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CAPE Information Technology Unit 1
Unit 1 Module 2
Topic: Computer Networks
Objective: describe networking standards (Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model,
Transfer Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol TCP/IP Model)
Open System Interconnection Model1
The OSI Model Defined

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
describe the functions of a networking system. The OSI model characterizes computing
functions into a universal set of rules and requirements in order to support interoperability
between different products and software. In the OSI reference model, the communications
between a computing system are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data
Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.
Created at a time when network computing was in its infancy, the OSI was published in 1984
by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Though it does not always map
directly to specific systems, the OSI Model is still used today as a means to describe Network
Architecture.
The 7 Layers of the OSI Model
1
Taken directly from: https://www.forcepoint.com/cyber-edu/osi-
model#:~:text=The%20OSI%20Model%20(Open%20Systems,between%20different%20products%20and%20s
oftware.
Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI Model is concerned with electrically or optically transmitting raw
unstructured data bits across the network from the physical layer of the sending device to the
physical layer of the receiving device. It can include specifications such as voltages, pin
layout, cabling, and radio frequencies. At the physical layer, one might find “physical”
resources such as network hubs, cabling, repeaters, network adapters or modems.
Data Link Layer

At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform node-to-node data
transfer where data is packaged into frames. The data link layer also corrects errors that may
have occurred at the physical layer.
The data link layer encompasses two sub-layers of its own. The first, media access control
(MAC), provides flow control and multiplexing for device transmissions over a network. The
second, the logical link control (LLC), provides flow and error control over the physical
medium as well as identifies line protocols.
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer, and delivering
them to their intended destinations among based on the addresses contained inside the frame.
The network layer finds the destination by using logical addresses, such as IP (internet
protocol). At this layer, routers are a crucial component used to quite literally route
information where it needs to go between networks.
Transport Layer
The transport layer manages the delivery and error checking of data packets. It regulates the
size, sequencing, and ultimately the transfer of data between systems and hosts. One of the
most common examples of the transport layer is TCP or the Transmission Control Protocol.
Session Layer
The session layer controls the conversations between different computers. A session or
connection between machines is set up, managed, and terminated at layer 5. Session layer
services also include authentication and reconnections.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on the syntax
or semantics that the application accepts. Because of this, it at times also called the syntax
layer. This layer can also handle the encryption and decryption required by the application
layer.
Application Layer
At this layer, both the end user and the application layer interact directly with the software
application. This layer sees network services provided to end-user applications such as a web
browser or Office 365. The application layer identifies communication partners, resource
availability, and synchronizes communication.
TCP/IP Protocol and Model2
What is TCP/IP?
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of
communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP is also
used as a communications protocol in a private computer network (an intranet or extranet).
The entire IP suite -- a set of rules and procedures -- is commonly referred to as
TCP/IP. TCP and IP are the two main protocols, though others are included in the suite. The
TCP/IP protocol suite functions as an abstraction layer between internet applications and the
routing and switching fabric.
TCP/IP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet by providing end-to-end
communications that identify how it should be broken into packets, addressed, transmitted,
routed and received at the destination. TCP/IP requires little central management and is
designed to make networks reliable with the ability to recover automatically from the failure
of any device on the network.
The two main protocols in the IP suite serve specific functions. TCP defines how applications
can create channels of communication across a network. It also manages how a message is
assembled into smaller packets before they are then transmitted over the internet and
reassembled in the right order at the destination address.
IP defines how to address and route each packet to make sure it reaches the right destination.
Each gateway computer on the network checks this IP address to determine where to forward
the message.
Common TCP/IP protocols include the following:

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) handles the communication between a web
server and a web browser.
 HTTP Secure handles secure communication between a web server and a web
browser.
 File Transfer Protocol handles transmission of files between computers.
How does TCP/IP work?

TCP/IP uses the client-server model of communication in which a user or machine (a client)
is provided a service, like sending a webpage, by another computer (a server) in the network.
Collectively, the TCP/IP suite of protocols is classified as stateless, which means each client
request is considered new because it is unrelated to previous requests. Being stateless frees up
network paths so they can be used continuously.
It transmits a single message, and its connection remains in place until all the packets in a
message have been received and reassembled at the destination.
The TCP/IP model differs slightly from the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
networking model designed after it. The OSI reference model defines how applications can
communicate over a network.
2
Taken directly from: https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/TCP-IP
Why is TCP/IP important?
TCP/IP is non-proprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single company.
Therefore, the IP suite can be modified easily. It is compatible with all operating systems
(OSes), so it can communicate with any other system. The IP suite is also compatible with all
types of computer hardware and networks.
TCP/IP is highly scalable and, as a routable protocol, can determine the most efficient path
through the network. It is widely used in current internet architecture.
The 4 layers of the TCP/IP model

TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which includes specific protocols:
1. The application layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its
protocols include HTTP, FTP, Post Office Protocol 3, Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol and Simple Network Management Protocol. At the application layer, the
payload is the actual application data.
2. The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications
across the network. TCP handles communications between hosts and provides flow
control, multiplexing and reliability. The transport protocols include TCP and User
Datagram Protocol, which is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes.
3. The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The
network layer protocols are IP and Internet Control Message Protocol, which is used
for error reporting.
4. The physical layer, also known as the network interface layer or data link layer,
consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component that
interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The protocols in this lowest layer include
Ethernet for local area networks and Address Resolution Protocol.
Uses of TCP/IP
TCP/IP can be used to provide remote login over the network for interactive file transfer to
deliver email, to deliver webpages over the network and to remotely access a server host's file
system. Most broadly, it is used to represent how information changes form as it travels over
a network from the concrete physical layer to the abstract application layer. It details the
basic protocols, or methods of communication, at each layer as information passes through.
Pros and cons of TCP/IP

The advantages of using the TCP/IP model include the following:
 helps establish a connection between different types of computers;
 works independently of the OS;
 supports many routing protocols;
 uses client-server architecture that is highly scalable;
 can be operated independently;
 supports several routing protocols; and
 is lightweight and doesn't place unnecessary strain on a network or computer.
The disadvantages of TCP/IP include the following:
 is complicated to set up and manage;
 transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets;
 is not easy to replace protocols in TCP/IP;
 does not clearly separate the concepts of services, interfaces and protocols, so it is not
suitable for describing new technologies in new networks; and
 is especially vulnerable to a synchronization attack, which is a type of denial-of-
service attack in which a bad actor uses TCP/IP.
OSI vs. TCP/IP

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CAPE Information Technology Unit 1

Open System Interconnection Model1

The OSI Model Defined

Data Link Layer

Common TCP/IP protocols include the following:

How does TCP/IP work?

The 4 layers of the TCP/IP model

Pros and cons of TCP/IP

OSI vs. TCP/IP

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