English

Anglo-American Literature 
 The United Kingdom and the United States of America have been
considered two of the most powerful states in the world for
centuries.
 However just like any other nation, they have had their humble
beginnings and their evolution brought about the colonization
political, social, and cultural changes as well as technological
advancements 
 Along with their progress, the development of their literature has
reflected their identity as a nation, struggles towards preserving
their civilization, the freedom of their ancestors, and their legacy
to the world.

Anglo-America
 Anglo-America refers to a region in the Americas in which English
is the main language and British culture and the British empire
have had a significant historical, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic
impact.

People in Anglo-America 
   Are White, English-speaking North Americans, distinct from Latin-
American descent
 People who are English speaking inhabitants of Anglo-America  
 Nations and ethnic groups in the Americas that speak English as a
native language 

The following Countries in Anglo-America

Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Dominica,
Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent,
Trinidad and Tobago, United States 

Anglo-American History
 The list below traces the key historical and cultural developments
in England and the United States of America from ancient times
down to the Modern period
 The list on the next slide traces the first four key periods that
show historical and cultural developments in England and the
United States of America. The literary genres and representative
writer/s during each period were also included.

Ancient Times (before 5th century A.D.) - England

 The Romans found the land inhabited by the “Britons” or “Celts.”
 The Britons/Celts were conquered by the Anglo-Saxons who
brought the Germanic language to the land. This language
eventually replaced Latin.
 King Alfred, the first king, brought order and prosperity to the
land.

Key Features 
  Stories are passed down from one generation to another
generation through oral tradition
 Poems were written are laden with biblical and religious themes

Genres and Representative Writers  

 Epic - long narrative poem about adventures of a hero (Epic of
Beowulf) Poems written are laden with biblical and religious
themes 
 Some of the Representative Writers in religious poems are
Cynewulf and Caedmon 

Middle Ages/ Medieval Times (5th-15th century)

 The Normans conquered the land under William, Duke of

Normandy in 1066.
 St. Augustine, the first bishop of Canterbury, converted the
Saxons.
 The feudal system was established wherein the vassals (tenants)
show obedience and loyalty to their lord for providing them
security and protection.
 Chivalric code became the basis of morals and manners for the
nobility class.
 The Hundred Years’ War between England and France started. It
ended in 1453 with England losing many of its lands to France.
 The period was interrupted by the bubonic plague that killed half
of England’s population. This tragic period was called “the Dark
Ages.”
Key Features 
 Modern English 
 Vernacular literature, religious writings, and secular texts
emerged during medieval times

Genres and Representative Writers  

 Heroic tales and romances that tackle chivalry and adventure of
knights
 Some of the Representative Writers are Geoffrey Chauce who
made  Anthology of Tales and Canterbury Tales

The Renaissance Period (1300s-1500s)

England
 It was the rebirth of culture that was destroyed by the plague.
 King Henry VIII established the Church of England.
 People rejected the authority of the Catholic Church.
 England triumphed against Spain.

United States
 It is believed that Christopher Columbus was the first explorer to
set foot in what is now known as the United States of America in
1492.
 King James I of England chartered the Virginia Company to
establish a colony in America 

Key Features 
  Texts show more optimism despite staying true to the medieval
tradition.
 Texts are centered on religious, practical, or historical themes.

Genres and Representative Writers  

  Lyric Poetry (poetry that expresses personal sentiments) William
Shakespeare Christopher Marlowe 
 Prose / Essays Francis Bacon Benjamin Franklin 

The Age of Enlightenment/Reason/Restoration (1685-1815)

England
 The Civil War broke out between 1642-1649 with the Cavaliers
(the king’s followers) and the Puritans as rivals
 Puritans won the Civil War; Charles I was executed in 1649 as a
result of the Puritan’s victory.
United States
 African slaves were transported to America to work on
plantations English colonizers won in the Seven Years War against
the French in some areas of North America 
 It was a period of great economic and scientific achievements.
 The Americans started to protest against English rule.
 The English colonizers won in the Seven Years War against the
French in some areas of North America 

Key Features
 Philosophy, reason, skepticism towards institutions/authorities,
wit, and refinement 
 Clarity and balance of judgment in writing

Genres and Representative Writers

 Comedy of Manners William Wycherley 
 Play (John Dryden), Essay (John Locke) Satire (Jonathan Swift),
Novel (Daniel Defoe)

The Romantic to Realistic Period

  The Victorian Period
 This era saw Queen Victoria’s longest reign as a monarch.
 More and more scientific and technological developments
occurred.
 The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776.
 America won over the Spanish during the war in 1898. America
rose to world power.
England 
 Many rose to the middle class but the poor remained poor.

 United States
 Slavery was abolished in the 13th amendment
 American won over the Spanish during the 1898 war. America
rose to world power 

Key Features
 Romantic Period: true, good, beautiful, human spirit, and love for
nature 
 Realistic Writers: societal problems; the plight of the common
people 

Genres and Representative Writers

 Gothic Fiction Edgar Allan Poe
 Political Documents Thomas Paine’s Common Sense 

The Modern to Contemporary Period (1900-present)

 This period saw World War I and World War II which caused the
death of millions of people and brought economic losses to many
nations.
 The wars brought disillusionment, confusion, and paranoia among
the people.
  The country gained its political and financial stability after the
war.
 US participated in World War I.
 US economy prospered but the gap between the rich and the
poor widened.
England
 World War l and World War ll brought disillusionment, confusion,
and paranoia among people
 The Country gained political and financial stability after the war

United States
 World War l and World War ll 
 Us economy prospered but the gap between the rich and the poor
widened
Key Features
 Commentaries on the social injustice and the selfishness of the
upper class society 
  Naturalist works portrayed a darker yet more realistic view of life

Genres and Representative Writers

 Novels F. Scott Fitzgerald Rudyard Kippling
 Poems William Butler Yeats Robert Frost

 Elements of the Anglo-Saxion 

The Early Anglo-Saxon Life - The Anglo-Saxons arrived in Britain and
lived in small villages led by warrior chiefs. They mostly lived in houses
made out of wood with thatched roofs inside the walls of Roman
towns. Settlements were small, consisting of about two to three
families. Anglo-Saxon settlers were led by a war-chief. Villages were
grouped into kingdoms ruled by a king leading a small army. Wars
frequently erupted among these kingdoms.

Literature During the Ancient Anglo-Saxon Period - From about 449 AD

to 1066 AD, most people could not read, and so most stories were told
orally. Some oral stories reached different kingdoms because of
travelling storytellers called scops.

During this time, poetry, also referred to as early verse, consisted of

the following categories:
 Heroic poetry recounts the achievements of warriors.
 Lyric poetry expresses the thoughts and feelings of the speaker.
Elegiac poetry laments the death of loved ones. It has a melancholic
and mournful tone.
Elements of the Anglo-Saxon Literature during the Ancient Period

From about 449 AD to 1066 AD, most people could not read, and so
most stories were told orally. Some oral stories reached different
kingdoms because of travelling storytellers called scops.
During this time, poetry, also referred to as early verse, consisted of the
following categories:

 Heroic poetry recounts the achievements of warriors.

 Lyric poetry expresses the thoughts and feelings of the speaker.
 Elegiac poetry laments the death of loved ones. It has a
melancholic and mournful tone.

Elements Common to Early Anglo-Saxon Literature

1.Rhythm — contains lines with regular rhythms, usually four strong

beats (or stresses)
Example:
This tale is true, and mine. It tells.

2. Alliteration - repetition of stressed sounds in words. They are

usually consonants from the beginning of words.

Example:
This tale is true, and mine. It tells.

3. Caesura - a Latin word which means cutting, is a sound break in the

middle of a poetic line, and is usually symbolized by a punctuation
mark in the middle of that particular line.

Example:
Hwæt! We Gardena || in gear-dagum,
þeodcyninga, || þrym gefrunon,
hu ða æþelingas || ellen fremedon.

4. Compounding - is combining two words to create a new word.

Compounding was very common in Anglo-Saxon poetry.
Example:
The word feorhseoc consists of two words, foerh which means life, and
seoc which means sick. Feorhseoc literally means lifesick, translated as
wounded.
5. Kenning - a two-word metaphorical name.
Examples:
O whale’s road means the sea.
O bone’s house refers to a body.
The sky’s candle refers to the sun.
6. Variation - technique used to restate a concept or term using a
different set of words.
Example:
Here is an excerpt from Beowulf (lines 1408 – 1411)
The nobleman's son then passed the steep rocky cliffs, the narrow path,
the narrow single-file path, an unknown way, precipitous headland, the
homes of many water-monsters.

EPIC
Characteristics of an epic poem:
- The hero is a figure of national importance.
- The action involves a long and dangerous journey.
- The setting of an epic is large in scale.
- Supernatural beings and events play a role in epic affairs.
- The style of the of an epic is formal and grand.
- Epics assign short phrases to individual characters.

EPIC OF BEOWULF: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=_mB6qgsxI_M&t=175s
Beowulf is an epic poem with 3, 182 lines, considered to be the oldest
surviving long poem in English literature.
It is believed to have been written at around 975-1025 AD. The photo
on the left is a digital photographic copy of the first folio written in the
West Saxon dialect of Old English.
Types of Prose
Prose fiction
  is a literary work created based on imaginary people and events.
Novels, short stories, and dramas are fictional stories.
 Prose fiction includes a theme, a message, or an insight about life.

Types of Prose Fiction

 Novel - a long work of fiction usually presented in segments called
“chapters”; often features several characters, take place in
multiple settings, and concern more than one conflict
 Novella - a work of fiction that is longer than a short story but
shorter than a novel
 Short Story - a work of fiction that is brief enough to be read in
one sitting 

Prose nonfiction 
 is a literary work created based on factual people and event,
accurate narratives.
 Prose nonfiction is created based on factual people and events.
This includes essays, speeches, news articles, editorials, personal
narratives or anecdotes, journals and biographies, to name a few. 
Kinds of Prose Nonfiction
 Narrative nonfiction describes real-life events. Examples include
autobiographies and memoirs.
 Expository nonfiction informs or explains. Examples include
analytical essays and research reports.
 Persuasive nonfiction presents reasons and evidence to convince
readers. Examples include political speeches and editorials.
 Descriptive nonfiction uses details related to the senses to create
mental images. Examples include character sketches and scientific
observations.:
Here are a few specific comparisons between prose and poetry.

Key Points
 Poetry refers to the use of figurative language expressed with
greater regularity in terms of verse.
 Prose is a form of written language that has closer semblance to
everyday speech. It is classified into fiction and nonfiction.
 Prose literary genres include anecdote, autobiography, biography,
fable, fairy tale, legend, myth, novel, parable, and short story.
Poetry
 The elements that make up poetry are persona, dramatic
situation, imagery, figurative language, tone, and sound and
sense.
 The Greeks divided poetry into 3 categories: narrative (e.g., epic),
lyric (song, ode, ballad, sonnet, and elegy), and dramatic.
 refers to the use of figurative language expressed with greater
regularity in terms of verses is organized in a particular structure
to create meaning, sound, and rhythm
 Literary Devices and Techniques
Writing poetry can sometimes be tricky; however, several techniques
and literary devices can be employed by writers to create poems that
are worth reading. Below are common poetic devices and techniques:
Alliteration - is the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant
sounds in two or more adjacent words.
Allusion - is a direct or indirect reference to something which is
presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or
work of art.
Apostrophe - is directly addressing an absent or imaginary person or a
personified abstract idea.
Assonance - is the repetition of vowel sounds to create internal
rhyming within phrases or sentences.
Hyperbole - is the excessive exaggeration for effect.
Irony - is the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is
really meant. There are two sub-kinds applicable in poetry: First is
Verbal irony where words literally state the opposite of speaker's true
meaning. Sarcasm involves ironic, bitter, and sharp language that is
meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something.
Understatement is the opposite of overstatement; it is the ironic
minimalizing of fact, presents something as less significant than it is.
Second is Situational irony when events turn out the opposite of what
was expected like in Edwin Arlington Robinson’s ballad, “Richard Cory”.
Metaphor - is a direct comparison of seemingly unlike things.
Metonymy - is a device wherein the name of one object is substituted
for that of another closely associated with it. One type is synecdoche
wherein a part represents the whole.
Onomatopoeia - is a sound device where the natural sounds are
imitated in the sounds of words (e.g. buzz, hiss).
Personification - the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or
inanimate objects by giving them human attributes or emotions.

VOCABULARY
WORD FORMATION
Word Formation
Word formation can denote either a state or a process. It can also be
viewed either diachronically or synchronically.
Understanding the different word formation processes helps us to
understand the creation of the English vocabulary.

Types of Word Formation

1. Affixation or Derivation - This is the process of adding an affix to a

word to create a different form of that word or a new word with a
different meaning.
This has two primary kinds:
a. prefixation or the addition of a prefix, and
b. suffixation or the addition of a suffix.
Examples:
A. Danny always helps me when I am helpless. I am grateful for his
helpfulness.
B. What is your impression of our new leader? All the staff are
impressed by his friendly attitude.
C. Cassy’s new dress attracts our attention. It has an attractive color.

2. Coinage - This is the invention of totally new terms in which a new

word is created either accidentally or deliberately and often from
seemingly nothing. Invented trade names are typical examples.
Example:
Xerox
The term, “xerox” was originally derived from The Haloid Photographic
Company which was founded in 1906. This company soon grew to be
one of the biggest international document management corporations in
history, it’s products being used in offices all over the world.
Electrophotography was invented by American physicist, Chester
Carlson and was further developed by the Haloid Company. Through
their combined efforts, they were able to develop a new kind of
technology which they labeled xerography. This word has Greek origin,
meaning ‘dry writing.’ Xeros was greek for dry, while graphia translated
to writing. The term was invented in order to differentiate it from a
different type of printing process named, cyanotype, which used cyan-
blue print. The invention of the first xerox printer was a hit and soon
enough, every office had their very own Haloid Xerox Printer. Everyone
used Xerox’s dry printers, that the company name became a noun for
general technology and the consumers that used it.
During the peak of Xerox’s success in the 60’s, there was no official
term to call the copied end product that went through a xerox printer.
Photocopy, on the other hand, was a less intuitive term, since it literally
meant to make a copy of a photograph using various inks and negative
rolls.

3.Borrowing - This is the process of taking words from other languages.

Examples:
A. ANONYMOUS (GREEK)
The word ‘anonymous’ comes from the Greek word ‘anōnumos’.
Anōnumos is defined as something or someone without a name, similar
to the English meaning which defines the word as someone who does
not reveal their identity.
B. LOOT (HINDI)
Pronounced and defined in the exact same manner in English as it is in
the origin language Hindi, the word ‘loot’ refers to stolen
goods/property.

4.Blending - This is a process of creating a new word by combining the

parts of two different words, usually the beginning of one word and the
end of another.
Examples:
- documentary + drama = docudrama
- stay + vacation = staycation
- breakfast + lunch = brunch
- friend + enemy = frenemy
- emotion + icon = emoticon
- situation + comedy = sitcom

5.Clipping - This involves reduction of syllables in a word. New words

are created by shortening parts of a longer word.
Examples:
- advertisement – ad
- examination – exam
- gasoline – gas
- gymnasium – gym
- influenza – flu
- laboratory – lab

6. Acronymy - In this type, new words are formed from the initial
letters of a set of words.
Examples:
- ASAP - As Soon As Possible
- AWOL - Absent Without Leave
- TTYL – Talk To You Later
- LOL - Laughing Out Loud

7. Folk Etymology - This refers to the changing of a word or a phrase

over time which results from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by
a more familiar one.
Examples:
A. HANGNAIL
It is a self-evident compound word: after all, it describes that painful
little stem of skin that seems to hang from the bed of your fingernail,
right?
B. AVOCADO
Spanish tried to borrow the Nahuatl word for this fruit, ahuacatl "tree
testicle", but found it difficult to pronounce. The Nahuatl word was first
changed to aguacate, a word seemingly containing agua "water", but
later this word was replaced by avocado "lawyer"

8. Reduplication - This is a process of forming new words by doubling

either an entire word (total reduplication) or part of a word (partial
reduplication).
A. Exact
Baby words are often exact reduplications.
Examples:
- boo-boo
- bye-bye
- choo-choo
- chop-chop
B. Rhyming
It is also considered reduplication when the second half of the word
rhymes with the first. Product names are often formed this way.
Examples:
- abracadabra
languages) Saint Cyril
was a 9th-century missionary who helped devise a writing system to
translate the
bible into the languages of the Slavic peoples.
WORDS DERIVED FROM NAMES OF PLACES
Badminton
A game in which the players use rackets (or Racquets)s - known
originally as battledores - to hit a shuttlecock back and forth across a
high net, takes its name from Badminton House, the seat of the Dukes
of Beaufort, where the game was played in the 19th century.
Cologne
An industrial city and river port in West Germany where a perfumed
liquid or a
solid made of fragrant essential oils and alcohol was first made.
GRAMMAR
MODAL VERBS
Modals, also known as Modal Verbs, are helping verbs. They indicate
modality like ability, permission, advice, possibility and obligation.
Modals are unlike other verbs. They do not change in spelling or in
form, and they have no infinitive or participle (past or present).

Modals have different uses or functions.

1.To express ability
can
could

2. To express permission
can
may
could
might

3. To express or give pieces of advice or suggestion

should
ought to
Note: You use the modal ‘ought to’ when giving strong
recommendation or suggestion.

4. To express possibility
may
might
could
Note: You use 'may' when something is more likely to happen; but
when it is less likely to happen, you use the modal 'might'.
5. To express obligation
must
have to
- bees-knees
- boogie-woogie
- boy-toy
C. Ablaut
Ablaut is a linguistics term for words that change form by shifting a
vowel. This may be the most common way to form
reduplications.
Examples:
- bric-a-brac
- chit-chat
- dilly-dally
- ding-dong

9. Echoism or Onomatopoeia - In this type, new words are formed by

imitating sounds.
Examples in sentences:
A. The best part about music class is that you can bang on the drum.
B. It is not unusual for a dog to bark when visitors arrive.
C. Silence your cellphone so it does not beep during the movie.
D. The bridge collapsed creating a tremendous boom.
E. The large dog said, “Bow-wow!”
WORD ETYMOLOGY
Etymology helps us understand and translate words better. It looks at
the origin of words and, in doing so, helps us to understand the deeper
meanings of the words we use.
Etymology is the study of the origin of words and how the meaning of
words changed over the course of history. It explores the history and
development of individual words.
You have probably encountered etymologies when somebody
explained the meaning of a word or when you yourself attempted to
look for the meaning or origin of a word.

Let’s take the word “etymology” as an example:

The word etymology is derived from the Greek word etumos, which
means true.
Take note!!
Etumologia was the study of words’ true meanings, which evolved into
etymology by way of the Old French etimologie.
WORDS DERIVED FROM NAMES OF PERSONS
Bluetooth
A wireless technology used to connect devices. Named after the King of
Denmark and
Norway, Harald Bluetooth, who united clashing Danish tribes into one
kingdom in the
10th century.
Cyrillic
An alphabet derived from the Greek alphabet and used for writing
Slavic languages
(Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Ukrainian, and some other Slavic
need to

6. To express certainty
will
won’t
shall
must
Note: Won’t is a contraction or short term for would not.
Remember that will is used for informal situations; and shall and must
for formal situations.

7. To make or ask a request

will
would
could
Note: Will is used for asking requests in informal situations. Would is
used to ask a request in formal situations. Could is also used to formally
ask for a request.

8. To make an offer
will
shall
 ADVERBS
What are adverbs?
Adverb is a part of speech that serves as a modifier of a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb.
More so, adverbs do not only end in -ly and not all words ending in -ly
are adverbs. For example, friendly and lovely end in -ly but are not
adverbs but adjectives that describe a noun or a pronoun.

Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives, or another adverbs and

they provide information about how, where, when, to what extent or
degree, or how often the action takes place.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS
1. Adverbs of Manner - denotes how the action is done: fast, slowly,
quickly, gracefully, skillfully
2. Adverbs of Time and Succession - denotes "when" and "in what
order": afterwards, again, finally, now, tomorrow
3. Adverbs of Place and Direction - denotes "where": below, upstairs,
anywhere, forward, backward
4. Adverbs of Degree and Measure - denotes "how much" or "to what
extent": all, almost, completely, equally, abundantly
5. Adverbs of Cause and Purpose - denotes "why" or reason: so,
therefore, consequently
6. Adverbs of Assertion - denotes affirmation: yes, no, apparently,
certainly, by no means, not at all
7. Adverbs of Opposition - denotes contrast: however, still, yet
8. Adverbs of Numbers - denotes "how many times" or "where in a
series": once, twice, three times, secondly, tenfold
9. Adverb of Frequency - denotes "how often" or "how many times" an
action is done: always, daily, rarely, sometimes
10. Conjunctive Adverbs - bring together two complete thoughts; uses
the second clause to modify the first: *furthermore, moreover,
likewise, accordingly

SPEECH
SOUNDS OF ENGLISH
Generally, the speech phones or sounds of English may be classified
into the following:
- Consonants
- Vowels
- Diphthongs

Consonants
are produced with the breath stream obstructed to produce friction
either by completely stopping or narrowing the passage for a length of
time or diverting the sound through other passages.
Consonants may vary from one another in three dimensions:
- Manner of Articulation
- Place of Articulation
- Sound Characteristics

Manner of Articulation
is the way the air is expelled as it flows out of the breath passage.
Under this dimension, consonants may be classified as plosives,
fricatives, glides, affricates, laterals and nasals.
1.Plosives
These are characterized by a momentary blocking of the air stream and
then a sudden release of the blocked air.
/p/ - pat
/d/ - dig
/g/ - get
/t/ - ten
/k/ - kill
/b/ - boy

2.Fricatives
These are characterized by a partial blocking of the air stream at some
point in the mouth.
/f/ - fan
/v/ - vine
/s/ - sat
/z/ - zoo
/h/ - ham
/ʃ/ - shell
/ʒ/ - rouge

3.Glides
These are characterized by the stopping of the air stream at the glottis
itself.
/hw/ - why
/w/ - well

4.Affricates
These are characterized by the stopping of the breath stream and then
releasing it through a narrow opening through friction
/j/ and /ʤ/ - jam
/ʧ/ - chain

5.Laterals
These are characterized by the passage of the air stream by the sides of
the tongue.
/l/ - late
6.Nasals
These are characterized by the blocking of the air stream and then
expelling it through the nasal cavity.
/m/ - man
/n/ - nose
/ŋ/ - drink

Place of Articulation
It is the part or the position of the speech organs that alters the air that
comes out of the breath passage.
Under this dimension, we have Bilabial, Labio-dental, Lingua-alveolar,
Lingua-dental, Lingua-velar and Glottal.
1.Bilabial
- Sounds are formed by both lips which are pressed or almost touching
one another.
/b/, /p/, /m/
Notice than in producing these sounds, both lips are touching each
other.
/hw/, /w/
In this sounds on the other hand, both lips are almost touching one
another.

2.Labio-dental
- Sounds are formed by the bottom lip touching the upper teeth.
/v/, /f/

3.Lingua-dental
- Sounds are formed with the tip of the tongue against or touching the
teeth.
/θ/ /ð/

4.Lingua-alveolar
- Sounds are formed with either the tip or blade of the tongue against
or touching the alveolar bridge.
/t/, /d/, /r,/ /∫/, /ʒ/, /n/, /l/, /t∫/, /dʒ/

5.Lingua-velar
- Sounds formed by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.
/k/, /g/, /ŋ/

6.Glottal
- Sounds formed by closing the glottis or the opening of the vocal cords.
/h/

Sound Characteristics
It refers to the production of consonant sounds with or without the
vibration of the vocal cords as air is exhaled in a stream of breath or if
the sound is aspirated.
Under this, we have voiced, voiceless and aspirated.

1.Voiced
- It means that the vocal cords vibrate during the production.
/b/ /m/ /w/ /v/ /ð/ /d/ /r/ /n/ /l/ /ʒ/ /dʒ/ /g/ /ŋ/
When producing these sounds, try holding your neck and observe the
vibration.

2.Voiceless
- It means that the vocal cords do not vibrate during the production.
/p/ /hw/ /f/ / /θ/ /t/ /∫/ /t∫/ /k/ /h/

3.Aspirated
- It means that the air is blocked and is released with a puff of air.
/pʰ/ /bʰ/ /kʰ/ /tʰ/
Vowels
These are voiced sounds produced without obstruction of the oral
cavity or constriction of the breath stream.
Vowels vary as to their production, in the size and shape of the oral
cavity.
The position of the tongue, the shape of the lips, and the degree of
tension of the lips and the tongue are taken into consideration when
providing the sound.
These are produced when a part of the tongue is bunched toward the
palate.
The position of the lips is another factor in producing vowel sounds.
The lips may be rounded or spread, closely rounded or in a smiling
position.

Pronouncing vowels has something to do with the following:

First is the Degree of tension. It refers to the degree of tenseness of the
muscles of the speech organs.
Next is Distance which refers to the distance of the upper and lower
teeth; it is classified as narrow, wide, and half-wide.
Third is Length of Sound or Duration which refers to the long and short
vowels.

Vowels has kinds:

1. Front Vowels
2. Central Vowels
 3. Back Vowels
4. Diphthongs

1.Front Vowels
These are vowel sounds formed in front of the mouth or the tip of the
tongue.
/i/ - seat
/ɪ/ - sit
/e/ - pen
/æ/ - sat
/a/ - after

2.Central Vowels
These are vowel sounds formed in the middle of the mouth.
/ə/ - about
/ʌ/ - cup
/ɜ/ - bird

3.Back Vowels
These are vowel sounds formed with the back of the tongue arched
toward the back roof of the tongue.
/u/ - you
/ʊ/ - foot
/ɒ/ - from
/ɔ/ - four
/ɑ/ - part

STRESS AND INTONATION

Prosody is the study of all the elements of language that contribute
toward acoustic and rhythmic effects. Speech is the communication
through spoken language.
Prosodic Features are also called as Suprasegmental. Here, we have the
stress, pitch and intonation, and juncture.

Stress is the emphasis, intensity or force given to a certain syllable or

word. This stress symbol / ˈ/ is used to represent the stressed syllable
of a multi-syllable word.
Two types of stress:
1. Word stress shows what syllable in a word is stressed.
2. Sentence stress shows which word/s in a sentence is/are
stressed.

Monosyllabic words (one-syllable words) are stressed in isolation.

These are used to show or express joy, sadness or pain, doubt, disgust
or anger.
Yes!
Oh!
Hey!
Me?
Sure?
See?
Ouch!
Look!

Multisyllabic words (words with two or more syllables) have only one
strong stress. These stressed syllables are said louder, longer, and
higher than the rest of the unstressed syllables.
2-syllabic words
vóting
embráce

3-syllabic words
góvernment
election

4-syllabic words
psychólogy
anátomy

5-syllabic words
bibliógraphy
documentátion
word without shift in stress
cút
cutter

word with shift in stress

téleport
teleportation

Sentence stress - the meaning of the sentence changes when the stress
is transferred to other word/s
Here are examples:
I voted him. = It's me who voted him.
I voted him. = That’s what I did, I voted.
I voted him. = It's him whom I voted.

Pitch is the highness or lowness of the tone or voice.

Four pitch levels in English:

 1. low
2. normal
3. high
4. extra high
Intonation is the variation in the pitch level of the voice.

Basic Patterns of Intonation:

1.Rising-Falling Intonation (2-3-1 Pattern)
The voice starts in normal pitch (2), then goes up on the accented
syllable (3) and then down (1) on the last syllable in the sentence.
It is used for information questions or questions that require definite
answer.

Types of Rising-Falling Intonation:

SHIFT
The voice is raised on the stressed syllable and goes down on the
remaining syllables in the sentence.
GLIDE
The stressed syllable is the last syllable in the sentence and there is
movement within the syllable.

2.Rising Intonation (2-3-3 Pattern)

The voice starts with the normal pitch, then goes up with a high pitch
on stressed syllable and remains in this level until the last syllable of the
sentence.
It is used for questions answerable by yes or no.