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Foundation

A foundation is the lower portion of building structure that transfers its loads to the earth. A
structure essentially consists of two parts, namely the super structure which is above the plinth
level and the substructure which is below the plinth level.

Generally, about 30% of the total construction cost is spent on the foundation.

The substructure or foundation is the part of a structures that is usually placed below the surface
of the ground to transmit the load from the superstructure to the underlying soil or rock.
Foundations are generally broken into two categories:

• shallow foundations - This is the type of foundation that is embedded about a metre into the
soil. This method is used where the soils have good load bearing capacity and the strata is
close to the surface. Types of shallow foundations include:
o Strip foundations
o pad foundations
o stepped foundation
o sloped footing
o grillage foundation
o raft foundation
 • deep foundations-A deep foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads
to the earth farther down from the surface than a shallow foundation does, to a subsurface
layer or a range of depths. Types of deep foundations include:
o Driven piles
o Drilled shafts
o Caissons
o Helical piles
o Geo piers
o Earth stabilized columns

Footings

Footings are those parts of the foundation which resting directly on the soil, support specific
portion of building and distributed building loads directly to the soil. The most efficient footing
and foundation system is that which transmit building loads to the soil without exceeding the
bearing capacity of the soil. Footings are structural elements, which transfer loads to the soil
from columns, walls or lateral loads from earth retaining structures. In order to transfer these
loads properly to the soil, footings must be design to: -

• Prevent excessive settlement

The size and depth of a foundation is determined by the structure and size of a building it
supports and the nature and bearing capacity of the ground supporting it.

Minimum nominal cover

• The minimum nominal cover for the footings should be more than that of other structural
elements of the superstructure as the footings are in direct contact with the soil.

• However, the actual cover may be even more depending on the presence of harmful
chemicals or minerals, water table etc.

Factors affecting design and selection of foundation

• The type of construction/Construction requirements.

• The magnitude of load/Transfer of load at the base of column

• Structural requirements of the foundations.

• Site condition and environmental factor.

• Drainage conditions.

• Feasibility in terms of available skilled labors and cost.

• The type and bearing capacity of soil.

• The seismic hazard and vulnerability of site to earthquake and other natural disasters

• Soil types and ground water table conditions.

• Shear force

• Two-way or punching shear

• Tensile reinforcement

Soil types

Rock

Rocks such as limestone, granite, sandstone, shale and hard solid chalk have a high bearing
capacity. The rock may simply need to be stripped back and levelled off to build from. Rock can
be impervious, so topsoil is likely to require drainage as it is not possible to build soakaways to
dispose of rainwater or surface water. Off-mains drainage options will also be very limited.

Chalk

Strip foundations are commonly used in chalk. Providing the chalk is not too soft, widths of
450mm for low-rise buildings are generally acceptable. The depth of the foundation must be
below any frost action (700mm). If the chalk is soft it will need to be excavated until firm chalk
is reached. Chalk soils can be prone to erosion so be wary of hollows or caves

Gravel and sand

Dry compact gravel, or gravel and sand subsoils are usually adequate for strip foundations.
Generally, a depth of 700mm is acceptable, as long as the ground has adequate bearing capacity.
If the water table is high (i.e. the gravel is submerged), the bearing capacity is halved, so it’s
important to keep the foundations as high as possible. A shallow, reinforced, wide strip
foundation may be suitable.

Sand holds together reasonably well when damp, compacted and uniform, but trenches may
collapse and so sheet piling is often used to retain the ground in trenches until the concrete is
poured.

Clay

The first 900-1,200mm layer of clay is subject to movement due to expansion and shrinkage
depending on moisture content, so it is generally necessary to excavate foundations to a depth
where the moisture content of the clay remains stable. British Standard 8004 recommends a
minimum depth of 1m for foundations but if there are, or were, trees nearby, depths of up to 3m
may be necessary. In clay, prior to concreting the foundations, the trench is often protected from
heave by lining it with a compressible layer (e.g. Clayboard).

Firm clay over soft clay

A traditional strip foundation is sometimes acceptable but it is important not to overdig as this
may increase the stress on the softer clay beneath. A common solution is to dig wide strip
foundations with steel reinforcement — however an engineered foundation may be necessary.

Peat

Peat and loose waterlogged sand are very poor subsoils. If the peat can be stripped back to find
suitable load-bearing ground of at least 1.5m depth, strip foundations may be suitable. A
reinforced raft foundation will likely be required.
Filled ground

Where ground has previously been excavated and filled, it is generally necessary to dig down to
a level beneath the area of the fill

CONSIDERATION: DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE

The most critical factor in determine the foundation system of building is the type and bearing
capacity of the soil to which the building loads are distributed.

(Adequate safety) Small settlements,

(Total and differential settlement) Construction problems

(stability of excavation bottom heave ground water problems) Economical requirement

Take note

1. Property line

2. Zones of high volume change due to moisture fluctuations.

3. Top soil or organic material

5. Unconsolidated material such as abandoned garbage dumps and similar filled in areas.

challenges

Frost heaving

Frost heaving is an upwards swelling of soil during freezing conditions caused by an increasing
presence of ice as it grows towards the surface.

Ice growth requires a water supply that delivers water to the freezing front via capillary action in
certain soils. The weight of overlying soil restrains vertical growth of the ice and can promote
the formation of lens-shaped areas of ice within the soil. Yet the force of one or more growing
ice lenses is sufficient to lift a layer of soil, as much as 30 cm or more. The soil through which
water passes to feed the formation of ice lenses must be sufficiently porous to allow capillary
action, yet not so porous as to break capillary continuity. Such soil is referred to as "frost
susceptible".

Differential frost heaving can crack pavements—contributing to springtime pothole formation—

Capillary action

(capillarity, capillary motion, or wicking) is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without
the assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces like gravity. If the diameter of the tube is
sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension caused by cohesion within the liquid
and adhesive forces between the liquid and the tube act to lift the liquid. The capillary action is
due to the pressure of cohesion and adhesion, which cause the liquid to work against gravity.

Safe Bearing Capacity of Soil

The safe bearing capacity qc of soil is the permissible soil pressure considering safety factors in
the range of 2 to 6 depending on the type of soil, approximations and assumptions and
uncertainties. This is applicable under service load condition
Normally, the acceptable value of qc is supplied by the geotechnical consultant to the structural
engineer after proper soil investigations. The safe bearing stress on soil is also related to
corresponding permissible displacement / settlement.

Gross and net bearing capacities are the two terms used in the design. Gross bearing capacity is
the total safe bearing pressure just below the footing due to the load of the superstructure, self-
weight of the footing and the weight of earth lying over the footing. On the other hand, net bearing
capacity is the net pressure in excess of the existing overburden pressure.

Net bearing capacity = Gross bearing capacity - Pressure due to overburden soil

strip foundation

Wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of wall.

Pad foundations are used to support individual or multiple columns, spreading the load to the
ground below. They are generally square or rectangular in plan, with the plan area being
determined by the permissible bearing pressure of the soil
sloped footing

This is a variation of the pad foundation

Stepped foundation

This type of foundation is used to negotiate inclined or sloping sites. In turn the brickwork will be
stepped until the brick line reaches a uniform level
grillage foundation

Grillage foundation is used when heavy structural loads from columns, piers or stanchions are
required to be transferred to a soil of low bearing capacity
Raft foundations

(sometimes known as Mat Foundations) are a large concrete slab which can support a number of
columns and walls. The slab is spread out under the entire building or at least a large part of it
which lowers the contact pressure compared to the traditionally used strip or trench footings
Conclusion

Always explore environmentally friendly and sustainable solutions when making a decision on the
type of foundation and the material suitable for your construction project. Don’t be afraid to consult
professionals like Build Fast Structural Solutions to help you decide which foundation best applies
to your site and the project criteria you wish to undertake.