial stress
σ1> σ2> σ3

Biaxial (plane) stress

one axis=0
eg. σ1>0> σ3

Uniaxial tension
σ1= σ2=0; σ3<0

Uniaxial compression
σ2= σ3=0; σ1>0

Hydrostatic stress
σ1= σ2 = σ3

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◼ Total Stress can be divided into 2 components, which are responsible for different types
of deformation:
 Mean Stress (σm) = (σ1+σ2+σ3)/3
 Deviatoric Stress (σdev) = total stress minus mean stress, or
 Total Stress = Mean Stress + Deviatoric Stress
 Mean stress is isotropic; deviatoric stress is anisotropic
 Isotropic stress results in volume change only; anisotropic stress can results in change in
shape

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