Using SOLO

Using SOLO as a Framework for Teaching
This book:
• uses SOLO Taxonomy to provide a framework for all aspects of teaching

A case study in maximising achievement in science
• draws on science examples to deepen understanding of a model that can be applied to all subjects
• demonstrates how thinking can be challenged at all levels in the classroom
• outlines the building blocks required to become a lifelong learner
• clarifies how both teacher and student can use SOLO Taxonomy to establish meaningful goals in
their own learning journey.
Every teacher is keen to seize opportunities to improve learning for their students but the numerous
and diverse interventions on offer can be overwhelming and, if the promised results are not
forthcoming, somewhat disheartening. With SOLO Taxonomy, which provides a clear structure that
can be applied to all aspects of teaching and learning, this situation has changed. Using SOLO as a
Framework for Teaching shows how this powerful model of learning can be transferred simply and
effectively into everyday teaching and learning. It allows the development of challenging hierarchical
learning intentions and brings clarity to both the teacher and the student on what the intended
learning is to be. Upper primary and secondary teachers, along with pre-service teachers,
will find the process set out in this book particularly useful.
Code: 5618
ISBN: 978-1-927143-55-1
Code: 5618
www.essentialresources.co.nz
www.essentialresources.com.au
Title: Using SOLO as a Framework for Teaching
Author: Steve Martin
Editor: Tanya Tremewan
Designer: Diane Whitford
Book code: 5618
ISBN: 978-1-927143-55-1
Published: 2011
Publisher: Essential Resources Educational Publishers Limited

United Kingdom: Australia: New Zealand:
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Websites: www.essentialresourcesuk.com
Copyright: Text: © Steve Martin, 2011

Edition and illustrations: © Essential Resources Educational Publishers Limited, 2011
About the author: Steve Martin received the Prime Minister’s Award for Excellence in Science Teaching, New Zealand’s
top teaching award, in November 2010 in recognition of the work he has done inspiring students to
higher levels of achievement through the innovative use of SOLO Taxonomy and ICT. He won the
Most Inspiring Individual Award in the 2011 New Zealand Innovators Awards for his virtual lesson
project and the Microsoft Distinguished Teacher Award in 2009. Steve is an Honorary Professional
Teaching Fellow at Auckland University and has been teaching for 17 years. He holds a BSc(Hons)
and a Master’s degree in Educational Leadership and Management.
Copyright notice:
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Foreword
It is so much easier to sit in my academic office, pore over research evidence, build models and test theories. It is so much
harder to take the outcomes of these endeavours and put them into practice – and then to evaluate the impact of these
ideas on student learning. The big ideas in my work include ensuring there is cognitive complexity, learning intentions,
success criteria, student assessment capabilities, progression, feedback and self-regulated learning. Steve Martin has found a
way to use these powerful notions in the classroom and this book is an account of his methods, thinking and success.
I have been so impressed with his way of conceiving how to make a difference, how to then engage students in the
complexities of high school science, and how the students of all abilities and dispositions (naughty to gifted) become
turned on to Steve’s passion. He has presented an excellent system to take the major ideas and use them not only
to plan, but also to plan with the students. His success rate in the national assessment system is renown – not just by
enhancing the engaged and effective students who come into his classroom, but also by engaging the dispossessed, the
disgruntled and the disinterested students. This is the true success of a teacher – and now you can see how he thinks, how
he sees the task of teaching and learning, and see his mind frame about making a difference to student learning.
John Biggs and Kevin Collis developed the SOLO Taxonomy in the 1970s. They started in poetry, and then moved to all
areas of the curriculum. The SOLO method has been used at the university level, in developing rubrics for writing and
for evaluating teacher effectiveness, in gifted programmes and in special education classes. We have used it extensively
in developing our national assessment reporting system. It is the case, however, that SOLO is not generally well known.
Steve has brought SOLO alive, shows its power and simplicity, and has written persuasively that others should think,
do and enjoy as he has. A model of theory into practice, and how practice has informed theory; a model of research
informed teaching; and an excellent system for knowing thy impact!
Professor John Hattie

Director, Melbourne Education Research Institute (MERI) and Associate Dean (Research)
Acknowledgements
The greatest acknowledgement must go to my family: Cherie, my wife, who has made many sacrifices to allow me to
pursue my SOLO journey and has provided me with tremendous support and encouragement; and William, our son, who
inspires me to help all students enjoy success and prepare them for a life of learning.
I thank Pam Hook and Julie Mills for their work “Hooked on Thinking” which introduced me to the potential of the SOLO
taxonomy and on which the learning log and the identification of learning intentions and success criteria under the levels
of SOLO are based. I would also like to thank the staff at Auckland University who have been incredibly supportive and
encouraging: Maree Davies, Frank Walton, Tony Hunt and Graeme Aitken.
I would like to especially thank my colleagues at Howick College who have been instrumental in creating a very supportive
environment. Special thanks to Ian Parker for his endless passion and enthusiasm, he has been an inspirational mentor
during my time at the school. I value and appreciate the learning conversations and guidance of Janice Wright.
There have been staff members at other schools who have placed considerable effort and thought into using the ideas
outlined in this book and I would like to thank Barbara Warne and Mark Thornton-Pett for their comments and feedback.
Finally, I am indebted to the inspiration, guidance and incredible support of John Hattie.
Contents
Foreword 3 4. The pyramid of a lifelong learner 32
Overview of the levels of the pyramid 32
Acknowledgements 4
5. Assessing prior knowledge 34
Introduction 6
Breaking down global intentions under
SOLO Taxonomy in action 6 SOLO levels 34
Surface and deep learning 8 Using learning intentions from the learning log 36
Passive and active learning 8
6. Self assessment 37
Using SOLO Taxonomy to construct a learning log 9
Methods of self assessment during a unit 37
1. Getting started 10 Generalised self assessment at the end of a unit 38
Exemplar: Constructing a unit of work at the
primary school level 11 7. Peer assessment 40
Exemplar: Constructing a unit of work at the Building individual learning intentions into
secondary school level 14 peer assessment 40
A practical guide to constructing a unit of work 17 Using extended answers in peer assessment 41
2. Putting it all together 18 8. Tracking and progress 43

Success criteria from a student’s perspective 18
9. The use of questions 47
Sequencing groups and developing learning
intentions and success criteria 18 Questions from the teacher 47
Learning log exemplars 20 Questions from students 47
3. The pedagogy behind the learning log 24 10. Lesson planning 50
Providing clarity in teaching and learning 24 Elements of a lesson plan 50
Accessibility to all students 24

11. The impact of SOLO Taxonomy
Providing challenging learning intentions for and the learning log 53
all students 25
Quantitative data 53
Encouraging intrinsic motivation 26
Perceptions from teachers 53
A cognitive centre 27
Perceptions from students 54
Self managing 28
Differentiation 29 Conclusion 56
Formative interpretations 30
Learning-focused relationships 30
Introduction
It is every teacher’s dream and desire to do their best for their students. Yet rarely do teachers feel they have come
to the point where they cannot do any more to improve the learning for their students. Indeed, it is easy to become
overwhelmed by the numerous aspects of teaching that will potentially enhance student learning. Many teachers embrace
new teaching interventions but too often fail to embed them into their classroom over a sustained period. There are
many reasons for such difficulties, including: no or little perceived gain compared with the effort required to maintain
the intervention, time constraints within a busy curriculum, the abandonment of the intervention in favour of another,
apparently better one, no link to an overall model of learning and a lack of clarity. On reflection over the last 17 years of
my own teaching career I can cite these reasons as to why I continued to feel that I was going round in circles and making
no real progress in my teaching.
This situation has changed with the use of a framework called SOLO Taxonomy which provides a clear structure that can
be applied to all aspects of teaching and learning. It allows the development of challenging hierarchal learning intentions
and brings clarity to both the teacher and the student as to what the intended learning is to be.
Using SOLO as a Framework for Teaching shows how this model of learning can be transferred into everyday teaching and
learning in a simple but sophisticated way. Teachers are obviously aware of theories of teaching and learning but how well
can they articulate how such theories influence their teaching? Ironically, the complex demands of the job make it difficult
to spend time thinking deeply about practice and where the different theories fit in. The aim of this book therefore is to
help make a powerful model of learning an integral part of teaching and learning in the classroom.
SOLO Taxonomy in action

The Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) Taxonomy was devised by John Biggs and Kevin Collis in the
1970s and 1980s. It is a model of learning that describes levels of thinking that can be observed and that can become
increasingly more complex and difficult. Its original application was in the identification of the sophistication of a learner’s
thinking.
SOLO Taxonomy consists of four key levels:
1. The unistructural level describes outcomes that require the learner to identify or describe a single fact or idea.
For example: Carbon dioxide is found in trace amounts in the atmosphere (0.038%).
2. The multistructural level describes outcomes where the learner identifies, lists or describes several relevant facts or
ideas but has made no connection between them.
For example: Carbon dioxide acts as a thermal insulator. It can be found in trace amounts in the atmosphere (0.038%)
and is considered to be a greenhouse gas.
3. The relational level includes outcomes where the learner has made connections between several relevant facts.
For example: Carbon dioxide, which is found in trace amounts in the atmosphere, contributes to the greenhouse effect.
It allows the sun’s rays to pass through it which in turn heat up the earth’s surface. Carbon dioxide then acts as a
thermal insulator, slowing down the escape of this heat and so causing the greenhouse effect.
4. The extended abstract level includes outcomes where the learner has made connections between facts or ideas
(relational) and has then linked it to some other concept or theory.
For example: Carbon dioxide, which is found in trace amounts in the atmosphere, contributes to the greenhouse effect. It
allows the sun’s rays to pass through it which in turn heat up the earth’s surface. Carbon dioxide then acts as a thermal
insulator, slowing down the escape of this heat and so causing the greenhouse effect. The theory of global warming states
that the increase of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide is leading to higher global temperatures and it predicts that
this is the reason for unpredictable weather patterns, increased rate of melting in the ice caps and rising sea-levels.
6 © Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011

Introduction
Figure 1 identifies sample verbs that are associated with each level of SOLO Taxonomy. It also recognises the prestructural
level at which competence has not yet been achieved; at this level, therefore, verbs that indicate understanding are not
applicable.
Figure 1: SOLO Taxonomy with sample verbs indicating levels of understanding
Create
Analyse
Formulate
Apply
Generate
Argue
Hypothesise
Competence Compare and
Reflect
contrast
Theorise
Combine Criticise
Describe Explain causes
Enumerate Relate
Identify Perform serial skills Justify
Name List
Follow simple
procedure
Fail
Incompetent
Misses point
Incompetence Incompetence One relevant Several relevant Integrated into Generalised to

aspect and independent a structure new domain
aspects
Prestructural Unistructural Multistructural Relational Extendedabstract

Adapted from: johnbiggs.com.au
We can then use SOLO Taxonomy to formulate questions or tasks. For example, with reference to the previous example
of carbon dioxide, Example 1 presents some questions that might be formed using the taxonomy as a framework.
Example 1: Questions about carbon dioxide at the different SOLO levels
Unistructural Identify one property of carbon dioxide.
Multistructural Describe two or more properties of carbon dioxide.
Relational Relate carbon dioxide to the greenhouse effect.
Extended abstract What are the possible consequences of the increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere?
The sample verbs shown in Figure 1 above are repeatedly used throughout this book to help identify the level of thinking
that the teacher is targeting. The method provides a simple, clear and logical framework for a whole range of purposes
including: learning intentions, success criteria, differentiation, self assessment, peer assessment, goal setting, measuring
progress, motivation, formative assessment and questioning. All of these will be explained in greater detail in this book.
© Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011 7

Introduction
Surface and deep learning

The unistructural and multistructural levels can be considered surface levels of thinking as they involve little cognitive
processing. In the questions set out in Example 1 (page 7), the students are simply required to identify or describe
properties of carbon dioxide. As the cognitive activity required at the relational and extended abstract levels is markedly
higher, these levels are categorised as causing deep learning.
It is important to note that students will use both levels of thinking, surface and deep, in their learning. There is no claim
that surface knowledge is not worthwhile; indeed the SOLO model assumes surface knowledge when students relate and
extend their understanding. Individual students may prefer a surface or a deep approach but teachers should strive to
facilitate both in the classroom. The key is not to develop only one or the other but to achieve the desired proportions of
surface and deep learning in any series of lessons.
Achieving those proportions is an important consideration in teaching. Too much time spent at the lower end of SOLO
Taxonomy, facilitating surface learning, will demotivate students as activities with this focus soon lose their challenge.
Conversely, if too little time is spent at the lower levels so that the students have not had enough time to learn basic facts
and ideas, they will become demotivated at the higher levels of the taxonomy as they do not have the required knowledge
to make connections.
Put simply the students need to know fundamental facts, ideas and principles in order to have something to think about.
These fundamental facts, ideas and principles can be considered as grain that is fed into the mill (the brain) and the
resultant flour is used to make a new product called bread (new meanings). So teaching requires a careful balance, with
assessment playing an important role in maintaining the appropriate rate of progression. SOLO Taxonomy provides the
sequential framework, at the end of which the student can create new meanings for themselves.
Passive and active learning

SOLO Taxonomy can also help to predict if students will be passive or active in their involvement in learning. Passive
learning requires students to do no or little processing of or thinking about information presented to them. The students
are simply seen as the recipients of information; they might be involved in activities such as copying notes or watching a
video after which they would only be expected to recall facts. In teaching science it is too easy to fall into the routine
of simply transmitting facts, ideas or principles to the students because of time (or examination) constraints. In terms of
SOLO Taxonomy, in such circumstances the students would only be working at the unistructural and multistructural levels,
which potentially can lead them to disengage because the work is not challenging enough.
Active learning allows the students to participate in the learning process and challenges them to make new meanings.
Activities at the relational or extended abstract level of the taxonomy promote active learning. Critically, such activities
depend on surface knowledge so the optimal approach is to develop surface knowledge that then leads to these activities.
Too often, activity-based teaching and learning that have no foundation in surface knowledge are ineffective and disengaging.
Passive learning Active learning

Student as recipient of information. Student as participant.
Little information processing, if any. Making new meanings.

Introduction
Using SOLO Taxonomy to construct a learning log

In this book SOLO Taxonomy has been used to develop a learning log. A learning log simply breaks down a series of
learning intentions under three levels of SOLO:
1. uni/multistructural – combining the unistructural and multistructural levels for the learning intentions and success
criteria, as they are closely related
2. relational
3. extended abstract.
For simplicity, the prestructural level (at which competence has not been achieved) has been removed altogether.
Example 2 below illustrates the general layout of the learning log.
Example 2: Excerpt from a learning log
Learning intentions
SLO 1: The particles that make up matter are made up of atoms, and some particles are atoms and some are molecules.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define atoms, elements and molecules.
Relational Be able to explain that atoms do not normally occur individually and they are more commonly
found in molecules.
Extended abstract Be able to make a prediction about the future number of elements.
Learning intentions
SLO 2: We represent elements with symbols.
Uni/multistructural Be able to list numerous elements with their correct symbols.
Relational Be able to classify elements as metals and non-metals.
Extended abstract Be able to make a generalisation about one aspect of metals and non-metals.
The learning log is the entry into understanding how SOLO Taxonomy works through a simple process of aligning the
levels of thinking with what a teacher wants their students to achieve. John Biggs calls this process constructive alignment.
It is a process that is appropriate for all age groups and subjects. To provide a tangible illustration of the far-reaching
potential of this model, this book focuses on science at primary and secondary school levels.

1. Getting started
In this section you will learn about the first steps involved in using SOLO Taxonomy to:
 identify and classify relevant facts, ideas and concepts
 sequence them into a clear order
 identify contexts that can be used to extend the students’ thinking on a topic being studied.
Table 1 provides of an overview of the phases and steps involved in this process.
Table 1: Overview of using SOLO to construct a unit of work
Step number Description

Phase One
1 Identify all facts, ideas and concepts that are related to the content you wish to teach.
This is a simple process that only requires the collation of terms related to the topic being taught. It
can be done with a mind map.
2 Classify all facts, ideas and concepts into the appropriate levels of SOLO Taxonomy.
Identifying the basic facts and ideas that fit into the uni/multistructural level is quite straightforward. In
the relational level, look for processes or concepts that need to be explained by linking ideas or facts.
There will be few if any contexts suitable for extended abstract at this step.
3 Identify possible contexts that can be used to extend the students’ thinking and can be classified at the
extended abstract level.
The extended abstract level is the most challenging of the levels to find suitable contexts for. You
might search the internet for applications of the topic you are preparing for, or visit websites
containing the latest science news for sources of inspiration. Also make use of colleagues and discuss
your ideas and thoughts.
Phase Two
1 Group key facts, ideas, concepts and possible contexts.
After identifying the key facts, ideas, concepts and new contexts, it is important to start making the
connections between them in order to start forming learning intentions.
2 Assign the verbs of SOLO.
Choose the verbs in SOLO Taxonomy that are linked to levels of thinking or outcomes that you wish
to observe in students.
Phase Three
1 Create challenging learning intentions.
2 Create appropriate success criteria.
The process summarised in Table 1 has been used to develop two exemplars, one for an upper primary school and the
other for a secondary school. The following pages take you through the first two phases of the process; Phase Three,
when you create learning intentions and success criteria, is covered in the next section. Regardless of your own level of
teaching, it is helpful to study both exemplars as they highlight how SOLO Taxonomy can be used at differing levels of
complexity depending on the age and level of development of the students. In other words the complexity of thinking
expected of a 10-year-old is going to be quite different from that expected of a 15-year-old.

1. Getting started
Exemplar: Constructing a unit of work at the primary school level

Example 3 that follows takes you through the first two phases of using SOLO Taxonomy to construct a unit of work for a
Year 5/6 science class.
After grouping the key facts, ideas, processes and new contexts in Phase Two, it is possible to assign the verbs from the
appropriate level of SOLO Taxonomy according to the outcome you want to achieve. Example 4 combines information
from Steps 1 and 2 of Phase Two. It shows the different ways in which verbs from SOLO Taxonomy can be aligned with
the content from each SOLO level. Initially more than one verb may be appropriate; later the number will be reduced in
the process of constructing the learning intentions and the success criteria (see Section 2).
Example 3: Constructing a unit of work for a Year 5/6 science class
Year level: 5/6 Topic: Electricity and magnetism

Phase One
Step 1: Identify all facts, ideas and concepts that are related to the content you wish to teach.
Electricity Parallel circuit Open circuit Sound
Transformed Conductor Circuit diagram Heat
Poles Mains Circuit Chemical
Electrons Series circuit Closed circuit Electrical
Magnetism Insulator Alternative energy Nuclear
Atom Batteries Energy Kinetic
Magnet Switch Current Potential
Static electricity Electrical grid Saving energy Electromagnets
Electric charge Cells Transmitted Transfer
Negative Lamp Magnetic field Volts
Current electricity Appliance Importance of electricity Amps
Magnetic Wire Light Watts
Positive
Step 2: Classify all facts, ideas and concepts into the appropriate levels of SOLO Taxonomy.
Uni/multistructural Relational Extended abstract
Current Current electricity Electrical grid
Cells Static electricity Energy
Batteries Magnetic field Alternative energy
Wire Transformed Saving energy
Circuit Transmitted Importance of electricity
Positive Magnetic Electromagnets
Negative Conductor
Poles Insulator
Appliance
Lamp
Switch
Atom
continued ...

1. Getting started
Example 3: Constructing a unit of work for a Year 5/6 science class (continued)
Step 3: Identify possible contexts that can be used to extend the students’ thinking and can be classified at the
extended abstract level.
Possible context Reference or source
Alternative energy www.hi-energy.org.uk/Education/Primary-School-Factsheets.htm
Saving electricity http://library.thinkquest.org/06aug/00442/homeelectricity.htm
Importance of electricity www.watersheds.org/education/gstudent.htm
Phase Two
Step 1: Group key facts, ideas, concepts and possible contexts.
Energy Sound Transfer Energy and fossil fuels
Electrical Light Transformation Saving energy
Chemical Kinetic Alternative energy
Nuclear Potential
Electricity Current electricity Importance of electricity in our everyday
Appliance Static electricity lives
Transmitted Electrical grid
Circuits Current Complete and incomplete circuits Create own device using a circuit
Parallel Batteries Series and parallel circuits
Series Circuit diagram
Lamp Negative
Wires Positive
Switch
Open and closed circuits
Volts Flow of electrons and measuring Appliances used at home
Amps amperes Differences in amps, volts and watts
Watts Volts and effect on brightness of
lamps
Watts and light bulbs
Conductor Classifying objects as insulators or Uses of insulators and conductors
Insulator conductors
Electrons
Magnets Magnetic Value of magnetism
Magnetism
Magnetic field
Poles
Electromagnets Conductor Strength of magnets
Current Amps
Electrons
continued ...

1. Getting started
Example 3: Constructing a unit of work for a Year 5/6 science class (continued)
Step 2: Assign the verbs of SOLO.

Describe Compare and contrast Evaluate
Identify Explain causes Theorise
Name Sequence Predict
List Analyse Hypothesise
Follow a simple procedure Relate Reflect
Form an analogy Generate
Apply Formulate
Criticise
Justify
Example 4: Assigning verbs to the intended learning outcome for a Year 5/6 science class
SOLO level
Learning outcome Uni/multistructural Relational Extended abstract
Outcome A
Content Energy Sound Transfer Energy and fossil fuels
Electrical Light Transformation Saving energy
Chemical Kinetic Alternative energy
Nuclear Potential
Verb(s) Identify Define Compare and contrast Reflect
List Describe Predict
Outcome B
Content Electricity Current electricity Importance of electricity in
Appliance Static electricity our everyday lives
Transmitted Electrical grid
Verb(s) Define Compare and contrast Reflect
Describe
Outcome C
Content Circuits Current Complete and incomplete Create own device using a
Parallel Batteries circuits circuit
Series Circuit diagram Series and parallel circuits
Lamp Negative
Wires Positive
Switch
Open and closed circuits
Verb(s) Define Relate Create
Identify
Describe

1. Getting started
Exemplar: Constructing a unit of work at the secondary school level

Example 5 takes you through the first two phases of using SOLO Taxonomy to construct a unit of work for a Year 9/10
physics class.
Example 6 then shows the different ways in which verbs from the SOLO Taxonomy can be aligned with the content from
each SOLO level, as identified in Step 1 of Phase Two.
Example 5: Constructing a unit of work for a Year 9/10 physics class
Year level: 9/10 Topic: Light

Phase One
Step 1: Identify all facts, ideas and concepts that are related to the content you wish to teach.
Law of reflection Normal Transparent Long-sighted
Mirror Refraction Medium Energy
Spectrum Light ray Retina Focal point
Cornea Dispersion Refractor Prism
Image Diverging Cone cells Plane surface
Rainbow Concave Rod cells Transformation
Incident Convex Focus Material
Converging Lens Short-sighted Translucent
Inverted
Step 2: Classify all facts, ideas and concepts into the appropriate levels of SOLO Taxonomy.
Mirror Law of reflection Energy
Rainbow Diverging
Normal Dispersion
Medium Spectrum
Focal point Refraction
Object Converging
Transparent Short-sighted
Prism Long-sighted
Cone cells
Plane surface
Step 3: Identify contexts that can be used to extend the students’ thinking and can be classified at the extended
abstract level.
Possible contexts Reference or source
Glass that only allows light to pass www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/04/one-way-light
one way
Light and microscopes www.forensicscience.org/resources/light-microscope
How light moves molecules esciencenews.com/articles/2011/03/16/hopkins.researchers.use.light.move.
molecules
continued ...

1. Getting started
Example 5: Constructing a unit of work for a Year 9/10 physics class (continued)
Phase Two
Step 1: Group key facts, ideas, concepts and possible contexts.
Light Light can be transformed into other Light and its importance to
Energy forms of energy communication
Light travels in straight lines
Speed of light
Normal Law of reflection Law of reflection on all rough and
Plane surface smooth surfaces
Angle of reflection
Angle of incidence
Reflection
Incidence
Ray
Ray diagram
Concave mirror Behaviour of light in concave and How image changes in a concave
Convex mirror convex mirrors mirror depending on the focal
Focal point distance
Convergent
Divergent
Object Behaviour of light passing though Speed of light through different media
Reflect different media
Refract
Medium
Material
Opaque
Transparent
Translucent
Refraction Uses of refractors Generalised statement about
Refractor behaviour of parallel rays
Parallel
Rays
Concave
Convex
Step 2: Assign the verbs of SOLO.
Categorise the verbs from SOLO Taxonomy against the content at the uni/multistructural, relational and extended
abstract levels (see Example 6 that follows).

1. Getting started
Example 6: Assigning verbs to the intended learning outcome for a Year 9/10 physics class
SOLO level
Learning outcome Uni/multistructural Relational Extended abstract
Outcome A
Facts, ideas, Light Light can be transformed into Light and its importance to
processes and Energy other forms of energy medicine and communication
context Light travels in straight lines
Speed of light
Verb(s) Define Explain Reflect
Identify
Outcome B
Facts, ideas, Rays Law of reflection Is law of reflection true for all
processes and Ray diagram surfaces?
context Normal
Angle of reflection
Angle of incidence
Plane surface
Verb(s) Define Relate Predict
Describe Hypothesise
Outcome C
Facts, ideas, Mirror Distance of object from mirror Generalisation of concave and
processes and Concave mirror convex mirrors
context Convex mirror
Focal point
Parallel rays
Verb(s) Define Relate Generalise
Describe
Concave mirror Distance of object Generalisation of concave

Convex mirror from mirror and convex mirrors

1. Getting started
A practical guide to constructing a unit of work

Template 1 below shows how you can construct an entire unit of work following the same process as outlined in the
previous exemplars. Note that at this stage the groups you have formed do not have to be in any logical order. The
sequencing of these groups will be explained in the next section.
Template 1: Using SOLO to construct a unit of work
Group 1
Facts, ideas, processes
and context
SOLO verb(s)
Group 2
and context
SOLO verb(s)
Group 3
and context
SOLO verb(s)
Group 4
and context
SOLO verb(s)
Group 5
and context
SOLO verb(s)
Group 6
and context
SOLO verb(s)
Group 7
and context
SOLO verb(s)
Now that the verbs have been assigned, a framework has developed. In the next section we look at how we can use this
framework to design the appropriate teaching activities or interventions for each level of SOLO Taxonomy.

2. Putting it all together
In Phase Three of the process outlined in Table 1 (see Section 1), the learning intentions and success criteria can be
constructed. Both these components will be important in providing clarity throughout a unit of work or during any
teaching interaction. They form the foundation from which teachers know what they want the learning to look like and at
the same time they provide students with a clear path to follow in order to achieve identified outcomes.
Success criteria from a student’s perspective

In this process, each learning intention is broken down into a corresponding success criterion. The success criteria have a
very important role when you are using the learning log. Notably they make clear to the student how the student is doing
in relation to the learning intention. Once the student has ascertained “where they are” using the success criteria, they can
establish (in collaboration with the teacher) what they need to do next. The criteria become the focus of discussions and
provide valuable information to the student and teacher on the student’s progress at the differing levels of thinking.
The success criteria are designed from a student’s perspective because they provide students with the opportunity to
evaluate how effectively they are working. In this way students can:
 monitor their own progress and reflect on the level of success they have had
 develop a much better idea of their own ability and thus build the foundation on which they can direct their
own learning.
Many success criteria written from a teacher’s perspective do not use language that students can understand easily. As a
result, students may not know what they have to do in order to be successful. Likewise, if teachers use tests to evaluate
whether students have achieved the success criteria, the students gain little information as to why they were successful or
not. In addition, in contrast to providing the success criteria within the learning log, this approach does not allow students
to direct their own learning.
I need success criteria that:

• I can understand
• tell me what to do in order to be successful.
Sequencing groups and developing learning intentions

and success criteria
In the first two phases of the process covered in Section 1, facts, ideas, processes and contexts were organised into
groups, and sample verbs from SOLO Taxonomy were assigned to the appropriate levels for two exemplars (primary and
secondary school levels). You need to sequence these groups into a logical order through which you want the students to
progress. It is important to consider factors such as:
 natural links between groups
 prior knowledge of students
 level of complexity.
To produce a unit of work from the groups that you have identified, you then need to create a learning intention and
success criterion for each level of SOLO Taxonomy for each of the groups. Examples 7 and 8 that follow show this
process for one group from the primary exemplar and another from the secondary exemplar described in Section 1.

Example 7: Developing learning intentions and success criteria for a Year 5/6 science class
SOLO level
Component Uni/multistructural Relational Extended abstract
Content Energy Transfer Energy and fossil fuels
Electrical Transformation Saving energy
Chemical Alternative energy
Nuclear
Sound
Light
Kinetic
Potential
Verb(s) Identify Compare and contrast Reflect
List Predict
Define
Describe
Learning Be able to identify the many Be able to compare and Be able to reflect on the
intention forms of energy. contrast the terms energy benefits of saving energy.
transfer and transformation.
Success I can identify the various forms I can identify the similarities I can reflect on how I can save
criterion of energy. and differences between energy and the benefits this
energy transfer and brings.
transformation.
Example 8: Developing learning intentions and success criteria for a Year 9/10 physics class
SOLO level
Component Uni/multistructural Relational Extended abstract
Facts, ideas, Light Light can be transformed into Light and its importance to
processes and Energy other forms of energy medicine and communication
context Light travels in straight lines
Speed of light
Verb(s) Define Explain Reflect
Identify
Learning Be able to define the terms Know that light can be Be able to reflect on the
intention light and energy, and identify transformed into other forms importance of light in medicine
some properties of light. of energy. and communication.
Success I can define the terms light and I can explain how light is I can reflect on the importance
criterion/criteria energy. transformed into other types of light in medicine and
I can identify some properties of energy. communication
of light.

Learning log exemplars

When you have completed this process for all the groups and sequenced them logically, you have created a learning log that
differentiates learning intentions and success criteria under three levels of SOLO Taxonomy. The first completed learning log
that follows is appropriate for the primary level (Example 9) and the second one for the secondary level (Example 10).
Example 9: Learning log for a Year 5/6 science class
SOLO level Learning intentions Success criteria

Generalised learning intention: Understand energy has many forms and that it can be transferred and transformed.
Uni/multistructural Be able to identify the different forms I can identify the various forms of energy.
of energy.
Relational Be able to compare and contrast the terms I can identify the similarities and differences
energy transfer and transformation. between energy transfer and transformation.
Extended abstract Be able to reflect on the benefits of saving I can reflect on how I can save energy and
energy. the benefits this brings.
Generalised learning intention: Understand that electricity has two forms and its impact on our everyday lives.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define current and static electricity. I can define current and static electricity.
Relational Be able to contrast current and static electricity I can identify the differences between
and explain how electricity reaches our homes. current and static electricity and explain how
electricity reaches our homes via the national
electricity grid.
Extended abstract Be able to predict the absence of electricity on I can predict how having no electricity would
our lives. affect our lives.
Generalised learning intention: Understand how circuits are constructed and that appliances are represented
by symbols.
Uni/multistructural Be able to follow simple instructions and I can follow simple instructions using diagrams
diagrams in building complete circuits and to build complete circuits.
understand that electricity is the flow of I can describe electricity in terms of electrons.
electrons.
Relational Be able to explain why electrons can flow in I can explain, in relation to electrons, the
a complete circuit but not in an incomplete difference between complete and incomplete
(broken) circuit. circuits.
Extended abstract Be able to create own circuit using a variety of I can create my own circuit using a variety
appliances. of appliances.
Generalised learning intention: Understand the similarities and differences between series and parallel circuits.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define series and parallel circuits. I can define series and parallel circuits.
Relational Be able to compare and contrast series and I can identify the similarities and differences
parallel circuits. between series and parallel circuits.
Extended abstract Be able to predict the best situation in which to I can predict the best applications of series
use series and parallel circuits. and parallel circuits.
continued ...

Example 9: Learning log for a Year 5/6 science class (continued)

Generalised learning intention: Understand the relationship between volts, amps and watts.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define the terms volts, amps and I can define the terms volts, amps and watts.
watts.
Relational Be able to explain the effect of varying volts, I can explain the effect of varying the volts,
amps and watts on the brightness of a lamp. amps and watts on the brightness of a lamp.
Extended abstract Be able to reflect on how common appliances I can reflect on how volts, amps and watts are
are designed to use appropriate volts, amps and used differently on various appliances.
watts.
Generalised learning intention: Understand how objects can be conductors and insulators.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define the terms conductors I can define the terms conductors and
and insulators. insulators.
Relational Be able to classify objects as conductors I can classify various objects as conductors
and insulators. and insulators.
Extended abstract Be able to predict the uses of electrical I can predict the uses of electrical conductors
conductors and insulators. and insulators.
Generalised learning intention: Understand that magnets have a magnetic field.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define the terms magnet, magnetism, I can define the terms magnet, magnetism,
magnetic field and poles. magnetic field and poles.
Relational Be able to relate the strength of a magnet to I can relate the strength of a magnet to the
the size of its magnetic field. size of its magnetic field.
Extended abstract Be able to create an experiment to test the I can create an experiment that tests the
strength of magnets. strength of magnets.
Generalised learning intention: Understand how electromagnets are temporary magnets.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define the term electromagnet. I can define the term electromagnet.
Relational Be able to explain how electromagnets are made. I can explain how electromagnets are made.
Extended abstract Be able to hypothesise about how the strength I can hypothesise about how the strength of
of electromagnets can be changed. electromagnets can be changed.
These objects are

I predict we can use
A conductor is ... conductors ...
conductors to ...

Example 10: Learning log for a Year 9/10 physics class

Generalised learning intention: Recognise that light and sound are types of energy that are detected by eyes and ears.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define the terms light and energy I can define the terms light and energy.
and identify some properties of light. I can identify some properties of light .
Relational Know that light can be transformed into other I can explain how light is transformed into
forms of energy. other types of energy.
Extended abstract Be able to reflect on the importance of light in I can reflect on the importance of light in
medicine and communication. medicine and communication.
Generalised learning intention: Be able to draw a normal, measure angles and define the law of reflection.
Uni/multistructural Be able to draw ray diagrams including the I can draw a ray diagram with correctly
normal with correctly drawn angles. measured angles.
Relational Be able to define the law of reflection, relating I can define the law of reflection, relating
the terms incidence, reflected ray, normal and the terms incidence, reflected ray, normal and
smooth surface. smooth surface.
Extended abstract Recognise that the law of reflection is true for I can predict what will happen if light is
all plane surfaces and be able to predict what reflected off a rough surface and explain why
will happen if the surface is rough. it happens.
Generalised learning intention: Be able to use ray boxes to understand how concave and convex mirrors behave.
Uni/multistructural Know that changing the distance of an object I can recognise that an image in a concave
from a concave mirror changes the appearance mirror changes as an object is moved closer or
of the image. further away from the mirror.
Relational Be able to explain why concave mirrors I can (using diagrams) explain why concave
are known as converging mirrors and convex and convex mirrors are referred to as
mirrors as diverging mirrors. convergent and divergent mirrors respectively.
Extended abstract Recognise patterns in reflected rays from I can write a generalisation about the patterns
concave and convex mirrors and be able to of reflected rays in concave and convex
make a generalisation. mirrors.
Generalised learning intention: Know that shiny objects reflect light and transparent objects refract light.
Uni/multistructural Recognise that shiny objects reflect light and I can recognise the types of materials that
transparent objects refract it. reflect light and those that will allow light to
pass through them.
Relational Be able to explain why light can pass through I can explain why light refracts in materials
some materials and not others. through which it passes.
Extended abstract Predict what will happen to the speed of light I can predict what will happen to the speed of
in different media using an analogy. light in different media using an analogy.
Generalised learning intention: Understand how refraction is influenced by the refractor.
Uni/multistructural Be able to draw the refracted rays when passing I can draw lines that represent refracted rays
through a concave and convex refractor. when they have passed through a concave and
convex refractor.
continued ...

Example 10: Learning log for a Year 9/10 physics class (continued)

Relational Be able to relate the properties of concave and I can relate the properties of concave and
convex refractors to their uses. convex refractors to their uses.
Extended abstract Be able to write a generalisation about the I can write a generalisation about the
behaviour of parallel rays in concave and behaviour of parallel rays in concave and
convex refractors. convex refractors.
Generalised learning intention: Be able to classify various reflectors and refractors.
Uni/multistructural Be able to classify several reflectors and I can correctly organise several reflectors and
refractors into three groups: plane, concave refractors into these groups: plane, concave
and convex. and convex.
Relational Be able to explain why several refractors and I can explain why each of the reflectors and
reflectors can be considered plane, concave refractors was placed in its particular group.
and convex.
Extended abstract Be able to create a way to test grouped I can create a way to test whether each
refractors and reflectors to ensure they are reflector and refractor has been placed in the
placed in the correct groups. correct group.
Generalised learning intention: Be able to describe the function of refractors in various devices.
Uni/multistructural Be able to identify the refractor in a cow’s eye. I can identify the refractor in a cow’s eye.
Relational Be able to explain how the refractor in a cow’s I can explain how the refractor length affects
eye focuses the light rays on the retina. the length at which the rays are focused.
Extended abstract Be able to predict the effects of a cow’s I can predict what will happen if the refractor
refractor that does not work correctly. is too short or too long on the focal point of
the rays.
Generalised learning intention: Be able to define long- and short-sightedness.
Uni/multistructural Be able to identify the ray diagram that shows I can identify long- and short-sightedness by
long- and short-sightedness. using ray diagrams.
Relational Be able to explain, in terms of the refractor, I can explain how a refractor that is too short
why somebody can be long- or short-sighted. or too long affects sight.
Extended abstract Be able to predict the type of lens that could I can predict which type of lens will correct
be used to correct long- or short-sightedness. long-sightedness and which type will correct
short-sightedness.
Generalised learning intention: Know how white light is dispersed and how rainbows are formed.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define the term spectrum and I can define the term spectrum.
remember the mnemonic ROYGBIV.
Relational Be able to explain how light is dispersed into I can explain how light is dispersed using a
a spectrum and relate this to the formation of prism and relate this to how rainbows are
rainbows. formed in the atmosphere.
Extended abstract Be able to make a generalisation about the I can form a generalisation about the
quality of a rainbow. formation of spectrums and rainbows in
relation to the amount of refraction occurring.

3. The pedagogy behind the
learning log
Science is a subject that contains not only a large amount of new ideas and information, but also a large number of abstract
ideas which can be daunting and inaccessible to many students. These characteristics can undermine students’ motivation,
leading them to consider that they are no good at science (and to withdraw from the subject as soon as they can).
Although many struggle with learning the numerous surface-level notions, there are also many students who can
understand the more complex abstract ideas but never have the opportunity to apply them in a wider context or use
their imagination or creativity to generate new ideas of their own. Because of this lack of opportunity, they too can fail to
engage in the subject.
The learning log is a framework that can be used to both make science accessible to students and provide them with
opportunities to create their own ideas through the use of higher-order thinking. With reference to the success criteria, it
can also be used to assess where individual students are along a continuum from surface to deep thinking. This information
can be invaluable for the teacher in evaluating the impact of their teaching.
This section explores in more detail the pedagogical rationale that underpins the learning log and, in doing so, provides
insight into how and why it can be used so effectively in the classroom.
Providing clarity in teaching and learning

A single learning intention that a teacher provides to students can be interpreted in many different ways. It is more than
likely that it will not identify the key terms, ideas or concepts that need to be taught or learnt to meet the specified
learning intention and that it will not necessarily sequence these in terms of complexity or cognitive activity. A teacher may
well plan their lesson taking all these factors into consideration but such factors will not be clear or visible to the student.
In contrast, the learning log provides clarity to the teacher and student as it:
 specifies clearly the intended outcomes that require different levels of thinking
 sequences them hierarchically.
To the student, the learning log can then show a clear pathway that states what is expected in terms of content and the
thinking skills that they will be required to use.
The learning intentions in the learning log provide a framework against which the teacher and student can assess how well
the student meets a learning intention, with reference to the success criteria. This information can be valuable to both
teacher and student in determining the level of complexity that a student can work at successfully.
Accessibility to all students

The learning log at the unistructural and multistructural levels identifies learning intentions that require little cognitive
activity as they generally involve activities concerned with listing, defining or describing. All students can complete such
activities, with varying degrees of support. This experience is especially important for those students who have little
confidence in their own ability as it shows them that they can achieve an identified learning outcome and it is an important
step in improving their self efficacy (Figure 2). In many cases it is also critical that students have these surface-level notions
before they can go on to relate and extend them further.

3. The pedagogy behind the learning log
Figure 2: Completing unistructural and multistructural activities can lift self efficacy
Lifted Weight
self efficacy of success
Success
Success
Self efficacy
Success
Providing challenging learning intentions for all students

Where a teacher uses a single learning intention, a student may perceive it as either too hard or too easy and become
demotivated as a result. Likewise, within any classroom there will be students who will be challenged by a learning
intention aimed at surface learning while others will achieve it comfortably and require further opportunities to test
their understanding. With its three levels of learning intentions and thus three levels of cognitive complexity, the learning
log provides a progression in the complexity of challenge to all students in the classroom. It is more likely to provide a
challenge to all students and maintain their engagement in what is being taught.
I will illustrate this consequence with reference to two Year 10 students from a mainstream science class, who I have
observed from my own experience in the classroom while using the learning log.
Student A: Seizing the opportunity to succeed

Student A is a boy who had been transferred into my class after about a term with another teacher. I am not
aware of the reasons for the move but he came with a reputation for misbehaviour and a poor attitude towards his
work. These traits became evident quite quickly but I had a sense there was more to him than his demonstrable
attitude indicated.
After a few lessons we started a new topic where I took the opportunity to explain what the learning log was and
how it worked. Initially, his attitude did not show any change but I sat with him and assisted him in his effort at the
first of the learning intentions at the unistructural and multistructural level. At first he was hesitant to attempt the
work but soon discovered that he was capable of doing the work and could meet the success criteria. The look
on his face when he realised that he could do it was one of surprise and pride. He attempted the next learning
intention at the unistructural and multistructural level on his own and again he was successful.
His attitude to his work began to change and although he is now not working at a high level he is putting effort
into his work. The next challenge for him will be to attempt a learning intention identified at the relational level.

Student B: Rising to the challenge

Student B is a girl who demonstrated she had an interest and a good ability in science. However, she was often off-
task and distracted others in their learning. When I introduced the learning log, her attitude changed visibly.
I sat down with her and questioned her about the change in her behaviour. She stated that prior to the learning
log she was bored and found the work too easy so she accepted that she would not place extra effort into
thinking about whatever was being studied. We reflected on the learning intentions that I gave prior to the learning
log and now viewed them as being too simplistic and aimed at low levels of thinking; once she felt that she had
met the criteria for these intentions, she had no challenge. However with the learning log now identifying learning
intentions with ever-increasing demands on cognitive activity, the challenge had returned for her.
Student B stated, “My goal for each lesson is to meet the success criteria for all levels of the learning log.”
These are just two examples of experiences that made me fully appreciate the value of the learning log in providing
challenge to students no matter what their ability is. They also demonstrate how a teacher can use the learning log to
place each student relative to their understanding and then move them forward towards the success criteria. I carefully
reviewed the intentions I had incorporated into the learning log with a specific focus on the level of challenge they
provided. If the intentions at each level were too easy or too hard, a student might disengage from the work. For the
balance to be right, the intentions must give the student a chance to succeed but at the same time there must be a
chance of failure: only in this situation would a student feel there was sufficient but not insurmountable challenge. It is
also important to show a student what success will look like as they progress through the learning log, so that they can
appreciate a sense of mastery as they invest more effort and practice in meeting the success criteria.
An important question I also considered was, “What would motivate a student to attempt a learning intention within the
learning log if they had not been successful the first time?” Through observations in the classroom I came to the conclusion
that they would make another attempt if they felt there was a greater chance of success after feedback from either myself
or other students. This observation highlighted the value of prompt feedback.
Encouraging intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation comes from within a person and relies on no external source of reward or recognition. I have heard
the advice “Do the best you can do” and “Don’t compare yourself with anybody else” many times over the years and
have only linked it recently to the idea of intrinsic motivation. These fatherly statements focus the attention on what an
individual can control rather than on what they cannot. It puts the emphasis on the satisfaction an individual gets when
they make personal progress by achieving something new. The feeling is deeply personal and can be undermined when
the achievement is compared with what others have done because there will always be somebody who can do it faster
and easier. Without this internal sense of satisfaction, motivation for trying tasks can dwindle.
All students are intrinsically motivated towards some aspect of their life, be it sport, art, building things, or any of a number
of academic (or non-academic) subjects. Often they have this motivation because they have had early success in this field,
recognise they have some kind of talent with it, and enjoy attempting new tasks that continue to demonstrate this talent.
The problem is: how you get them to be intrinsically motivated in science? Through observing my own students I consider
there are two key parts to this task:
1. Provide the opportunity to show a student that they have some level of ability or talent in the subject.
2. Focus on the progress each student has made, without comparing it with anybody else.

A cognitive centre
The learning log, including its repetition of the verbs in SOLO Taxonomy, allows the brain to make connections specifically
related to the use and development of thinking skills. As with learning any new skill, the learner’s first attempts at using
a targeted thinking skill are often unsuccessful or below the level the learner wishes to achieve. Yet by practising the skill
repeatedly, collecting information on performance and comparing this information with previous attempts, the learner can
modify new attempts at the skill.
Michael Merzenich suggests that the human brain develops specific centres to process skills like those identified in
SOLO Taxonomy. The learning log places these in a context that the learner can identify as important to the way they
think and learn and helps establish thinking as culture within the classroom. The repetition in the learning log allows the
development of the processing skills related to the verbs in SOLO Taxonomy (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Developing a cognitive processing centre through repetition of SOLO verbs in the learning log
Uni/ Define
multi- Describe
structural Identify
Name
Compare and contrast

Relate
Relational Analyse
Sequence
Argue
Create
Extended Imagine
abstract Hypothesise
Theorise
In helping to develop a cognitive centre for processing the skills identified in SOLO Taxonomy, teachers should value
repeated opportunities to learn as an important part of the process of improving a skill. In sport, most learners would
not hesitate to try a skill in a different way to see if it improved the outcome. If it does not improve the outcome, then
the learner may consider there has been an error somewhere in its execution. Such deliberate practice is typically
necessary in learning most tasks (which, in addition to sport, may range from music to socially unacceptable tasks such
as stealing). Reflection on the skill could help identify where the error occurred and guide the learner in modifying their
next approach.
In a classroom context my experience suggests that students are far more reticent to take the risk of deliberate practice
as they tend to consider an error as failure and this view has the potential to reduce a student’s self efficacy and therefore
willingness to make another attempt. Many of those who struggle and are in most need of deliberate practice try once
and then either do not wish to take the risk of re-learning in case they fail the second time or see that they have put
in their “best effort” even if the answer is incorrect. In developing students’ ability to take risks with their thinking, it is
essential to take time to highlight that:
 the process of trial and error is an important part of learning
 an error is not the same as failure.

Too often students do not want to share their ideas or thinking, as they consider a wrong answer would mean their peers
would see them as a failure. In students who are academically able this is still a barrier as they do not want to risk their
reputation on an answer they do not know is completely correct.
And a major concern is the negative claims, comments, vibes from their peers – this is a powerful deterrent. We ignore
the power of peers at our peril.
Self managing
The learning log provides a framework from which students can learn to self-regulate; that is, to control monitoring,
evaluating and planning their own learning. The initial shift – and a very important one that is often hard to achieve – is
for a student to focus on their own performance. Too often in many classrooms, students achieve this focus by comparing
their performance with that of their peers; for effective self-management, however, the aim should be that they spend
cognitive energy comparing and analysing different aspects of their own performance. Unpacking the SOLO Taxonomy
levels in the learning log allows individual students to focus on the thinking skills, strategies and behaviours that can improve
their own performance (Figure 4) and to monitor their own progress at each of these hierarchical levels. The log provides
a rubric that helps them to:
 monitor what they need to do
 recognise what success looks like
 gain direction as to where to go next.
They can then reflect on their behaviours and strategies that have led to their success.
In my own classroom I have observed students who were frequently off-task because they considered themselves not
to be smart, often because of peer comparison, but once I introduced the learning logs and assisted them with simple
strategies that allowed them to achieve success, their behaviour began to change. The students learnt how these new
strategies and behaviours could help them to succeed even at a low level of thinking and they proactively applied them
in other similar situations. Thus learning becomes more personal in terms of the efficiency and speed at which students
travel through the lesson, and ensures all students are working towards similar content and understanding goals.
The same principle applies to gifted or very capable students who have always used their natural ability to get through.
When they come up against something they cannot do, they are just as helpless as somebody who is working at a lower
level of thinking. They too need help to develop strategies or behaviours that they can redeploy to move towards meeting
the success criteria.
Figure 4: Focusing on personal performance as a way of learning to self-regulate
Strategies
Behaviours
Own performance
Avoid
comparison
with peers

The learning log thus allows students to accumulate strategies and behaviours and to predict when they can use one or
more of those strategies and behaviours to increase their chance of success. They are now far more self-regulating and
less dependent on others to find ways to enhance their own success.
Differentiation
The learning log provides a personalised framework in the classroom which can allow for differentiation in pace, prior
knowledge, the demonstration of student knowledge and the level of challenge.
We all know students are not the same and one of the biggest challenges in the classroom is supporting students so
that they feel they have been personally taken into consideration. Each student wants choices and unique opportunities
in their own learning. Such inclusion, as the antithesis of the “one size fits all” approach, must surely strengthen students’
motivation and engagement.
By way of analogy, think of being at a large conference presentation where all attendees receive the same information, at
the same time and in the same format. The attendees cannot choose or control the information they receive; they are
simply there to receive it. What happens to those attendees with limited prior knowledge who cannot understand the
concepts being presented? They may start wishing they were somewhere else and fortunately for them they can just get
up and leave. Equally, for the attendees at the other end of the knowledge and understanding spectrum, the presentation
may provide no new information or challenge and that experience, combined with the lack of opportunity for expression,
may likewise lead to their disengagement.
Now imagine what would happen if these same attendees had to repeat this situation as frequently as many students
in the classroom have to. It is more than likely that they would come to feel that they were not valued and become
frustrated through the lack of choice and opportunities. For some students in the equivalent situation, another result is
behaviours that are not desired in the classroom.
With the learning log teachers have a tool to leave behind the “one size fits all” approach and embed differentiation in
the classroom. For students it creates choice and opportunity, and allows them to work at different paces and levels of
thinking. In particular, the learning log:
 recognises that students may have different starting places for learning, depending on their prior knowledge, as they
work towards the desired goals
 offers learning intentions that provide not only different access points for students but also opportunities to
demonstrate their competency at each of the SOLO levels
 gives students some control over their pace of working, such that some can spend more time as required at the lower
levels of thinking while others can progress quickly to the higher levels. Clearly the teacher has an important part in
this process as they have to provide guidance and feedback to help students determine the appropriate pace.
For the teacher too there are many benefits arising from the differentiation that can be achieved through identifying the
different levels of thinking in the learning log. Among these benefits are that:
 the teacher knows that the framework caters for all possible paces of student learning
 there is a variety of entry points for students
 the progressive framework is visible to students
 the teacher is able to support students at a variety of levels.
Importantly the learning log overcomes the need for the teacher to create new activities or issue question numbers from
a book just to keep students active – an approach that is reactive and that students know is reactive, which undermines its
value. By contrast, students perceive the learning log as an authentic and integral programme for their learning.

Formative interpretations
Making formative interpretations from assessment is one of the most powerful tools available to teachers and students and
should happen frequently in a classroom. It has a significant influence on the development of students’ knowledge and the
way a teacher presents information. In formative assessment:
 students are not given grades or scores but rather gain information that can improve their performance in a particular
skill or activity
 teachers can learn much about the impact of their teaching (and obviously much more than they would if the students
gave them only a grade or score!).
The process therefore is reciprocal as both teacher and students learn from formative interpretations, and their future
actions are influenced by the information they gain from it (Figure 5).
Figure 5: The reciprocal process of making formative interpretations
Teacher Formative Student

interpretations
Uses information to modify Uses information to
their next actions in relation Establish what the student measure the success of
to the learning intention currently knows and a learning strategy and
being assessed, which could identify where they need to whether it needs to be
affect individuals or the go next. adapted or a new one
whole class. adopted.
As well as providing different learning intentions to be formatively evaluated, the learning log establishes the basis of
strategies that the students can use at each of those levels. It provides the teacher with a clear focus in terms of the
questions they pose or evidence they are looking for in order to assess each student’s performance accurately. Formative
interpretations are most beneficial when they are immediate and focused strongly on “where to next” – a major advantage
of the learning log. They are personal to students and a positive way for teachers to demonstrate their interest in their
students’ learning.
Students can carry out their own formative interpretations of where they are at in the learning, as the learning log provides
the rubric or detailed success criteria. It is a valuable process for them as it is likely to generate questions which they can
pose to themselves and to the teacher.
Learning-focused relationships
It is widely accepted that good relationships are important to getting the best out of students. It creates an environment
where the interactions are calm, positive and reflective between teachers and students. Achieving good relationships,
however, is a challenge that faces any teacher in the classroom because personalities and attitudes of teachers and students
are so widely different. Some fundamentals that can be applied effectively to any relationship are:
 showing a personal interest in another person, which is often reciprocated
 listening carefully to individuals and ensuring that they know they have been heard
 being open to the opinions and ideas of others. Wow! The teacher
seems to actually listen
to my ideas!

Relationships in the classroom are not exactly the same as those with colleagues and other adults as in classroom
relationships the focus is on learning. This means that both teachers and students should make decisions about
relationships in the context of learning. It is important for the teacher to be calm and authoritative to set the tone for
relationships in a classroom. Students, I believe, are strongly influenced by these qualities, leading them to view the teacher
as able to manage interactions in the classroom fairly and competently.
Relationships prosper in a climate of positive reinforcement. We can all think of occasions when we have been praised
for a special effort or for an action such as opening a door for someone else. It makes you feel good that you have been
noticed and as a result you are likely to repeat that behaviour. It is important to note too that consistent affirmation is
more effective than one-off praise. Those individuals who react positively to negative comments are rare.
I would suggest all of us do not receive enough praise for the efforts we make in all aspects of our lives and this is true for
students too, but as adults we have learnt to deal with it. Some students may receive no praise from home at all, making
the classroom the only place where they may be recognised and rewarded with positive comments.
Student C: Unexpected praise

I heard a story recently that involved a student whose particularly troublesome behaviour, such as sarcastic
comments and put-downs, had detrimental effects on many relationships in the classroom. When the teacher
made a comment to the boy that acknowledged his obvious intelligence and ability, the reaction was one that the
teacher had not anticipated: the boy was open-mouthed in disbelief. Eventually he recovered and replied that he
had never been praised like that before in his life. Thereafter the sarcastic comments and put-downs ceased and a
relationship developed that was focused purely on learning.
Learning-focused relationships are important because they allow both the student and teacher to reflect on their
interactions with a view to how they will improve a student’s ability to learn. There is no ambiguity in the purpose of
developing good relationships. The learning log helps to establish positive learning relationships as it provides clear
opportunities for praise at all levels of thinking. It also uses language that is specific to a student’s learning, which
encourages both teacher–student and student–student relationships to develop around this commonality of language.

4. The pyramid of a lifelong learner
Schools do not just strive for students to achieve the best they are capable of academically; they also help shape the whole
person and prepare them for life after school. The term lifelong learner is often used to describe what schools want their
students to become and the process of creating a lifelong learner begins as soon as a student begins school. Ideas about
what a lifelong learner looks like and what skills they require vary but SOLO Taxonomy and the learning log provide a
framework from which to develop such skills. The pyramid of a lifelong learner (Figure 6) proposes the essential elements
that are required to become a lifelong learner.
Learning-focused relationships hold the pyramid together in two ways:
1. They deliver and erect the scaffolding, allowing the stones to be placed on top of each other.
2. They provide the mortar that holds the stones together.
Overview of the levels of the pyramid

The cornerstones at the base of the pyramid are clarity and effort. A student must understand what they are expected
to learn and the steps involved in getting there, but must also realise they need to apply effort if they are going to have any
success. Persistence, concentration, deliberate practice are taught and learned skills – they need to be explicit and valued,
and students are more likely to put in the effort if they are aware of the progression to the success criteria. The learning
log is a key feature of this process.
The other foundation stone comprises choice and opportunities. There need to be different entry points to the work
so that students can choose the one that is appropriate to them. Without such choice, the cornerstone of effort is likely
to be weakened.
The following elements are put in place in the next level of stones:
 Formative interpretations from assessments provide opportunities to identify success for a student and help them
understand where they are in the learning log.
 A sense of self efficacy is strengthened though formative interpretations – students become more confident that
they can reach the goals of the lesson. When they feel more positive about themselves, then students will maintain or
intensify their effort.
 Challenge ensures students have something to strive for and, like formative interpretations, encourages the further
development of self efficacy.
Using the learning log as a framework for the foundation stones allows a focus on the thinking skills that are required for
learning. By practising the identified thinking skills frequently, students can start developing a cognitive processing centre
and use it to reflect on current and past performance and to modify these skills. As a consequence, they may well increase
their chance of success.
Building on from the establishment of a cognitive processing centre, students begin to self manage behaviours and
strategies they have reflected on as those likely to increase their chance of success. Their intrinsic motivation is assisted by
their ability to analyse their own progress in relation to a number of thinking skills.
The capstone is the pinnacle of the pyramid, the lifelong learner – a student who has the skills and attributes to apply
thinking skills, behaviours and strategies to new learning.

4. The pyramid of a lifelong learner
Figure 6: Pyramid of a lifelong learner
Learning-focused Lifelong
relationships act as learner
mortar for the pyramid
Self Intrinsic
managing motivation
Cognitive
processing
centre
Self
Formative Challenge efficacy
interpretations
Choice and Effort

Clarity opportunities

5. Assessing prior knowledge
The prior knowledge students bring into a classroom is unpredictable and varied. If it is not taken into account, it can
hinder their learning during a unit of work. Factors that may influence prior knowledge include:
 discussions with family members
 visits to museums
 interest in or passion for a topic.
It is not easy to replace a student’s prior knowledge with a new set of information. They need time to compare their
existing understanding with new information in order to resolve any contradictions or mismatches by modifying their
knowledge. A common example in science is that many students believe the season of summer occurs because the earth
is closer to the sun when in fact the real reason is connected to the tilt of the earth and the concentration of rays. If the
teacher does not identify this misconception and provide the correct explanation, students can become very confused
when trying to explain the seasons.
SOLO Taxonomy provides an opportunity to assess this prior knowledge and to address any misconceptions a student has.
Two approaches can be taken:
1. breaking down global intentions under the SOLO levels for a unit of work (or topic), or
2. using the learning intentions from the learning log for individual lessons.
This section sets out examples of how each approach works.
Breaking down global intentions under SOLO levels

If your topic is seasons, you might break down the global intentions in the following way:
 Uni/multistructural: Identify the different seasons.
 Relational: Explain why these seasons occur at predictable times of the year.
 Extended abstract: Predict what would happen to the seasons if the earth’s tilt was changed because of an impact
from an asteroid.
You may then place these learning intentions into Template 2 on the next page and take the class through the following
process:
1. Individually the students write what they know for each learning intention.
2. In small groups students share their answers. This is a good opportunity for them to have conversations and possibly
to identify and correct misconceptions.
3. Hold a whole-class discussion, which may also highlight misconceptions. It is important to emphasise that it is okay for
students to have limited knowledge about a topic especially if it is new to them.
4. Allow the students the opportunity to ask questions about the topic and to record these on the template.
With the students’ questions, the teacher may:

 modify the learning intentions in teaching the unit or topic
 classify them under the SOLO levels and address them in the introductory lesson
 ask students to rank them according to the SOLO levels, and in this way encourage a sense that they have an input
into what is being taught and that the process is a shared one.

Template 2: Measuring prior knowledge
Prior knowledge
Unit/topic: Name:
Global intentions:
Unistructural and multistructural:
Successfully identified one or several relevant facts

Relational:
Successfully linked several facts together to explain their relationship

Extended abstract:
Successfully linked the facts above to a new situation, context or concept

Question(s) I would like answered about this topic:

Using learning intentions from the learning log

The second approach to assessing prior knowledge – using the learning intentions from the learning log – can be
rewarding and fun. In a single lesson where a lesson intention has been broken down under the SOLO levels, the teacher
can simply use questioning to draw out evidence of the students’ prior knowledge. Alternatively any of the following
strategies can be used for the same result:
1. Think–pair–share: Each student thinks of what they know about each level of the learning intention. They then share
that information with a partner; in this activity it is also useful for the partner to repeat back to the speaker what they
just said. Finally the pairs repeat the information they have shared to the whole class.
2. Group share: In groups of four, students work on a piece of paper divided into four quarters. Three of the quarters
contain the three SOLO levels of the learning intention and the fourth is blank, where the students can write any
questions they want answered. Each student has three minutes to write in a designated quarter. Again this information
can then be shared with the whole class.
3. Guess the word: Each student is provided with a piece of paper containing a fact, idea, concept or process (which may
be the same for multiple students) (Figure 7). The students keep their own piece of paper hidden so only they can see
what is on it. They then have a minute to describe it to a partner; if their partner guesses what it is, the speaker gains
a point. In the following minute the partners swap roles. The students then collect new cards and repeat this process
three or four times. At the end of the activity, the student with the most points wins.
Figure 7: Sample “guess the word” cards to explore prior knowledge of seasons
Axis Tilt
Summer Winter
Season Orbit
Hemisphere Elliptical

6. Self assessment
Self assessment is a valuable tool for focusing students on their own abilities. A major factor influencing the value of this
form of assessment is the accuracy with which a student can undertake it, and it is common sense to expect them to
become more skilled at it with continued practice. As part of a wider assessment programme, self assessment can provide
information and opportunities that the other methods cannot.
Self assessment is a great opportunity for students to evaluate their own performance. From this process the teacher can:
 gain insight into how the students view themselves
 identify any mismatch between the way the teacher and each student views the student’s ability
 close any such gap in perceptions, which can have a powerful effect on student motivation and engagement
 more directly focus their conversations with a student in helping the student’s perception to become more realistic.
The learning log provides the framework in which self assessment is seen as an integral and authentic part of students’
learning in the classroom. It is important that students perceive self assessment in this way so that they can see the reason
for investing cognitive effort in developing their skills in the process. As students become better at self assessment, they
can use it to gain information on where they are, in relation to the learning log, and what they need to do in order to
meet a defined success criterion in the learning log.
Figure 8 illustrates the relationship between the learning log and self assessment.
Figure 8: The learning log and self assessment
Learning log
Provides focus at three Is seen by students as an Gives insight into how students
levels of thinking integral part of their learning perceive their own abilities
Methods of self assessment during a unit

The learning log can be used for self assessment in either of the following ways.
Method 1
1. The student identifies evidence in their book, or from another source, that they have achieved each of the learning
intentions set out in the learning log.
2. The student codes the evidence, identifying it as U/M for uni/multistructural, R for relational and EA for extended
abstract. They can also include colour-coding for easy identification.
3. The student compares their evidence against a rubric or exemplar which the teacher either has already prepared or
models in the classroom.
4. The student ticks the appropriate success criteria for which they have provided evidence.
Method 2
1. The student identifies evidence for each of the learning intentions, coding them by SOLO level as in Method 1.
2. The student makes a value statement explaining how they assessed themselves against each success criterion.

6. Self assessment
For either of these methods, it is important that the teacher evaluates the accuracy of a student’s self assessment and, if
they identify discrepancies, discusses how these can be corrected. Class discussions based on any discrepancies noted are
another valuable way of helping students learn how to self assess.
Generalised self assessment at the end of a unit

Another opportunity for self assessment is at the end of a unit or topic when students can undertake it in a more
generalised way. In this process the student:
1. uses the global intentions, broken down into the SOLO levels (uni/multistructural, relational and extended abstract), to
assess their own competence at each of the levels
2. ranks the SOLO verbs used in the unit, to establish their perceived competence with each of them
3. classifies facts, ideas, concepts or processes encountered in the unit in relation to their confidence with each of them
4. together with the teacher, creates goals based on this self assessment.
Example 11 below is a self assessment worksheet from a unit of work on electricity and magnetism. Thereafter Template 3
offers a generic format for any area of the curriculum.
Example 11: Self assessment worksheet for the end of a unit
Name: Unit/topic: Electricity and magnetism

Global intentions (1 = Very confident; 2 = Confident; 3 = Not confident)
Uni/multistructural: Be able to define the terms electricity and magnetism.
Relational: Be able to compare and contrast electricity and magnetism.
Extended abstract: Be able to predict the effects of having no electricity on our lives.
SOLO verbs
Rank the following verbs from 1 to 6 according to how difficult you find them to do.
(1 = Most difficult; 6 = Easiest)
Compare and contrast Define Describe Predict Relate Explain
Facts, ideas, concepts or processes
Classify the terms listed below.
Understand Some understanding No understanding
Terms to be classified:
Electricity Magnetism Current Amps Negative Static electricity Closed circuit Electromagnet
Conductor Insulator Lamp Switch Positive Magnetic field Parallel circuit Series circuit
Volts Watts Poles Mains Electrons Open circuit Appliance
Goals
Use the results of the self assessment activities above to create goals.
1.
2.
3.

6. Self assessment
Template 3: Generic format for self assessment at the end of a unit
Name: Unit/topic:
Global intentions (1 = Very confident; 2 = Confident; 3 = Not confident)
Uni/multistructural:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Relational:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Extended abstract:
_________________________________________________________________________________________
SOLO verbs
Rank the following verbs from 1 to 6 according to how difficult you find them to do.
(1 = Most difficult; 6 = Easiest)
_________________________________________ _________________________________________
_________________________________________ _________________________________________
_________________________________________ _________________________________________
Facts, ideas, concepts or processes
Classify the terms listed below.
Understand Some understanding No understanding
Terms to be classified:
Goals
Use the results of the self assessment activities above to create goals.
1.
2.
3.

7. Peer assessment
Peer assessment uses the interactions and conversations between students to identify misconceptions and areas of
common difficulty. It provides the opportunity for students to help each other to close gaps in their understanding which
a teacher may not have been able to do because of time constraints.
This collaborative process relies on students having learning-focused relationships. The learning log supports the process
with a clear framework setting out what is expected from students. The SOLO verbs used throughout the log provide a
common language on which to base learning conversations.
Peer assessment should not involve students awarding each other grades. Such an approach often leads to distractions
in learning conversations, when students shift focus away from understanding where they are at and what they need to
do to improve.
Students enjoy and value playing a part in assessment in the classroom. As with any new skill, they are likely to implement
it poorly at first but to develop their skills with it over time. Figure 9 identifies the components that are needed to help
establish effective peer assessment.
Figure 9: Components in effective peer assessment
Peer assessment
Teacher models the Peer assessment is There is a clear focus SOLO verbs provide
required behaviour and a routine part of on what is to be common vocabulary.
strategies. assessment in the assessed and how.
classroom.
Another important feature of effective peer assessment is that students carry it out with a variety of students. By this
means, they gain a broader range of views and perceptions of the work being assessed and further help in clarifying gaps in
understanding.
Peer assessment based on the learning log can be approached in two ways:
1. individual learning intentions
2. extended answers.
Building individual learning intentions into peer assessment

As discussed in Section 6, individual learning intentions that have been broken down under the SOLO levels (uni/
multistructural, relational and extended abstract) are used as part of the self assessment process. This process requires the
student to identify and code evidence for each level of learning intention.
The next step is for students to peer assess against the learning intention at each SOLO level, which provides the
opportunity to identify any differences in perception. During this process it is valuable for the teacher to:
 evaluate the accuracy of the peer assessment by asking for justification at each level of thinking
 ask the peer assessors to read out evidence they have provided for any of the levels to the whole class.

7. Peer assessment
In Example 12 below, the learning intention at the extended abstract level has the potential to generate much discussion.
Students could provide evidence for it in a number of ways including diagrams, modelling and role play.
Example 12: Learning intentions against which students peer assess
Learning intentions
SLO 4: Know that shiny objects reflect light and that transparent objects refract light.
Uni/multistructural Recognise that shiny objects reflect light and transparent objects refract it.
Relational Be able to explain why light can pass through some materials and not others.
Extended abstract Predict what will happen to the speed of light in different media using an analogy.
Although initially students tend to feel uncomfortable with this collaborative approach to assessment, after a short period
they no longer find it threatening and instead will ask for further opportunities to peer assess in this way.
Using extended answers in peer assessment

If students must provide an extended answer to a question such as “Is friction useful or not?”, in which they have to
provide evidence of their understanding at each level of thinking, they are forced to think carefully about the structure of
their response. For a peer assessor it is potentially more difficult to identify the levels of thinking in this format because it
has not been filtered or sequenced in the way they would expect to find in class notes.
The following two templates provide alternative ways of using extended answers in peer assessment:
 Template 4 provides no scaffolding for students and the peer assessor needs to first highlight evidence of each level of
thinking and then make comments based on the quality of the evidence identified.
 Template 5 provides visual scaffolding with a box for each level of thinking. This method also makes it easier for the
peer assessor who now only has to leave comments based on how they perceive the quality of evidence at each of
the levels.
Template 4: Peer assessment worksheet (option A)
Question
Evidence of uni/multistructural, Extended answer Comments
relational and extended abstract

7. Peer assessment
Template 5: Peer assessment worksheet (option B)
Question
Uni/multistructural Comments
Relational Comments
Extended abstract Comments

8. Tracking and progress
In my experience students’ rate of progress can vary greatly which makes it difficult to measure it against a set standard. If
a student has not reached the standard, they may lose motivation and consequently fall further behind. This experience
can be very difficult to counteract especially if it has been reinforced on a number of occasions. At the other extreme,
students who exceed a set standard can become complacent and lose motivation to make as much progress as they can.
Moreover, a single student during their time at school could experience variable rates of progress due to influences such
as their relationship with the teacher, level of interest in the topic or experiences of “aha” moments which lead to surges
in progress.
A student’s ability to focus on their own performance is very important. Students can waste a great deal of time and
cognitive energy on comparing themselves with their peers. They can move away from such comparisons by drawing on
the notion of personal best; here, as Andrew Martin describes it, students focus on achieving a benchmark (for a behaviour,
skill or aspect of knowledge) that is better than or equal to their highest level of achievement in performance. Students
can differ widely in their perception of excellence. By focusing on personal best, each student can see what excellence
looks like for them and from there can set goals that are achievable in reaching their personal best.
I am aiming for my personal best.

In the last unit I learnt how
to define key concepts.
In this unit I am aiming to relate
those concepts to each other.
Tracking students’ past and current performance provides information with which students can monitor their own
progress. This information can also help a student in identifying when they have achieved a personal best.
Tracking can be used in a unit/topic (Templates 6 and 7) or throughout the entire year (Template 8). It can be done by
using graphs (Template 7) or tables (Templates 6 and 8) or both.
The learning logs allow the teacher to track students according to the three SOLO levels of thinking (uni/multistructural,
relational and extended abstract). They can provide information useful to teachers, students and parents. Using learning
logs to track student progress offers the following advantages:
 Learning intentions that the student has not completed appear clearly in a graphic form, providing evidence that the
teacher can pass on to the student and to parents and thus making the student more accountable.
 This method establishes a student’s current performance and provides evidence of past performance, which supports
the creation of goals for future performance.
 It provides the teacher with guidance on the teaching strategies they use.
 For students it can provide invaluable information on the success of a new learning behaviour or strategy.
 It provides the teacher with information they can use to vary the pace of instruction in ways that meet the student’s
current rate of progress.

Template 6: Tracking using a grid for a unit/topic
Unit/topic:
Learning Uni/multistructural Relational Extended abstract
intention no.
1
10
11
12
13

Template 7: Tracking using a graph for a unit/topic
Unit/topic: ______________________________________________________________________________________
10
7
Learning intention number

Template 8: Year tracker
The student simply shades in the levels of thinking they successfully achieved.
Unit:
Learning intention 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Extended abstract
Relational
Uni/multistructural
Unit:
Extended abstract
Relational
Uni/multistructural
Unit:
Extended abstract
Relational
Uni/multistructural
Unit:
Extended abstract
Relational
Uni/multistructural
Unit:
Extended abstract
Relational
Uni/multistructural

9. The use of questions
An unexpected benefit of constructing questions using SOLO Taxonomy is that students rarely get an easy answer through
using a search engine on the internet. While they can readily collect information related to a topic, idea or concept, they
still have to use certain thinking skills to answer the question appropriately.
This principle can be taken a step further in a classroom context where students can access information from their
exercise or textbooks, but still have to process information in order to answer or create a question.
The use of questions in the classroom can be viewed from two perspectives: the teacher’s and the student’s. Both of these
viewpoints are outlined below.
Questions from the teacher

The learning log provides a focus for the type of questions that can be asked during a lesson or series of lessons. The
teacher can base their questions on the different levels of learning intentions identified in the log, as indicated in Table 2.
Table 2: Questions to match the learning intentions at each SOLO level
SOLO level Level of cognitive demand Sample questions

Uni/multistructural Relatively low  What are the colours of the rainbow?
 Can you describe a concave mirror?
Relational Somewhat higher, requiring  How does the temperature of water relate to the
students to connect ideas, facts percentage of dissolved oxygen?
or concepts  What are the similarities and differences between
concave and convex mirrors?
Extended abstract Most demanding  Can you predict the effect of moving an object further
away from a concave mirror?
 Can you form a hypothesis in relation to the effect of
friction on objects with different types of surface?
Teachers tend to ask a lot of questions during a lesson. SOLO Taxonomy is a valuable tool they can use to analyse
their approach to questioning. Knowing how many questions they have asked at each of the SOLO levels gives them
important information on the level of challenge and guidance they are providing to students. For example, if a teacher is
asking mainly uni/multistructural questions of a capable class, then they will be providing little challenge, and thus risking
disengagement and a lack of interest in the topic.
Although differentiation in a classroom demands the use of all levels of thinking, the key is to establish the ratio of questions
that suits the characteristics of each particular group of students. To gain the information you need to get the ratio right,
create a record such as the one set out in Template 9 on the next page and ask two or three students to record all the
questions you ask during a lesson. You can then use the results to reflect on the types of questions you asked.
Questions from students

The questions students ask can provide the teacher with important information. Analysis of these questions, using SOLO
Taxonomy, can help in assessing a student’s level of understanding. This is why it is essential to give students opportunities
to formulate questions. Students should also be able to ask questions in a variety of ways, given that some prefer not to
ask their questions publicly and some cannot think of questions quickly enough in a classroom environment.

Remember too that students themselves will gain important information from the process of formulating questions. The
process provides them with another tool with which they can test their perceived level of understanding.
The examples on the following page illustrate three ways in which students can create their own questions based on the
learning log and SOLO Taxonomy:
 In Example 13, each student tries to create a question for each level of thinking within a single learning intention.
 In Example 14, students again create their own question for each level of thinking but also include a question at each
level from one of their peers. The peer’s question can be identified through a class discussion or, if each student is to
provide feedback on the other’s question, a pairing exercise.
 Creating questions with Example 15 involves a four-step process:
– Each student creates three questions without identifying which level of SOLO they have created them for.
– Each student collects a total of three questions, each one from a different person in the class, and records them
in the table.
– Each student categorises the questions they have collected under the different SOLO levels.
– As a whole class or in pairs, students justify and defend their classification of the questions (keeping the authors of
the questions anonymous).
Template 9: Log of teacher’s questions
Learning intention: Date:

Student (In the space provided below, record all the questions the teacher asks Teacher (Categorise each question as
during the lesson.) uni/multistructural, relational or extended
abstract.)
Teacher’s reflection

Example 13: Student questions at three levels of thinking
Learning intentions
SLO 6: Understand what friction is and how it can be observed in everyday life.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define the term friction.
Question
Relational Be able to explain how friction affects us in our everyday lives and how its effects can be reduced.
Question
Extended abstract Be able to predict how mass, type of surface and contact area affect the amount of friction.
Question
Example 14: Student and peer questions at three levels of thinking
Learning intentions
SLO 6: Understand what friction is and how it can be observed in everyday life.
Uni/multistructural Be able to define the term friction.
My question
Peer’s question
Relational Be able to explain how friction affects us in our everyday lives and how its effects can be reduced.
My question
Peer’s question
Extended abstract Be able to predict how mass, type of surface and contact area affect the amount of friction.
My question
Peer’s question
Example 15: Matching student questions to the appropriate level of thinking
Question My categorisation
1. Uni/multistructural
Relational
Extended abstract
Relational
Extended abstract
Relational
Extended abstract
Justification
Question 1:
Question 2:
Question 3:

10. Lesson planning
Teaching is a responsive and fluid activity in which the teacher has to be adaptable and creative in order to meet the
learning demands of the students. It always involves an element of unpredictability because so many factors can influence
students’ responsiveness and engagement. A lesson plan therefore is not meant to be a script that is implemented exactly
as it is written because such a script would not take into account the variety in the pace of students’ learning. Instead an
effective lesson plan provides a framework that helps a teacher deal with this variability.
Elements of a lesson plan

The learning intentions identified in the learning log provide a clear starting point for planning lessons. The SOLO levels
provide scaffolding on which to develop opportunities to achieve the learning intention at each level. This differentiated
approach allows students to be challenged appropriately and identifies the formative assessment opportunities that will
support them at each level of the learning intentions.
By assessing prior knowledge, the teacher can gain important information that can influence their choice of instructional
techniques and the pace of the lesson. The lesson plan needs to provide flexibility in how the teacher reacts to these
demands while maintaining a clear focus on the learning intentions.
Students often perceive lessons as disconnected from each other and fail to see the links and progression in the content
over a series of lessons. It is important that the teacher makes these links obvious and introduces a routine that
encourages students to reflect on the relationships among the lessons.
ICT can be a powerful tool in the learning process and greater engagement often results from its use. However, if its role
in the learning process is unclear it can fail to engage students. Identifying the ICT interventions and what level of the
learning intentions they support provides legitimacy to their use.
A lesson plan written in relation to SOLO Taxonomy provides a clear and structured framework for the teacher to reflect
on. Figure 10 presents some questions that the teacher could use in that reflective process.
Figure 10: Questions for teacher reflection
Did I
provide enough
Did I respond to the
feedback to Were students
prior knowledge of
students? engaged throughout
the students?
the lesson?
Was
Were What could
there any
all students I have done to
confusion about
suitably improve the learning
the learning
challenged? opportunities?
intentions?
This reflective process can then be used to set goals, helping to maintain a focus on those areas that need improvement.
Example 16 shows a flexible lesson plan that has been built around the framework of SOLO Taxonomy. Thereafter
Template 10 offers a generic format for planning in any area of the curriculum.

10. Lesson planning
Example 16: SOLO lesson plan for earth science class
Topic: Earth in space Room: G21 Class: 10Z

Learning intentions Success criteria
Uni/multistructural Uni/multistructural
Be able to define the term seasons. I can define the term seasons.
Relational Relational
Know the seasons are caused by the earth’s revolution I can explain how the earth’s revolution and tilt cause the
and its tilt. seasons.
Extended abstract Extended abstract
Be able to predict how seasons will vary between I can predict how seasons will vary between countries
countries based on their position relative to the equator. relative to their position to the equator.
Previous lesson: Earth’s rotation; orbit of earth around the sun
Prior knowledge: “Guess the word” activity (see Section 5)
Modelling (scientific content) Modelling (SOLO verbs)
Revolution Earth’s tilt Process of making a prediction
Learning opportunities
Cloze activity with key terms and ideas
Demonstration and modelling: Earth’s rotation and orbit around the sun
and relate to seasons
Practical activity: Measuring angle of light source and recording its effect
on temperature
Modelling: Process to develop a prediction
Predict: If seasons vary between countries
ICT opportunities
www.wallwisher.com for students to
share definitions
Videos from www.youtube.com that demonstrate the earth’s rotation and
orbit round the sun
Using www.voicethread students share how they justify their predictions
Next lesson: Earth–sun–moon model; the relationship between the moon and earth
Reflection
The teacher reflects on various aspects of the class including:
 success criteria  levels of response from students in relation to SOLO
 engagement  management.
 timing
Goals: Use the outcome of this reflection to develop goals.

1.
2.
3

10. Lesson planning
Template 10: SOLO lesson plan
Topic: Room: Class:

Learning intentions Success criteria
Uni/multistructural Uni/multistructural
Relational Relational
Extended abstract Extended abstract
Previous lesson
Prior knowledge
Modelling (content) Modelling (SOLO verbs)
Learning opportunities
ICT opportunities
Next lesson
Reflection
Goals
1.
2.
3

11. The impact of SOLO Taxonomy
and the learning log
The ultimate wish of all involved in education is to maximise the potential of and improve outcomes for all students. In
this final section I will present information that indicates how SOLO and the learning log impact on teachers and students.
After presenting some quantitative data, I present the perceptions of some teachers and students.
The perceptions and data were collected from teachers and students from two secondary schools in New Zealand. The
students range in age from 14 to 18 years. In New Zealand’s standards-based assessment system, students complete
multiple units of work across various curricula, each leading to a grade of Not Achieved, Achieved, Merit or Excellence.
Quantitative data
The following data were collected from samples of students ranging in number from 30 to 60. They compare pre and post
SOLO results for the same end of topic test, with the pre-SOLO data averaged over three years. They show that there is
potential for all students, whatever their ability, to benefit from the use of SOLO Taxonomy and the learning logs.
In a Year 9 class:
 the proportion of students graded Achieved rose from 26% to 41% after the introduction of the SOLO method
 the proportion of students graded at the higher levels of Merit and Excellence increased between 3% and 6%.
These results were mirrored in another class, in which the proportion of students reaching Achieved increased from 3% to
32% through successive end of topic tests.
In Year 10:
 the proportion of students attaining a grade of Achieved fell from 22% to 6%
 the proportion of students attaining a grade of Merit fell from 74% to 64%
 critically the proportion of students attaining a grade of Excellence rose dramatically from 3% to 30%.
In Year 12:
 the proportion of students who were attaining intermediate grades of Achieved and Merit fell from 35% to 19%
 the proportion of students at the highest level of Excellence increased significantly from 9% to 39%.
Perceptions from teachers

Teachers’ reflections on their use of SOLO Taxonomy include the following:
 “Students now have a clearer understanding of what is expected in terms of depth of thinking and what it looks like
to be successful.”
 “I am engaging my students more effectively and have raised their expectations in what they can achieve.”
 “We now have a clear understanding of how to differentiate for our students that provides a personalised learning
path.”
 “We have found low achievers are encouraged to stretch their learning when they enjoy success achieving success
criteria.”
 “The learning logs made it easier for learners to evaluate and make judgements about the quality of their work.”
 “The teacher and learner have a framework to monitor progress.”

11. The impact of SOLO Taxonomy and the learning log
Perceptions from students
Review of Teaching through the Solo Taxonomy of Thinking

For the past two years, I have become accustomed to an entirely new way of thinking through the SOLO
Taxonomy of thinking introduced to us in science. Initially I had a strong aversion towards it. However, having
noticed the immense pedagogical implications behind this scheme, I am now fairly open to such learning.
The SOLO Taxonomy of thinking incorporates three levels of thinking that form the basis of the learning intention
[for] each lesson. The first is multistructural. Most teaching merely extends to this level as teachers drone on
about facts that attain little significance in the bigger picture. This is followed by the “relational” level in which
logical links between facts are established giving them greater relevance and educational value. Finally the extended
abstract level challenges us to think more in depth about the relationship between things whether it be every
day implications, generalisations, evaluation and prediction. Together this outline stimulates in depth thought and
analytical skills that ultimately generates higher level cognitive function.
My initial response to the introduction of the Solo Taxonomy was far from enthusiastic. Though I was entirely
capable, teachers rarely demand students to use their brain to such capacity. I only accepted it once I found it
accountable for my near perfect results in all the subjects in the end of year exam.
The fact that each lesson is broken down into these levels directly relating to what we are learning enables us to
learn far more than what is outlined in the syllabus. Far greater interest is generated in learning as we are taught
to recognise the significance in the seemingly meaningless information. The downfall of this, is of course the time it
takes to do these things but again this forces us to work faster and achieve more in the space that ordinary classes
may have merely covered the basics in.
The use of other devices generates further interest where conventional teaching fails to capture our attention. It
is often very difficult to focus on in depth thinking when it is far easier to remain ignorant. Thus, Mr Martin keeps
our interest by offering us variation such as the opportunity to carry out practical experiments and do individual
research on the internet. For many students who struggle to stay focused, this is a brilliant means of capturing
our interest.
Furthermore, the structure of the lesson itself in which Mr Martin facilitates us with the learning intention – and
the internet if we’re lucky – allows us to do the work and then interrogates us about our answers afterwards, is
personally quite frustrating, but it too attains significant educational benefit. To every student’s dismay, but to their
educational benefit nonetheless, the lesson structure restricts socialising to frantic searching for answers between
one another; answers that we know Mr Martin will persistently demand at the end of the lesson. For most of us,
this pressure is the greatest demand for deeper level thinking.
Overall, the SOLO Taxonomy of thinking is one of the most influential skills I have acquired in my education as of
yet and I have found it the greatest distinction between achievement in primary and secondary school. Despite the
initial frustration I now utilise the skills in almost all subjects at school and beyond. Consequently, I believe it to be
accountable for a significant improvement and consistency in my grades. Should this be applied to the education of
other students, I believe there is no doubt that it will yield similar results.

11. The impact of SOLO Taxonomy and the learning log
Lesson Feedback
Previously, my science classroom would run like any other; it was a practical classroom that met the New Zealand
Curriculum and would teach students the necessities of achieving in the topic. There would be both practical
and theory tasks and provided resources so students could carry out investigations. However, the lessons would
only meet the requirements of the topic, not often extending students and applying what they have learnt to real
situations. When I started in my new classroom, a variety of new learning techniques including SOLO Taxonomy,
virtual lessons and SLO learning objectives had been introduced.
Whenever students are assigned to explain a scientific concept, they are often using SOLO Taxonomy. It is the
Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes and consists of four main stages in which information is distributed. It
helps develop what students have learnt and to apply it in a variety of levels. The unistructural and multistructural
stages help identify several statements that are relevant to the topic. The relational stage takes these statements
and ideas and links them to a whole. It often sequences, classifies, compares and contrasts the topic. The extended
abstract stage aims to give an overall generalisation of the given topic. It gives an evaluation and personal opinion
and can link ideas to the future, whilst making measurable predictions and identifying how the idea is impacting on
our world. This particular stage enables students to go beyond and to extend themselves in their learning. In more
advanced classes, students will be aiming to achieve at this stage, whilst in other classes the relational stage would
be targeted the most.
On a variety of occasions, students have access to a variety of resources which enable them to participate in virtual
lessons. These are lessons that have been planned out by teachers that allow students to contribute in a planned
lesson either online or on a computer. Netbooks and laptops are used amongst students so that they participate
in quizzes, lessons, further research and animations, including GoAnimate. GoAnimate is a website that allows
students to express information relating to a scientific subject. Analogies are often used as examples to convey
information. This not only shows a student’s scientific understanding, but [allows them] to also apply information so
that others can understand and are well informed.
At the beginning of each class, every student receives an SLO sheet which contains the day’s learning objectives
and success criteria. This is linked to the SOLO Taxonomy which helps students understand the intentions of the
day’s lesson as well as informing them about what they should be able to achieve. Each SLO has several boxes
which are ticked once the objective has been learnt. Evidence in students’ books is often noted. This is a good
way the teacher can see who has achieved the objectives and who needs help. Each SLO is carefully followed out,
either with a practical or theory and followed with a conclusion and discussion.
Overall, the new learning techniques have benefited me and the class tremendously. The impact of SOLO
Taxonomy and the virtual lessons encourages students to extend themselves and to be open-minded in their
learning. The variety of resources enables students to express their creativity as well as their scientific knowledge.
The use of analogies in discussions gets students involved and motivated towards their own learning. The lessons
are both informative and enjoyable whilst [setting] challenges [to] pupils to think outside the box. This type of
learning has certainly benefited our learning environment. Hopefully in future many more classes can contribute in
this new learning experience.

Conclusion
This book set out to demonstrate how SOLO Taxonomy can be used as a framework for teaching and learning. The
learning intentions and success criteria established under the levels of SOLO in the learning log provide the challenge and
clarity needed for students to experience success. The process of creating learning intentions and success criteria using
SOLO gets easier with practice, and with it the teacher has a focus for developing their own thinking on SOLO cognitive
processing. The framework established by SOLO Taxonomy and the learning log provides:
 access to effective differentiation
 a means of self and peer assessment
 a method of measuring prior knowledge
 a way to provide effective feedback and feed forward
 a means of measuring and identifying progress
 importantly a framework that a teacher can use to measure their own impact on students’ learning.
I hope that the resources offered in this book will help you and your students along a richly rewarding SOLO journey of
your own.

Using SOLO as a Framework for Teaching
This book:
• uses SOLO Taxonomy to provide a framework for all aspects of teaching

• draws on science examples to deepen understanding of a model that can be applied to all subjects
• demonstrates how thinking can be challenged at all levels in the classroom
• outlines the building blocks required to become a lifelong learner
• clarifies how both teacher and student can use SOLO Taxonomy to establish meaningful goals in
their own learning journey.
Every teacher is keen to seize opportunities to improve learning for their students but the numerous
and diverse interventions on offer can be overwhelming and, if the promised results are not
forthcoming, somewhat disheartening. With SOLO Taxonomy, which provides a clear structure that
can be applied to all aspects of teaching and learning, this situation has changed. Using SOLO as a
Framework for Teaching shows how this powerful model of learning can be transferred simply and
effectively into everyday teaching and learning. It allows the development of challenging hierarchical
learning intentions and brings clarity to both the teacher and the student on what the intended
learning is to be. Upper primary and secondary teachers, along with pre-service teachers,
will find the process set out in this book particularly useful.
Code: 5618
ISBN: 978-1-927143-55-1
Code: 5618

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Using SOLO as a Framework for Teaching

• uses SOLO Taxonomy to provide a framework for all aspects of teaching

Author: Steve Martin

Editor: Tanya Tremewan

Designer: Diane Whitford

Book code: 5618

Publisher: Essential Resources Educational Publishers Limited

Copyright: Text: © Steve Martin, 2011

Professor John Hattie

2. Putting it all together 18 8. Tracking and progress 43

Learning log exemplars 20 Questions from students 47

3. The pedagogy behind the learning log 24 10. Lesson planning 50

Providing clarity in teaching and learning 24 Elements of a lesson plan 50

Accessibility to all students 24

SOLO Taxonomy in action

SOLO Taxonomy consists of four key levels:

6 © Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011

Figure 1: SOLO Taxonomy with sample verbs indicating levels of understanding

Incompetence Incompetence One relevant Several relevant Integrated into Generalised to

Prestructural Unistructural Multistructural Relational Extendedabstract

Example 1: Questions about carbon dioxide at the different SOLO levels

Unistructural Identify one property of carbon dioxide.

Multistructural Describe two or more properties of carbon dioxide.

Relational Relate carbon dioxide to the greenhouse effect.

© Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011 7

Surface and deep learning

Passive and active learning

Passive learning Active learning

8 © Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011

Using SOLO Taxonomy to construct a learning log

Example 2: Excerpt from a learning log

© Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011 9

Table 1: Overview of using SOLO to construct a unit of work

Step number Description

10 © Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011

Exemplar: Constructing a unit of work at the primary school level

Example 3: Constructing a unit of work for a Year 5/6 science class

Year level: 5/6 Topic: Electricity and magnetism

© Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011 11

12 © Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011

Step 2: Assign the verbs of SOLO.

© Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011 13

Exemplar: Constructing a unit of work at the secondary school level

Example 5: Constructing a unit of work for a Year 9/10 physics class

Year level: 9/10 Topic: Light

14 © Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011

© Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011 15

Concave mirror Distance of object Generalisation of concave

16 © Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011

A practical guide to constructing a unit of work

Template 1: Using SOLO to construct a unit of work

Uni/multistructural Relational Extended abstract

© Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011 17

Success criteria from a student’s perspective

I need success criteria that:

Sequencing groups and developing learning intentions

18 © Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011

© Essential Resources Educational Publishers Ltd, 2011 19

Learning log exemplars

Example 9: Learning log for a Year 5/6 science class