ALL IN ONE

MATHEMATICS CHEAT SHEET

V2.6

Euler’s Identity:

iπ
e +1=0

CONTAINING FORMULAE FOR ELEMENTARY, HIGH SCHOOL

AND UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS
COMPILED FROM MANY SOURCES BY ALEX SPARTALIS
2009-2012

Page 1 of 286
PART 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
1.1 SI PREFIXES:

Prefix Symbol 1000m 10n Decimal Scale

yotta Y 10008 1024 1000000000000000000000000 Septillion
zetta Z 10007 1021 1000000000000000000000 Sextillion
exa E 10006 1018 1000000000000000000 Quintillion
peta P 10005 1015 1000000000000000 Quadrillion
tera T 10004 1012 1000000000000 Trillion
giga G 10003 109 1000000000 Billion
mega M 10002 106 1000000 Million
kilo k 10001 103 1000 Thousand
⁄
hecto h 10002 3 102 100 Hundred
⁄
deca da 10001 3 101 10 Ten
10000 100 1 One
deci d 1000−1⁄3 10−1 0.1 Tenth
centi c 1000−2⁄3 10−2 0.01 Hundredth
milli m 1000−1 10−3 0.001 Thousandth
micro µ 1000−2 10−6 0.000001 Millionth
nano n 1000−3 10−9 0.000000001 Billionth
pico p 1000−4 10−12 0.000000000001 Trillionth
femto f 1000−5 10−15 0.000000000000001 Quadrillionth
atto a 1000−6 10−18 0.000000000000000001 Quintillionth
zepto z 1000−7 10−21 0.000000000000000000001 Sextillionth
yocto y 1000−8 10−24 0.000000000000000000000001 Septillionth

1.2 SI BASE UNITS:

Quantity Unit Symbol

length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic
temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd

Page 20 of 286
1.3 SI DERIVED UNITS:

Expression in terms of other SI

Quantity Unit Symbol
units
angle, plane radian* rad m/m = 1
angle, solid steradian* sr m2/m2 = 1
degree K
Celsius temperature Celsius °C
electric capacitance farad F C/V
electric charge, quantity A·s
of electricity coulomb C
electric conductance siemens S A/V
electric inductance henry H Wb/A
electric potential
difference, electromotive W/A
force volt V
electric resistance ohm Ω V/A
energy, work, quantity of N·m
heat joule J
force newton N kg·m/s2
frequency (of a periodic 1/s
phenomenon) hertz Hz
illuminance lux lx lm/m2
luminous flux lumen lm cd·sr
magnetic flux weber Wb V·s
magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m2
power, radiant flux watt W J/s
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2
activity (referred to a 1/s
radionuclide) becquerel Bq

absorbed dose, specific J/kg

energy imparted, kerma gray Gy

dose equivalent, ambient

dose equivalent,
directional dose J/kg
equivalent, personal dose
equivalent, organ dose
equivalent sievert Sv
catalytic activity katal kat mol/s

Page 21 of 286
1.4 UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS:

Relative Standard
Quantity Symbol Value
Uncertainty
speed of light in
299 792 458 m·s−1 defined
vacuum
Newtonian constant
6.67428(67)×10−11 m3·kg−1·s−2 1.0 × 10−4
of gravitation
Planck constant 6.626 068 96(33) × 10−34 J·s 5.0 × 10−8
reduced Planck
1.054 571 628(53) × 10−34 J·s 5.0 × 10−8
constant

1.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC CONSTANTS:

Relative Standard
Quantity Symbol Value (SI units)
Uncertainty
magnetic constant 4π × 10−7 N·A−2 = 1.256
defined
(vacuum permeability) 637 061... × 10−6 N·A−2
electric constant 8.854 187 817... × 10−12
defined
(vacuum permittivity) F·m−1
characteristic
376.730 313 461... Ω defined
impedance of vacuum
8.987 551 787... × 109
Coulomb's constant defined
N·m²·C−2
1.602 176 487(40) ×
elementary charge 2.5 × 10−8
10−19 C
927.400 915(23) × 10−26
Bohr magneton 2.5 × 10−8
J·T−1
7.748 091 7004(53) ×
conductance quantum 6.8 × 10−10
10−5 S
inverse conductance
12 906.403 7787(88) Ω 6.8 × 10−10
quantum
4.835 978 91(12) × 1014
Josephson constant −1 2.5 × 10−8
Hz·V
2.067 833 667(52) ×
magnetic flux quantum 2.5 × 10−8
10−15 Wb
5.050 783 43(43) ×
nuclear magneton 8.6 × 10−8
10−27 J·T−1
von Klitzing constant 25 812.807 557(18) Ω 6.8 × 10−10

1.6 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR CONSTANTS:

Page 22 of 286
 Relative
Value (SI
Quantity Symbol Standard
units)
Uncertainty
5.291 772
Bohr radius 108(18) × 3.3 × 10−9
−11
10 m
classical 2.817 940
electron 2894(58) × 2.1 × 10−9
−15
radius 10 m
9.109 382
electron mass 15(45) × 10−31 5.0 × 10−8
kg
Fermi
1.166 39(1) ×
coupling 8.6 × 10−6
10−5 GeV−2
constant
fine-structure 7.297 352 537
6.8 × 10−10
constant 6(50) × 10−3
4.359 744
Hartree
17(75) × 10−18 1.7 × 10−7
energy
J
1.672 621
proton mass 637(83) × 5.0 × 10−8
10−27 kg
3.636 947
quantum of
550(24) × 10−4 6.7 × 10−9
circulation
m² s−1
10 973
Rydberg
731.568 6.6 × 10−12
constant
525(73) m−1
6.652 458
Thomson
73(13) × 10−29 2.0 × 10−8
cross section
m²
weak mixing
0.222 15(76) 3.4 × 10−3
angle

1.7 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS:

Relative
Quantity Symbol Value (SI units) Standard
Uncertainty
atomic mass unit
1.660 538 86(28) ×
(unified atomic mass 1.7 × 10−7
10−27 kg
unit)
6.022 141 5(10) ×
Avogadro's number 1.7 × 10−7
1023 mol−1
Boltzmann constant 1.380 6504(24) × 1.8 × 10−6
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 10−23 J·K−1
96
Faraday constant 8.6 × 10−8
485.3383(83)C·mol−1
3.741 771 18(19) ×
5.0 × 10−8
first 10−16 W·m²
radiation for
constant 1.191 042 82(20) ×
spectral 1.7 × 10−7
10−16 W·m² sr−1
radiance
at
T=273.15
Loschmidt 2.686 777 3(47) ×
K and 1.8 × 10−6
constant 1025 m−3
p=101.325
kPa
8.314 472(15)
gas constant 1.7 × 10−6
J·K−1·mol−1
3.990 312 716(27) ×
molar Planck constant 6.7 × 10−9
10−10 J·s·mol−1
at
T=273.15 2.2710 981(40) ×
1.7 × 10−6
K and 10−2 m³·mol−1
molar
p=100 kPa
volume of
an ideal at
gas T=273.15
2.2413 996(39) ×
K and 1.7 × 10−6
10−2 m³·mol−1
p=101.325
kPa
at T=1 K
and p=100 −1.151 704 7(44) 3.8 × 10−6
Sackur- kPa
Tetrode at T=1 K
constant and
−1.164 867 7(44) 3.8 × 10−6
p=101.325
kPa
second radiation 1.438 775 2(25) ×
1.7 × 10−6
constant 10−2 m·K
Stefan–Boltzmann 5.670 400(40) × 10−8
7.0 × 10−6
constant W·m−2·K−4
Wien displacement 2.897 768 5(51) ×
4.965 114 231... 1.7 × 10−6
law constant 10−3 m·K

1.8 ADOPTED VALUES:

Relative
Value (SI
Quantity Symbol Standard
units)
Uncertainty
conventional value of 4.835 979 × defined
Page 24 of 286
Josephson constant 1014 Hz·V−1
conventional value of von 25 812.807
defined
Klitzing constant Ω
1 × 10−3
constant defined
kg·mol−1
molar mass
1.2 × 10−2
of carbon-12 defined
kg·mol−1
standard acceleration of
9.806 65
gravity (gee, free-fall on defined
m·s−2
Earth)
standard atmosphere 101 325 Pa defined

1.9 NATURAL UNITS:

Name Dimension Expression Value (SI units)

Planck length Length (L) 1.616 252(81) × 10−35 m

Planck mass Mass (M) 2.176 44(11) × 10−8 kg

Planck time Time (T) 5.391 24(27) × 10−44 s

Electric charge 1.875 545 870(47) × 10−18

Planck charge
(Q) C
Planck
Temperature (Θ) 1.416 785(71) × 1032 K
temperature

Page 25 of 286
PART 2: MATHEMTAICAL SYMBOLS
2.1 BASIC MATH SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

= equals sign equality 5 = 2+3
≠ not equal sign inequality 5≠4
> strict inequality greater than 5>4
< strict inequality less than 4<5
≥ inequality greater than or equal to 5≥4
≤ inequality less than or equal to 4≤5
() parentheses calculate expression inside first 2 × (3+5) = 16
[] brackets calculate expression inside first [(1+2)*(1+5)] = 18
+ plus sign addition 1+1=2
− minus sign subtraction 2−1=1
± plus - minus both plus and minus operations 3 ± 5 = 8 and -2
∓ minus - plus both minus and plus operations 3 ∓ 5 = -2 and 8
* asterisk multiplication 2*3=6
× times sign multiplication 2×3=6
· multiplication dot multiplication 2·3=6
÷ division sign / obelus division 6÷2=3
/ division slash division 6/2=3

– horizontal line division / fraction

mod modulo remainder calculation 7 mod 2 = 1

. period decimal point, decimal separator 2.56 = 2+56/100
ab power exponent 23 = 8
a^b caret exponent 2 ^ 3= 8
√a square root √a · √a = a √9 = ±3
3
√a cube root 3
√8 = 2
4
√a forth root 4
√16 = ±2
n
√a n-th root (radical) for n=3, n√8 = 2
% percent 1% = 1/100 10% × 30 = 3
‰ per-mille 1‰ = 1/1000 = 0.1% 10‰ × 30 = 0.3
ppm per-million 1ppm = 1/1000000 10ppm × 30 = 0.0003
ppb per-billion 1ppb = 1/1000000000 10ppb × 30 = 3×10-7
ppt per-trillion 1ppb = 10-12 10ppb × 30 = 3×10-10

2.2 GEOMETRY SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

∠ angle formed by two rays ∠ABC = 30º

∡ measured angle ∡ABC = 30º

∢ spherical angle ∢AOB = 30º
∟ right angle = 90º α = 90º
º degree 1 turn = 360º α = 60º
´ arcminute 1º = 60´ α = 60º59'
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 ´´ arcsecond 1´ = 60´´ α = 60º59'59''
AB line line from point A to point B
ray line that start from point A

| perpendicular perpendicular lines (90º angle) AC | BC

|| parallel parallel lines AB || CD
equivalence of geometric shapes and
≅ congruent to
size ∆ABC ≅ ∆XYZ
~ similarity same shapes, not same size ∆ABC ~ ∆XYZ
∆ triangle triangle shape ∆ABC ≅ ∆BCD
| x-y | distance distance between points x and y | x-y | = 5
π = 3.141592654...
π pi constant is the ratio between the circumference c = π·d = 2·π·r
and diameter of a circle
rad radians radians angle unit 360º = 2π rad
grad grads grads angle unit 360º = 400 grad

2.3 ALGEBRA SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

x x variable unknown value to find when 2x = 4, then x = 2
≡ equivalence identical to
≜ equal by definition equal by definition

:= equal by definition equal by definition

~ approximately equal weak approximation 11 ~ 10
≈ approximately equal approximation sin(0.01) ≈ 0.01

∝ proportional to proportional to f(x) ∝ g(x)

∞ lemniscate infinity symbol
≪ much less than much less than 1 ≪ 1000000
≫ much greater than much greater than 1000000 ≫ 1
() parentheses calculate expression inside first 2 * (3+5) = 16
[] brackets calculate expression inside first [(1+2)*(1+5)] = 18
{} braces set
⌊x⌋ floor brackets rounds number to lower integer ⌊4.3⌋= 4
⌈x⌉ ceiling brackets rounds number to upper integer ⌈4.3⌉= 5
x! exclamation mark factorial 4! = 1*2*3*4 = 24
|x| single vertical bar absolute value | -5 | = 5
f (x) function of x maps values of x to f(x) f (x) = 3x+5

(f ◦g) function composition (f ◦g) (x) = f (g(x)) f (x)=3x, g(x)=x-1 ⇒(f ◦g)(x)=3(x-1)

(a,b) open interval (a,b) ≜ {x | a < x < b} x ∈ (2,6)

[a,b] closed interval [a,b] ≜ {x | a ≤ x ≤ b} x ∈ [2,6]
∆ delta change / difference ∆t = t1 - t0
∆ discriminant ∆ = b2 - 4ac
summation - sum of all values in range of
∑ sigma ∑ xi= x1+x2+...+xn
series

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 ∑∑ sigma double summation

product - product of all values in range of

∏ capital pi ∏ xi=x1·x2·...·xn
series
e constant / Euler's
e e = 2.718281828... e = lim (1+1/x)x , x→∞
number
Euler-Mascheroni
γ γ = 0.527721566...
constant
φ golden ratio golden ratio constant

2.4 LINEAR ALGEBRA SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

· dot scalar product a·b
× cross vector product a×b
A⊗B tensor product tensor product of A and B A⊗B
inner product
[] brackets matrix of numbers
() parentheses matrix of numbers
|A| determinant determinant of matrix A
det(A) determinant determinant of matrix A
|| x || double vertical bars norm
AT transpose matrix transpose (AT)ij = (A)ji

A† Hermitian matrix matrix conjugate transpose (A†)ij = (A)ji

A* Hermitian matrix matrix conjugate transpose (A*)ij = (A)ji

A -1 inverse matrix A A-1 = I
rank(A) matrix rank rank of matrix A rank(A) = 3

dim(U) dimension dimension of matrix A rank(U) = 3

2.5 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

P(A) probability function probability of event A P(A) = 0.5
probability of events
P(A ∩ B) probability that of events A and B P(A∩B) = 0.5
intersection
probability of events
P(A ∪ B) probability that of events A or B P(A∪B) = 0.5
union
conditional probability probability of event A given event B
P(A | B) P(A | B) = 0.3
function occured
probability density
f (x) P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ f (x) dx
function (pdf)
cumulative distribution
F(x) F(x) = P(X ≤ x)
function (cdf)
µ population mean mean of population values µ = 10
E(X) expectation value expected value of random variable X E(X) = 10
expected value of random variable X
E(X | Y) conditional expectation E(X | Y=2) = 5
given Y
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 var(X) variance variance of random variable X var(X) = 4
σ2 variance variance of population values σ2 = 4
standard deviation of random variable
std(X) standard deviation std(X) = 2
X
standard deviation value of random
σX standard deviation σX = 2
variable X
median middle value of random variable x
covariance of random variables X and
cov(X,Y) covariance cov(X,Y) = 4
Y
correlation of random variables X and
corr(X,Y) correlation corr(X,Y) = 3
Y
correlation of random variables X and
ρX,Y correlation ρX,Y = 3
Y
summation - sum of all values in range
∑ summation
of series

∑∑ double summation double summation

value that occurs most frequently in

Mo mode
population
MR mid-range MR = (xmax+xmin)/2
Md sample median half the population is below this value
Q1 lower / first quartile 25% of population are below this value
50% of population are below this value
Q2 median / second quartile
= median of samples
Q3 upper / third quartile 75% of population are below this value
x sample mean average / arithmetic mean x = (2+5+9) / 3 = 5.333
s2 sample variance population samples variance estimator s 2 = 4
sample standard population samples standard deviation
s s=2
deviation estimator

zx standard score zx = (x-x) / sx

X~ distribution of X distribution of random variable X X ~ N(0,3)
N(µ,σ2) normal distribution gaussian distribution X ~ N(0,3)
U(a,b) uniform distribution equal probability in range a,b X ~ U(0,3)
exp(λ) exponential distribution f (x) = λe-λx , x≥0
gamma(c, λ) gamma distribution f (x) = λ c xc-1e-λx / Γ(c), x≥0

χ 2(k) chi-square distribution f (x) = xk/2-1e-x/2 / ( 2k/2 Γ(k/2) )

F (k1, k2) F distribution

Bin(n,p) binomial distribution f (k) = nCk pk(1-p)n-k

Poisson(λ) Poisson distribution f (k) = λke-λ / k!

Geom(p) geometric distribution f (k) = p (1-p) k

hyper-geometric
HG(N,K,n)
distribution
Bern(p) Bernoulli distribution

Page 29 of 286
2.6 COMBINATORICS SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

n! factorial n! = 1·2·3·...·n 5! = 1·2·3·4·5 = 120

nPk permutation 5P3 = 5! / (5-3)! = 60

n Ck

combination 5 C3 = 5!/[3!(5-3)!]=10

2.7 SET THEORY SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

{} set a collection of elements A={3,7,9,14}, B={9,14,28}
objects that belong to set A and set
A∩B intersection A ∩ B = {9,14}
B
objects that belong to set A or set
A∪B union A ∪ B = {3,7,9,14,28}
B
subset has less elements or equal to
A⊆B subset {9,14,28} ⊆ {9,14,28}
the set
proper subset / strict subset has less elements than the
A⊂B subset set {9,14} ⊂ {9,14,28}

A⊄B not subset left set not a subset of right set {9,66} ⊄ {9,14,28}
set A has more elements or equal
A⊇B superset {9,14,28} ⊇ {9,14,28}
to the set B
proper superset / strict
A⊃B set A has more elements than set B {9,14,28} ⊃ {9,14}
superset
A⊅B not superset set A is not a superset of set B {9,14,28} ⊅ {9,66}
2A power set all subsets of A
Ƅ (A) power set all subsets of A
A=B equality both sets have the same members A={3,9,14}, B={3,9,14}, A=B
all the objects that do not belong to
Ac complement
set A
objects that belong to A and not to
A\B relative complement A={3,9,14}, B={1,2,3}, A-B={9,14}
B
objects that belong to A and not to
A-B relative complement A={3,9,14}, B={1,2,3}, A-B={9,14}
B
objects that belong to A or B but
A∆B symmetric difference A={3,9,14}, B={1,2,3}, A ∆ B={1,2,9,14}
not to their intersection
objects that belong to A or B but
A⊖B symmetric difference A={3,9,14}, B={1,2,3}, A ⊖ B={1,2,9,14}
not to their intersection
a∈A element of set membership A={3,9,14}, 3 ∈ A
x∉A not element of no set membership A={3,9,14}, 1 ∉ A
(a,b) ordered pair collection of 2 elements
set of all ordered pairs from A and
A×B cartesian product
B
|A| cardinality the number of elements of set A A={3,9,14}, |A|=3
#A cardinality the number of elements of set A A={3,9,14}, #A=3
Page 30 of 286
 ‫א‬ aleph infinite cardinality
Ø empty set Ø={} C = {Ø}
U universal set set of all possible values
natural numbers set (with
ℕ0 zero) ℕ0 = {0,1,2,3,4,...} 0 ∈ ℕ0
natural numbers set
ℕ1 (without zero) ℕ1 = {1,2,3,4,5,...} 6 ∈ ℕ1

ℤ integer numbers set ℤ = {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...} -6 ∈ ℤ

ℚ rational numbers set ℚ = {x | x=a/b, a,b∈ℕ} 2/6 ∈ ℚ
ℝ real numbers set ℝ = {x | -∞ < x <∞} 6.343434 ∈ ℝ

complex numbers set ℂ = {z | z=a+bi, -∞<a<∞, -

ℂ 6+2i ∈ ℂ
∞<b<∞}

2.8 LOGIC SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

· and and x· y

^ caret / circumflex and x^y

& ampersand and x&y

+ plus or x+y

∨ reversed caret or x∨y

| vertical line or x|y

x' single quote not - negation x'

x bar not - negation x

¬ not not - negation ¬x

! exclamation mark not - negation !x

⊕ circled plus / oplus exclusive or - xor x⊕y

~ tilde negation ~x
⇒ implies

⇔ equivalent if and only if

∀ for all

∃ there exists

∄ there does not exists

∴ therefore

∵ because / since

Page 31 of 286
2.9 CALCULUS & ANALYSIS SYMBOLS

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

limit limit value of a function
represents a very small number, near
ε epsilon
zero ε→0
e e constant / Euler's number e = 2.718281828... e = lim (1+1/x)x , x→∞
y' derivative derivative - Leibniz's notation (3x3)' = 9x2
y '' second derivative derivative of derivative (3x3)'' = 18x
y(n) nth derivative n times derivation (3x3)(3) = 18

derivative derivative - Lagrange's notation d(3x3)/dx = 9x2

second derivative derivative of derivative d2(3x3)/dx2 = 18x

nth derivative n times derivation

time derivative derivative by time - Newton notation

time second derivative derivative of derivative

partial derivative ∂(x2+y2)/∂x = 2x

∫ integral opposite to derivation

∬ double integral integration of function of 2 variables

∭ triple integral integration of function of 3 variables

∮ closed contour / line integral

∯ closed surface integral

∰ closed volume integral

[a,b] closed interval [a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
(a,b) open interval (a,b) = {x | a < x < b}
i imaginary unit i ≡ √-1 z = 3 + 2i
z* complex conjugate z = a+bi → z*=a-bi z* = 3 + 2i
z complex conjugate z = a+bi → z = a-bi z = 3 + 2i
∇ nabla / del gradient / divergence operator ∇f (x,y,z)
vector

unit vector
x*y convolution y(t) = x(t) * h(t)
ℒ Laplace transform F(s) = ℒ{f (t)}
ℱ Fourier transform X(ω) = ℱ{f (t)}
δ delta function

Page 32 of 286
PART 3: AREA, VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA
3.1 AREA

a 2 sin B sin C
= s (s − a )(s − b )(s − c )
1 1
Triangle: A= bh = ab sin C =
2 2 2 sin A
Rectangle: A = lw
Square: A = a2
Parallelogram: A = bh = ab sin A
Rhombus: A = a 2 sin A
a+b
Trapezium: A = h 
 s 

Quadrilateral: A= (s − a )(s − b )(s − c )(s − d ) − abcd × cos 2  ∠AB + ∠CD 

 2 
d1 d 2 sin I
A=
2
Rectangle with rounded corners: A = lw − r 2 (4 − π )
3 3 × a2
Regular Hexagon: A=
2
Regular Octagon: (
A = 2 1+ 2 × a2 )
2
na
Regular Polygon: A=
 180 
4 tan  
 n 
3.2 VOLUME

Cube: V = a3
Cuboid: V = abc
V = × A(b ) × h
1
Pyramid:
3
2
Tetrahedron: V= × a3
12
2
Octahedron: V= × a3
3
15 + 7 5
Dodecahedron: V= × a3
4

Icosahedron: V=
(
53+ 5 )
× a3
12

3.3 SURFACE AREA:

Cube: SA = 6a 2
Cuboids: SA = 2(ab + bc + ca )
Tetrahedron: SA = 3 × a 2

Page 33 of 286
Octahedron: SA = 2 × 3 × a 2
Dodecahedron: SA = 3 × 25 + 10 5 × a 2
Icosahedron: SA = 5 × 3 × a 2
Cylinder: SA = 2πr (h + r )

3.4 MISELANIOUS
Diagonal of a Rectangle d = l 2 + w2
Diagonal of a Cuboid d = a2 + b2 + c2
a
Longest Diagonal (Even Sides) =
 180 
sin  
 n 
a
Longest Diagonal (Odd Sides) =
 90 
2 sin  
 n 
Total Length of Edges (Cube): = 12a
Total Length of Edges (Cuboid): = 4(a + b + c )

Circumference C = 2πr = πd
Perimeter of rectangle P = 2(a + b )
P
Semi perimeter s=
2
Euler’s Formula Faces + Verticies = Edges + 2

3.5 ABBREVIATIONS (3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4)

A=area
a=side ‘a’
b=base
b=side ‘b’
C=circumference
C=central angle
c=side ‘c’
d=diameter
d=diagonal
d1=diagonal 1
d2=diagonal 2
E=external angle
h=height
I=internal angle
l=length
n=number of sides
P=perimeter
r=radius
r1=radius 1
Page 34 of 286
s=semi-perimeter
SA=Surface Area
V=Volume
w=width

Page 35 of 286
PART 4: ALGEBRA
4.1 POLYNOMIAL FORMULA:

Qudaratic: Where ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ,
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Cubic: Where ax + bx + cx + d = 0 ,
3 2

b
Let, x = y −
3a
3 2
 b   b   b 
∴ a y −  + b y −  + c y −  + d = 0
 3a   3a   3a 
 b2   2b 3 bc 
ay 3 +  c −  y +  d + 2
−  = 0
 3a   27a 3a 
 b2   2b 3 bc 
 c −   d + 2
− 
3a  3a 
y3 +  y+
27a
=0
a a
 b2   2b 3 bc 
 c −   d + 2
− 
3a  3a 
y3 +  y = −
27a
a a
 b 
2
 c − 
3a 
Let, A =  = 3st...(1)
a
 2b 3 bc 
 d + − 
 27 a 2 3a 
Let, B = − = s 3 − t 3 ...(2)
a
∴ y 3 + Ay = B
y 3 + 3sty = s 3 − t 3
Solution to the equation = s − t
Let, y = s − t
∴ (s − t ) + 3st (s − t ) = s 3 − t 3
3

(s 3
− 3s 2 t + 3st 2 − t 3 ) + (3s 2 t − 3st 2 ) = s 3 − t 3
Solving (1) for s and substituting into (2) yields:

Let, u = t 3
A3
∴ u + Bu − 2
=0
27
Page 36 of 286
ie : αu 2 + βu + γ = 0
α =1
β =B
A3
γ =−
27
− β ± β 2 − 4αγ
u=
2α
4 A3
− B ± B2 +
27
u=
2
4 A3
3
−B± B + 2

27
∴t = 3 u =
2
Substituting into (2) yields:
3
 3 
 − B ± B2 + 4A 
3 27 
s3 = B + t 3 = B +  
 2 
 
 
3
 3 
 − B ± B2 + 4A 
3 27 
∴s = 3 B +  
 2 
 
 
Now, y = s − t
3
 3 
4 A3
 − B ± B2 + 4A  − B ± B 2
+
3 27  3 27
∴y = 3 B+  −
 2  2
 
 
b
Now, x = y −
3a
 
3 
 3  3 
  − B ± B2 + 4 A  − B ± B2 +
4 A

  3
27  3
27  b
x = 3 B+  − −
  2  2  3a
   
   
 
 b 
2
 2b 3
bc 
 c −   d + 2
− 
3a  3a 
Where, A =  &B = −
27 a
a a

Page 37 of 286
4.2 ALGEBRAIC EXPANSION:

Babylonian Identity:

(c1800BC)

Common Products And Factors:

Binomial Theorem:

For any value of n, whether positive, negative, integer or non-integer, the value of the nth
power of a binomial is given by:

Binomial Expansion:
For any power of n, the binomial (a + x) can be expanded

Page 38 of 286
This is particularly useful when x is very much less than a so that the first few terms
provide a good approximation of the value of the expression. There will always be n+1
terms and the general form is:

Difference of two squares:

Brahmagupta–Fibonacci Identity:

Also,

Degen's eight-square identity:

Note that:

and,

Page 39 of 286
4.3 LIMIT MANIPULATIONS:

( )(
lim(an ± bn ) = lim(an ) ± lim(bn ) )
( )
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

lim(kan ) = k lim(an )
lim(a b ) = (lim(a ))(lim(b ))
n→∞ n→∞

lim( f (a )) = f (lim(a ))
n n n n
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

n n
n→∞ n→∞

4.4 SUMATION MANIPULATIONS:

, where C is a constant

4.5 COMMON FUNCTIONS:

Constant Function:
y=a or f (x)=a
Page 40 of 286
 Graph is a horizontal line passing through the point (0,a)
x=a
Graph is a vertical line passing through the point (a,0)

Line/Linear Function:
y = mx + c
Graph is a line with point (0,c) and slope m.

Where the gradient is between any two points ( x1 , y1 ) & ( x2 , y 2 )

rise y 2 − y1
m= =
run x2 − x1

Also, y = y1 + m( x − x1 )
The equation of the line with gradient m .and passing through the
point ( x1 , y1 ) .

Parabola/Quadratic Function:
y = a ( x − h) 2 + k
The graph is a parabola that opens up if a > 0 or down if a < 0 and
has a vertex at (h,k).

y = ax 2 + bx + c
The graph is a parabola that opens up if a > 0 or down if a < 0 and
 − b  − b 
has a vertex at  , f   .
 2a  2a  

x = ay 2 + by + c
The graph is a parabola that opens right if a > 0 or left if a < 0 and
  − b   − b 
has a vertex at  g  ,    . This is not a function.
  2a   2a  

Circle:
(x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 = r 2
Graph is a circle with radius r and center (h,k).

Ellipse:
(x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 =1
a2 b2
Graph is an ellipse with center (h,k) with vertices a units right/left
from the center and vertices b units up/down from the center.

Page 41 of 286
Hyperbola:
(x − h )2 − ( y − k )2
=1
a2 b2
Graph is a hyperbola that opens left and right, has a center at
(h,k) , vertices a units left/right of center and asymptotes that pass
b
through center with slope ± .
a

( y − k )2 − (x − h )2
=1
b2 a2
Graph is a hyperbola that opens up and down, has a center at
(h,k) , vertices b units up/down from the center and asymptotes
b
that pass through center with slope ± .
a

4.6 LINEAR ALGEBRA:

Vector Space Axioms:

Let V be a set on which addition and scalar multiplication are defined (this means that if u
and v are objects in V and c is a scalar then we’ve defined and cu in
some way). If the following axioms are true for all objects u, v, and w in V and all
scalars c and k then V is called a vector space and the objects in V are called vectors.
(a) is in V This is called closed under addition.
(b) cu is in V This is called closed under scalar multiplication.
(c)
(d)

(e) There is a special object in V, denoted 0 and called the zero vector, such that
for all u in V we have .
(f) For every u in V there is another object in V, denoted and called the
negative of u, such that
.
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)

Subspace: When the subspace is a subset of another vector space, only axioms (a)
and (b) need to be proved to show that the subspace is also a vector space.

Common Spaces:

Page 42 of 286
 Real Numbers ℜ, ℜ 2 , ℜ 3 ,..., ℜ n (n denotes dimension)
Complex Numbers: C, C 2 , C 3 ,..., C n (n denotes dimension)
Polynomials P1 , P2 , P3 ,..., Pn (n denotes the highest order of x)
All continuous functions C [a, b](a & b denote the interval) (This is never a
vector space as it has infinite dimensions)

Rowspace of a spanning set in Rn

Stack vectors in a matrix in rows
Use elementary row operations to put matrix into row echelon form
The non zero rows form a basis of the vector space

Columnspace of a spanning set in Rn

Stack vectors in a matrix in columns
Use elementary row operations to put matrix into row echelon form
Columns with leading entries correspond to the subset of vectors in the set that
form a basis

Nullspace:
Solutions to A x = 0 A
Using elementary row operations to put matrix into row echelon form, columns
with no leading entries are assigned a constant and the remaining variables are
solved with respect to these constants.

Nullity:
The dimension of the nullspace
Columns( A) = Nullity ( A) + Rank ( A)

Linear Dependence:
c1r1 + c2 r2 + ... + cn rn = 0
Then, c1 = c 2 = c n = 0
If the trivial solution is the only solution, r1 , r2 ,...rn are
independent.

r ( A) ≠ r ( A | b) : No Solution
r ( A) = r ( A | b) = n : Unique Solution
r ( A) = r ( A | b) < n : Infinite Solutions

Basis: S is a basis of V if:

S spans V
S is linearly dependant

S = {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u n }

Page 43 of 286
 x 
y
The general vector within the vector space is: w =  
z 
 
...
w = c1u1 + c2 u 2 + c3u3 + ... + cn u n
u11 u 21 u31 ... u n1   c1 
u u 22 u32 ... u n 2  c2 
Therefore,  12

[w] = u13 u 23 u33 ... u n3  c3 

  
 ... ... ... ... ...   ... 
u1n u 2 n u 3n ... u nn  cn 
If the determinant of the square matrix is not zero, the matrix is invertible.
Therefore, the solution is unique. Hence, all vectors in w are linear
combinations of S. Because of this, S spans w.

Standard Basis:

 1   0   0   0  
        
 0   1   0   0  
 
Real Numbers S (ℜ ) =  0 ,  0 ,  1 ,...,  0  
n

... ... ... ... 

        
 0   0   0   1  
Polynomials {
S ( Pn ) = 1, x, x 2 , x 3 ,..., x n }
Any set the forms the basis of a vector space must contain the same number of
linearly independent vectors as the standard basis.

Orthogonal Complement:
W ⊥ is the nullspace of A, where A is the matrix that contains {v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn } in
rows.

dim(W ⊥ ) = nullity ( A)

Orthonormal Basis:
A basis of mutually orthogonal vectors of length 1. Basis can be found with the
Gram-Schmidt process outline below.

0 i ≠ j
< vi , v j >= 
1 i = j

In an orthonormal basis:
u =< u , v1 > v1 + < u , v2 > v2 + < u , v3 > v3 + ...+ < u , vn > vn )
u = c1v1 + c2 v2 + c3v3 + ... + cn vn )

Page 44 of 286
Gram-Schmidt Process:
This finds an orthonormal basis recursively.
In a basis B = {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u n }
q1 = u1
^ q1
v1 = q1 =
q1
Next vector needs to be orthogonal to v1 ,
q2 = u 2 − < u 2 , v1 > v1
Similarly
q3 = u3 − < u3 , v1 > v1 − < u3 , v2 > v2
qn = u n − < u3 , v1 > v1 − < u 3 , v2 > v2 − ...− < u3 , vn > vn
^ qn
vn = q n =
qn

Coordinate Vector:
If v = c1e1 + c2 e2 + ... + cn en
 c1 
c 
vB =  2 
 ... 
 
c n 
For a fixed basis (usually the standard basis) there is 1 to 1 correspondence
between vectors and coordinate vectors.
Hence, a basis can be found in Rn and then translated back into the general vector
space.

Dimension:

Real Numbers dim(ℜ n ) = n

Polynomials dim( Pn ) = n + 1
Matricis dim( M p ,q ) = p × q

If you know the dimensions and you are checking if a set forms a basis of the
vector space, only Linear Independence or Span needs to be checked.

4.7 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES:

 a1 + ib1 
 a + ib 
Form: Cn =  2 2

 ... 
 
a n + ibn 
Dot Product:
_ _ _
u • v = u1 v1 + u 2 v 2 + ... + u n v n
Where:
Page 45 of 286
 u •v = v•u ≠ v•u
(u + v) • w = u • w + v • w
su • v = s (u • v), s ∈ C
u •u ≥ 0
u • u = 0 iff u = 0
Inner Product:
u = u •u = u1 + u 2 + ... + u n
2 2 2

d (u , v) = u − v
Orthogonal if u • v = 0
Parallel if u = sv, s ∈ C

4.8 LINEAR TRANSITIONS & TRANSFORMATIONS:

Transition Matrix: From 1 vector space to another vector space

T (u ) = T (c1u1 + c2 u 2 + c3u3 + ... + cn u n )

T (u ) = c1T (u1 ) + c2T (u 2 ) + c3T (u3 ) + ... + cnT (u n )
Nullity(T)+Rank(T)=Dim(V)=Columns(T)

Change of Basis Transition Matrix:

−1
vB ' = M B ' M B vB
v B ' = C BB 'v B

For a general vector space with the standard basis: S = {s1 , s 2 ,..., s n }
M B = [(v1 ) S | ... | (vn ) S ]
M B ' = [(u1 ) S | ... | (u m ) S ]

Transformation Matrix: From 1 basis to another basis

V = span({v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn })
B1 = {v1 , v2 , v3 ,..., vn }

U = span({u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u m })
B2 = {u1 , u 2 , u3 ,..., u m }

A = [(T (v1 ) )B 2 | (T (v2 ) )B 2 | ... | (T (vn ) )B 2 ]

−1
A' = C B 'B AC B 'B
4.9 INNER PRODUCTS:

Definition: An extension of the dot product into a general vector space.

Axioms:
1. < u , v >=< v, u >
2. < u , v + w >=< u, v > + < u , w >

Page 46 of 286
 3. < ku , v >= k < u, v >
< u , u >≥ 0
4.
< u , u >= 0 iff u = 0
^ u
Unit Vector: u =
u
Cavchy-Schuarz Inequality: < u , v > 2 ≤< u , u > × < v, v >
Inner Product Space:
1
u =< u, u > 2 = < u, u >
u =< u, u >
2

2
 < u, v > 
< u , v > ≤ u × v ⇒ 
2 2 2
 ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 ≤ < u , v > ≤ 1

 u v  u v
u ≥ 0, u = 0 iff u = 0
ku = k u
u+v = u + v
Angle between two vectors:
As defined by the inner product,
< u, v >
cos(θ ) =
u v
Orthogonal if: < u , v >= 0
Distance between two vectors:
As defined by the inner product,
d (u , v) = u − v
Generalised Pythagoras for orthogonal vectors:
u+v = u + v
2 2 2

4.10 PRIME NUMBERS:

 
 3 
 1+   
Determinate: ∆( N ) =   N  = 1 if N is odd and prime
  N +1  
 0 if N is odd and composite

  2 
 2k + 1  N   
1 + ∑  × 
 2k + 1  
 k =1  N

List of Prime Numbers:

2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71
73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173
179 181 191 193 197 199 211 223 227 229 233 239 241 251 257 263 269 271 277 281
283 293 307 311 313 317 331 337 347 349 353 359 367 373 379 383 389 397 401 409
419 421 431 433 439 443 449 457 461 463 467 479 487 491 499 503 509 521 523 541
547 557 563 569 571 577 587 593 599 601 607 613 617 619 631 641 643 647 653 659
661 673 677 683 691 701 709 719 727 733 739 743 751 757 761 769 773 787 797 809
Page 47 of 286
811 821 823 827 829 839 853 857 859 863 877 881 883 887 907 911 919 929 937 941
947 953 967 971 977 983 991 997 1009 1013 1019 1021 1031 1033 1039 1049 1051 1061 1063 1069
1087 1091 1093 1097 1103 1109 1117 1123 1129 1151 1153 1163 1171 1181 1187 1193 1201 1213 1217 1223
1229 1231 1237 1249 1259 1277 1279 1283 1289 1291 1297 1301 1303 1307 1319 1321 1327 1361 1367 1373
1381 1399 1409 1423 1427 1429 1433 1439 1447 1451 1453 1459 1471 1481 1483 1487 1489 1493 1499 1511
1523 1531 1543 1549 1553 1559 1567 1571 1579 1583 1597 1601 1607 1609 1613 1619 1621 1627 1637 1657
1663 1667 1669 1693 1697 1699 1709 1721 1723 1733 1741 1747 1753 1759 1777 1783 1787 1789 1801 1811
1823 1831 1847 1861 1867 1871 1873 1877 1879 1889 1901 1907 1913 1931 1933 1949 1951 1973 1979 1987
1993 1997 1999 2003 2011 2017 2027 2029 2039 2053 2063 2069 2081 2083 2087 2089 2099 2111 2113 2129
2131 2137 2141 2143 2153 2161 2179 2203 2207 2213 2221 2237 2239 2243 2251 2267 2269 2273 2281 2287
2293 2297 2309 2311 2333 2339 2341 2347 2351 2357 2371 2377 2381 2383 2389 2393 2399 2411 2417 2423
2437 2441 2447 2459 2467 2473 2477 2503 2521 2531 2539 2543 2549 2551 2557 2579 2591 2593 2609 2617
2621 2633 2647 2657 2659 2663 2671 2677 2683 2687 2689 2693 2699 2707 2711 2713 2719 2729 2731 2741
2749 2753 2767 2777 2789 2791 2797 2801 2803 2819 2833 2837 2843 2851 2857 2861 2879 2887 2897 2903
2909 2917 2927 2939 2953 2957 2963 2969 2971 2999 3001 3011 3019 3023 3037 3041 3049 3061 3067 3079
3083 3089 3109 3119 3121 3137 3163 3167 3169 3181 3187 3191 3203 3209 3217 3221 3229 3251 3253 3257
3259 3271 3299 3301 3307 3313 3319 3323 3329 3331 3343 3347 3359 3361 3371 3373 3389 3391 3407 3413
3433 3449 3457 3461 3463 3467 3469 3491 3499 3511 3517 3527 3529 3533 3539 3541 3547 3557 3559 3571

Perfect Numbers: A perfect number is a positive integer that is equal to the sum of its
proper positive divisors, excluding the number itself. Even perfect
numbers are of the form 2p−1(2p−1), where (2p−1) is prime and by
extension p is also prime. It is unknown whether there are any odd
perfect numbers.

List of Perfect Numbers:

Rank p Perfect number Digits Year Discoverer

1 2 6 1 Known to the Greeks
2 3 28 2 Known to the Greeks
3 5 496 3 Known to the Greeks
4 7 8128 4 Known to the Greeks
First seen in the medieval manuscript,
5 13 33550336 8 1456 Codex Lat. Monac.
6 17 8589869056 10 1588 Cataldi
7 19 12 1588 Cataldi
8 31 19 1772 Euler
9 61 37 1883 Pervushin
10 89 54 1911 Powers
11 107 65 1914 Powers
12 127 77 1876 Lucas
13 521 314 1952 Robinson
14 607 366 1952 Robinson
15 1279 770 1952 Robinson
16 2203 1327 1952 Robinson
17 2281 1373 1952 Robinson
18 3217 1937 1957 Riesel
19 4253 2561 1961 Hurwitz
20 4423 2663 1961 Hurwitz
21 9689 5834 1963 Gillies
22 9941 5985 1963 Gillies
23 11213 6751 1963 Gillies

Page 48 of 286
24 19937 12003 1971 Tuckerman
25 21701 13066 1978 Noll & Nickel
26 23209 13973 1979 Noll
27 44497 26790 1979 Nelson & Slowinski
28 86243 51924 1982 Slowinski
29 110503 66530 1988 Colquitt & Welsh
30 132049 79502 1983 Slowinski
31 216091 130100 1985 Slowinski
32 756839 455663 1992 Slowinski & Gage
33 859433 517430 1994 Slowinski & Gage
34 1257787 757263 1996 Slowinski & Gage
35 1398269 841842 1996 Armengaud, Woltman, et al.
36 2976221 1791864 1997 Spence, Woltman, et al.
37 3021377 1819050 1998 Clarkson, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
38 6972593 4197919 1999 Hajratwala, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
39 13466917 8107892 2001 Cameron, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
40 20996011 12640858 2003 Shafer, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
41 24036583 14471465 2004 Findley, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
42 25964951 15632458 2005 Nowak, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
Cooper, Boone, Woltman, Kurowski, et
43 30402457 18304103 2005 al.
Cooper, Boone, Woltman, Kurowski, et
44 32582657 19616714 2006 al.
45 37156667 22370543 2008 Elvenich, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
46 42643801 25674127 2009 Strindmo, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.
47 43112609 25956377 2008 Smith, Woltman, Kurowski, et al.

Amicable Numbers: Amicable numbers are two different numbers so related that the
sum of the proper divisors of each is equal to the other number.

List of Amicable Numbers:

Amicable Pairs Amicable Pairs Amicable Pairs

220 284 1,328,470 1,483,850 8,619,765 9,627,915
1,184 1,210 1,358,595 1,486,845 8,666,860 10,638,356
2,620 2,924 1,392,368 1,464,592 8,754,130 10,893,230
5,020 5,564 1,466,150 1,747,930 8,826,070 10,043,690
6,232 6,368 1,468,324 1,749,212 9,071,685 9,498,555
10,744 10,856 1,511,930 1,598,470 9,199,496 9,592,504
12,285 14,595 1,669,910 2,062,570 9,206,925 10,791,795
17,296 18,416 1,798,875 1,870,245 9,339,704 9,892,936
63,020 76,084 2,082,464 2,090,656 9,363,584 9,437,056
66,928 66,992 2,236,570 2,429,030 9,478,910 11,049,730
67,095 71,145 2,652,728 2,941,672 9,491,625 10,950,615
69,615 87,633 2,723,792 2,874,064 9,660,950 10,025,290
79,750 88,730 2,728,726 3,077,354 9,773,505 11,791,935
100,485 124,155 2,739,704 2,928,136 10,254,970 10,273,670
122,265 139,815 2,802,416 2,947,216 10,533,296 10,949,704
122,368 123,152 2,803,580 3,716,164 10,572,550 10,854,650
141,664 153,176 3,276,856 3,721,544 10,596,368 11,199,112
142,310 168,730 3,606,850 3,892,670 10,634,085 14,084,763
171,856 176,336 3,786,904 4,300,136 10,992,735 12,070,305
176,272 180,848 3,805,264 4,006,736 11,173,460 13,212,076
Page 49 of 286
 185,368 203,432 4,238,984 4,314,616 11,252,648 12,101,272
196,724 202,444 4,246,130 4,488,910 11,498,355 12,024,045
280,540 365,084 4,259,750 4,445,050 11,545,616 12,247,504
308,620 389,924 4,482,765 5,120,595 11,693,290 12,361,622
319,550 430,402 4,532,710 6,135,962 11,905,504 13,337,336
356,408 399,592 4,604,776 5,162,744 12,397,552 13,136,528
437,456 455,344 5,123,090 5,504,110 12,707,704 14,236,136
469,028 486,178 5,147,032 5,843,048 13,671,735 15,877,065
503,056 514,736 5,232,010 5,799,542 13,813,150 14,310,050
522,405 525,915 5,357,625 5,684,679 13,921,528 13,985,672
600,392 669,688 5,385,310 5,812,130 14,311,688 14,718,712
609,928 686,072 5,459,176 5,495,264 14,426,230 18,087,818
624,184 691,256 5,726,072 6,369,928 14,443,730 15,882,670
635,624 712,216 5,730,615 6,088,905 14,654,150 16,817,050
643,336 652,664 5,864,660 7,489,324 15,002,464 15,334,304
667,964 783,556 6,329,416 6,371,384 15,363,832 16,517,768
726,104 796,696 6,377,175 6,680,025 15,938,055 17,308,665
802,725 863,835 6,955,216 7,418,864 16,137,628 16,150,628
879,712 901,424 6,993,610 7,158,710 16,871,582 19,325,698
898,216 980,984 7,275,532 7,471,508 17,041,010 19,150,222
947,835 1,125,765 7,288,930 8,221,598 17,257,695 17,578,785
998,104 1,043,096 7,489,112 7,674,088 17,754,165 19,985,355
1,077,890 1,099,390 7,577,350 8,493,050 17,844,255 19,895,265
1,154,450 1,189,150 7,677,248 7,684,672 17,908,064 18,017,056
1,156,870 1,292,570 7,800,544 7,916,696 18,056,312 18,166,888
1,175,265 1,438,983 7,850,512 8,052,488 18,194,715 22,240,485
1,185,376 1,286,744 8,262,136 8,369,864 18,655,744 19,154,336
1,280,565 1,340,235

Sociable Numbers: Sociable numbers are generalisations of amicable numbers where a

sequence of numbers each of whose numbers is the sum of the
factors of the preceding number, excluding the preceding number
itself. The sequence must be cyclic, eventually returning to its
starting point
.
List of Sociable Numbers:

C4s
1264460
1547860
1727636
1305184

2115324
3317740
3649556
2797612

2784580
3265940
3707572

Page 50 of 286
 3370604

4938136
5753864
5504056
5423384

7169104
7538660
8292568
7520432

C5 Poulet 1918 5D
12496 2^4*11*71
14288 2^4*19*47
15472 2^4*967
14536 2^3*23*79
14264 2^3*1783

C6 Moews&Moews 1992 11D

21548919483 3^5*7^2*13*19*17*431
23625285957 3^5*7^2*13*19*29*277
24825443643 3^2*7^2*13*19*11*20719
26762383557 3^4*7^2*13*19*27299
25958284443 3^2*7^2*13*19*167*1427
23816997477 3^2*7^2*13*19*218651

C6 Moews&Moews 1995 11D/12D

90632826380 2^2*5*109*431*96461
101889891700 2^2*5^2*31*193*170299
127527369100 2^2*5^2*31*181*227281
159713440756 2^2*31*991*1299709
129092518924 2^2*31*109*9551089
106246338676 2^2*17*25411*61487

C6 Needham 2006 13D

1771417411016 2^3*11*20129743307
1851936384424 2^3*7*1637*20201767
2118923133656 2^3*7*863*43844627
2426887897384 2^3*59*5141711647
2200652585816 2^3*43*1433*4464233
2024477041144 2^3*253059630143

C6 Needham 2006 13D

3524434872392 2^3*7*17*719*5149009
4483305479608 2^3*89*6296777359
4017343956392 2^3*13*17*3019*752651
4574630214808 2^3*607*6779*138967
4018261509992 2^3*31*59*274621481
3890837171608 2^3*61*22039*361769

Page 51 of 286
 C6 Needham 2006 13D
4773123705616 2^4*7*347*122816069
5826394399664 2^4*101*3605442079
5574013457296 2^4*53*677*1483*6547
5454772780208 2^4*53*239*2971*9059
5363145542992 2^4*307*353*3093047
5091331952624 2^4*318208247039

C8 Flammenkamp 1990 Brodie ? 10D

1095447416 2^3*7*313*62497
1259477224 2^3*43*3661271
1156962296 2^3*7*311*66431
1330251784 2^3*43*3867011
1221976136 2^3*41*1399*2663
1127671864 2^3*11*61*83*2531
1245926216 2^3*19*8196883
1213138984 2^3*67*2263319

C8 Flammenkamp 1990 Brodie ? 10D

1276254780 2^2*3*5*1973*10781
2299401444 2^2*3*991*193357
3071310364 2^2*767827591
2303482780 2^2*5*67*211*8147
2629903076 2^2*23*131*218213
2209210588 2^2*13^2*17*192239
2223459332 2^2*131*4243243
1697298124 2^2*907*467833

C9 Flammenkamp 1990 9D/10D

805984760 2^3*5*7*1579*1823
1268997640 2^3*5*17*61*30593
1803863720 2^3*5*103*367*1193
2308845400 2^3*5^2*11544227
3059220620 2^2*5*2347*65173
3367978564 2^2*841994641
2525983930 2*5*17*367*40487
2301481286 2*13*19*4658869
1611969514 2*805984757

C28 Poulet 1918 5D/6D

14316 2^2*3*1193
19116 2^2*3^4*59
31704 2^3*3*1321
47616 2^9*3*31
83328 2^7*3*7*31
177792 2^7*3*463
295488 2^6*3^5*19
629072 2^4*39317
589786 2*294893
294896 2^4*7*2633

Page 52 of 286
 358336 2^6*11*509
418904 2^3*52363
366556 2^2*91639
274924 2^2*13*17*311
275444 2^2*13*5297
243760 2^4*5*11*277
376736 2^5*61*193
381028 2^2*95257
285778 2*43*3323
152990 2*5*15299
122410 2*5*12241
97946 2*48973
48976 2^4*3061
45946 2*22973
22976 2^6*359
22744 2^3*2843
19916 2^2*13*383
17716 2^2*43*103
This list is exhaustive for known social numbers where
C>4

4.11 GOLDEN RATIO & FIBONACCI SEQUENCE:

Relationship:

Infinite Series:

Continued Fractions:

Page 53 of 286
Trigonometric Expressions:

Fibonacci Sequence:
ϕ n − (1 − ϕ ) n ϕ n − (−ϕ ) − n
F ( n) = =
5 5
1   1 + 5   1 − 5  
n n

F ( n) =   − 
5   2   2  
 

4.12 FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM:

a n + b n ≠ c n for integers a, b & c and n > 2

Proposed by Fermat in 1637 and proved by Andrew Wiles in 1994. The proof is too long
to be written here. See: http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~anindya/fermat.pdf

Page 54 of 286
PART 5: COUNTING TECHNIQUES & PROBABILITY
5.1 2D
n(n + 1)
Triangle Number Tn =
2
n = Tn + Tn −1
2

Square Number Tn = n 2
n(3n − 1)
Pentagonal Number Tn =
2

5.2 3D
n 3 + 3n 2 + 2n
Tetrahedral Number Tn =
6
2n + 3n 2 + n
3
Square Pyramid Number Tn =
6

5.3 PERMUTATIONS
Permutations: = n!
n!
Permutations (with repeats): =
(groupA)!×(groupB )!×...
5.4 COMBINATIONS
n!
Ordered Combinations: =
(n − p )!
n n!
Unordered Combinations: =   =
 p  p!(n − p )!
Ordered Repeated Combinations: = n p
Unordered Repeated Combinations: =
( p + n − 1)!
p!×(n − 1)!
 n  n − n1  n − n1 − n2  n!
Grouping: =    ... =
 n1  n2  n3  n1!n2 !n3!...nr !

5.5 MISCELLANEOUS:
Total Number of Rectangles and Squares from a a x b rectangle:
∑ = Ta × Tb
Number of Interpreters: = TL −1
c(c + 1)
Max number of pizza pieces: = +1
2
c(c + 3)
Max pieces of a crescent: = +1
2
c 3 + 5c
Max pieces of cheese: = +1
6

Page 55 of 286
 l (3l + 1)
Cards in a card house: =
2
n−d
Different arrangement of dominos: = 2 × n!
b 
a − MOD  
Unit Fractions:
a
=
1
+ a
b   
INT   + 1 b INT   + 1
b b
a   a  
Angle between two hands of a clock: θ = 5.5m − 30h
Winning Lines in Noughts and Crosses: = 2(a + 1)
P
Bad Restaurant Spread: =
1− s
1   1 + 5   1 − 5  
n n

Fibonacci Sequence: =   − 
5   2   2  
 

ABBREVIATIONS (5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5)

a=side ‘a’
b=side ‘b’
c=cuts
d=double dominos
h=hours
L=Languages
l=layers
m=minutes
n= nth term
n=n number
P=Premium/Starting Quantity
p=number you pick
r=number of roles/turns
s=spread factor
T=Term
θ=the angle

5.6 FACTORIAL:

Definition: n!= n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... × 2 × 1

Table of Factorials:
0! 1 (by definition)
1! 1 11! 39916800
2! 2 12! 479001600
3! 6 13! 6227020800
4! 24 14! 87178291200
5! 120 15! 1307674368000
6! 720 16! 20922789888000
7! 5040 17! 355687428096000

Page 56 of 286
 8! 40320 18! 6402373705728000
9! 362880 19! 121645100408832000
10! 3628800 20! 2432902008176640000
1
n+
Approximation: n!= 2π × n 2
× e −n (within 1% for n>10)

5.7 THE DAY OF THE WEEK:

This only works after 1753

  31m   y   y   y  
= MOD7 d + y +  + − +  
  12   4  100   400  
d=day
m=month
y=year
SQUARE BRAKETS MEAN INTEGER DIVISION
INT=Keep the integer
MOD=Keep the remainder

5.8 BASIC PROBABILITY:

∑P =1
5.9 VENN DIAGRAMS:

Complementary Events: 1 − P ( A) = P A ()
m
Totality: P( A) = ∑ P( A | Bi ) P( Bi )
i =1
P( A) = P( A ∩ B ) + P( A ∩ B ' )
P( A ∩ B )
Conditional Probability: P( A | B ) =
P (B )
P( A ∩ B ) = P(B ) ⋅ P( A | B )
Union : P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B )
Independent Events: P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) ⋅ P ( B )
P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A) ⋅ P ( B )
P (B | A) = P (B )
Mutually Exclusive: P( A ∩ B ) = 0
P( A ∩ B ') = P( A)
P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B )
P ( A ∪ B ') = P ( B ')
Baye’s Theorem:

Page 57 of 286
 P( A | B ) P( B) P( A | B ) P( B)
P( B | A) = =
P ( A) P ( A | B) P ( B) + P( A | B' ) P( B' )
m
Event’s Space: P( A) = ∑ P( A ∩ Bi )
i =1
5.11 BASIC STATISTICAL OPERATIONS:
Variance: v =σ2

Mean: µ=
∑ xi
ns
x −µ
Standardized Score: z= i
σ
Confidence Interval:

5.12 DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLES:

∑ (x )2
−x
Standard Deviation: σ= i

ns
Expected Value:
i
E[ X ] = ∑ P ( xi ) × xi
1

E[aX + b] = aE[ X ] + b

Variance:
∑ (x )
2
−x
v= i

ns
v = (E [x − E[ x]])
2

v = E[ x 2 ] − (E[ x])
2

var[aX + b] = a 2 var[ X ]
Probability Mass Function: P( x) = f ( x) = P( X = x)
Cumulative Distribution Function: F ( x ) = P( X ≤ x)

5.13 COMMON DRVs:

Bernoulli Trial:
Definition: 1 trial, 1 probability that is either fail or success
Outcomes: S X = {0,1}
 p x =1
Probability: PX ( x) = 
1 − p x = 0
Expected Value: E[ X ] = p
Variance: Var[ X ] = p − p 2 = p(1 − p )

Binomial Trial:
Definition: Repeated Bernoulli Trials
Outcomes: S X = {0,1,2,3,...n}

Page 58 of 286
 n
PX ( x ) =   ⋅ ( p ) ⋅ (1 − p )
x n− x
Probability:
 
x
Expected Value: E[ X ] = np
Variance: Var[ X ] = np(1 − p )

n=number to choose from

p=probability of x occurring
x=number of favorable results

Geometric Trial:
Definition: Number of Bernoulli Trials to get 1st Success.
Outcomes: S X = {0,1,2,3,...}
PX (x ) = p (1 − p )
x −1
Probability:

Negative Binomial Trial:

Definition: Number to 1st get to n success.
 x − 1 x
Probability: PX ( x ) =   p (1 − p )n− x
 n − 1

5.14 CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLES:

Probability Density Function: = f (x )
∞
If ∫ f ( x)dx = 1 & f ( x) ≥ 0 for − ∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞
−∞
x

Cumulative Distribution Function: = F ( x ) = P ( X ≤ x ) = ∫ f ( x ) dx

−∞
b
Interval Probability: P(a ≤ X ≤ b) = F (b) − F (a) = ∫ f ( x)dx
a
∞
Expected Value: E ( x) = ∫ x × f ( x)dx
−∞
∞
E ( g ( x)) = ∫ g ( x) × f ( x)dx
−∞

Variance: Var ( X ) = E ( X 2 ) − ( E ( X )) 2

5.15 COMMON CRVs:

Uniform Distribution:

Declaration: X ~ Uniform(a, b)
 1
 a≤ x≤b
PDF: f ( x) =  b − a
 0 otherwise

Page 59 of 286
  0 x<a
x−a
x

CDF: F ( x ) = ∫ f ( x ) dx =  a≤ x≤b
−∞ b − a
 1 x>b

a+b
Expected Value: =
2

Variance: =
(b − a )2
12

Exponential Distribution:

Declaration: X ~ Exponential (λ )
 0 x<0
PDF: f ( x ) =  −λx
λe x≥0

Page 60 of 286
 x
 0 x<0
CDF: F ( x) =
−∞
∫ f ( x)dx = 1 − e λ − x
x≥0
1
Expected Value: =
λ
1
Variance: =
λ2
Normal Distribution:
Declaration: X ~ Normal ( µ , σ 2 )
x−µ
Standardized Z Score: Z=
σ
−1 x − µ 
2
−1
1   1 z2
σ 
PDF: f ( x) = e2 = e2
σ 2π σ 2π

CDF: Φ(Z ) (The integration is provided within statistic tables)

Expected Value: =µ
=σ
2
Variance:

5.16 MULTIVARIABLE DISCRETE:

Probability:
P ( X = x, Y = y ) = f ( x, y )
P( X ≤ x, Y ≤ y ) = ∑ f ( x, y ) over all values of x & y
Marginal Distribution:
f X ( x ) = ∑ f ( xi , y )
y

f Y ( y ) = ∑ f ( x, yi )
x
Expected Value:
E[ X ] = ∑ x × f X ( x)
x

E[Y ] = ∑ y × f Y ( y )
y

E[ X , Y ] = ∑∑ x × y × f X ,Y ( x, y )
x y

Independence: f ( x, y ) = f X ( x ) × f Y ( y )

Page 61 of 286
Covariance: Cov = E[ X , Y ] − E[ X ] × E[Y ]

5.17 MULTIVARIABLE CONTINUOUS:

Probability:
y x

P ( X ≤ x, Y ≤ y ) = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y)dxdy
−∞ −∞
y

P(Y < y ) = P(−∞ < X < ∞, Y < y ) = ∫f

−∞
Y ( y )dy

Marginal Distribution:
b
f X ( x ) = ∫ f ( x, y )dy where a & b are bounds of y
a
b
f Y ( y ) = ∫ f ( x, y )dx where a & b are bounds of x
a
Expected Value:
∞
E[ X ] = ∫ x × f X ( x)dx
−∞
∞
E[Y ] = ∫ y× f
−∞
Y ( y )dy

∞ ∞
E[ X , Y ] = ∫ ∫ x× y× f
− ∞−∞
X ,Y ( x, y )dxdy

Independence: f ( x, y ) = f X ( x ) × f Y ( y )
Covariance: Cov = E[ X , Y ] − E[ X ] × E[Y ]
Cov( X , Y )
Correlation Coefficient: ρ X ,Y =
σ XσY

ABBREVIATIONS
σ = Standard Deviation
µ = mean
ns = number of scores
p = probability of favourable result
v = variance
xi = Individual x score
x = mean of the x scores
z = Standardized Score

Page 62 of 286
Page 63 of 286
PART 6: FINANCIAL
6.1 GENERAL FORMUALS:

Profit: p = s−c
p
Profit margin: m = × 100
c
Simple Interest: = P(1 + tr )
= P(1 + r )
t
Compound Interest:
Continuous Interest: = Pe rt

ABBREVIATIONS (6.1):
c=cost
I=interest
m=profit margin (%)
p=profit
P=premium
r=rate
s=sale price
t=time
6.2 MACROECONOMICS:

GDP: y = AE = AD = C + I + G + NX
y = Summation of all product quantities multiplied by cost
RGDP: RGDP = Summation of all product quantities multiplied by base year cost
NGDP: NGDP = Summation of all product quantities multiplied by current year cost
RGDPCURRENT − RGDPBASE
Growth: Growth = ×100
RGDPBASE
Net Exports: NX = X - M

Working Age Population: WAP = Labor Force + Not in Labor Force

Labor Force: LF = Employed + Unemployed
Unemployment: UE = Frictional + Structural + Cyclical
Natural Unemployment: NUE = Frictional + Structural
UE
Unemployment Rate: ∆UE% = ×100
LF
E
Employment Rate: ∆E% = × 100
LF
LF UE + E
Participation Rate: ∆P% = ×100 = ×100
WAP WAP
CPI: CPI = Indexed Average Price of all Goods and Services
CPI CURRENT − CPI BASE
Inflation Rate: Inflation Rate = × 100
CPI BASE

ABBREVIATIONS (6.2)
AD=Aggregate Demand
Page 64 of 286
AE=Aggregate Expenditure
C=Consumption
CPI=Consumer Price Index
E=Employed
G=Government
I=Investment
LF=Labor Force
M=Imports
NGDP=Nominal GDP
NUE=Natural Unemployment
NX=Net Export
P=Participation
RGDP=Real GDP (Price is adjusted to base year)
UE=Unemployed
WAP=Working Age Population
X=Exports
Y=GDP

Page 65 of 286
PART 7: PI
7.1 AREA:
Cd πd 2
Circle: A = πr = 2
=
4 4
Cyclic Quadrilateral: (s − a )(s − b)(s − c )(s − d )
Q
Area of a sector (degrees) A = × πr 2
360
1
Area of a sector (radians) A = r 2θ
2
r2  Q 
Area of a segment (degrees) A =  × π − sin Q 
2  180 

( )
2
 w
A = π r2 − r1 = π 
2 2
Area of an annulus:
2
π
Ellipse : A= lw = πr1 r2
4

7.2 VOLUME:
Cylinder: V = πr 2 h
4
Sphere: V = πr 3
3
1
Cap of a Sphere: V = πh 3r1 + h 2
6
2
( )
1 2
Cone: V = πr h
3
Ice-cream & Cone: V = πr 2 (h + 2r )
1
3
π2
Doughnut: V = 2π 2 r2 r1 =
2
(b + a )(b − a )2
4
πw  w 
2
Sausage: V= l − 
4  3
4
Ellipsoid: V = πr1 r2 r3
3

7.3 SURFACE AREA:

Sphere: SA = 4πr 2
Hemisphere: SA = 3πr 2
Doughnut: (
SA = 4π 2 r2 r1 = π 2 b 2 − a 2 )
Sausage: SA = πwl
Cone: (
SA = πr r + r 2 + h 2 )

Page 66 of 286
7.4 MISELANIOUS:
Q Q
Length of arc (degrees) l= ×C = × πr
360 180
Q
Length of chord (degrees) l = 2r × sin   = 2 r 2 − h 2
2
 
 1 + 3(r1 − r2 )
2

Perimeter of an ellipse

P ≈ π (r1 + r2 )
(r1 + r2 )2 

 3(r1 − r2 ) 
2

 10 + 4 − 
 (r1 + r2 )2 
7.6 PI:
π ≈ 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288...
C
π=
d
π 2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 ∞
4n 2
John Wallis: = × × × × × × × × ... = ∏ 2
2 1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9 n =1 4n − 1

π 1 1  1  1× 3  1  1× 3 × 6  1 
Isaac Newton: = +  +  +   + ...
6 2 2  3 × 23  2 × 4  5 × 25  2 × 4 × 6  7 × 2 7 
π 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
James Gregory: = 1 − + − + − + − ...
4 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
π 2
1 1 1 1
Leonard Euler: = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 1 2 3 4
π 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31
= × × × × × × × × × × ...
4 4 4 8 12 12 16 20 24 28 32
where the numerators are the odd primes; each denominator is the
multiple of four nearest to the numerator.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
`π = 1+ + + − + + + + − + + − + ...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
If the denominator is a prime of the form 4m - 1, the sign is positive; if
the denominator is 2 or a prime of the form 4m + 1, the sign is
negative; for composite numbers, the sign is equal the product of the
signs of its factors.
  1   1  
 n  n
4 n  ( 1 + i ) − ( 1 − i )   
Jozef Hoene-Wronski: π = lim
n→ ∞ i

2 2 2+ 2 2+ 2+ 2
Franciscus Vieta: = × × × ...
π 2 2 2
Integrals:

Page 67 of 286
Infinite Series:

1 ∞ (− 1)  1 
n
25 1 28 26 22 22
6 ∑
 − − + − − − +  =π
2 n=0 2  4n + 1 4n + 3 10n + 1 10n + 3 10n + 5 10n + 7 10n + 9 
10 n 

See also: Zeta Function within Part 17

Continued Fractions:

Page 68 of 286
7.7 CIRCLE GEOMETRY:
a2 + b2
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Rectangles: r =
2
a
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Squares: r=
2
a
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Triangles: r =
2 sin A
Radius of Circumscribed Circle for Quadrilaterals:

r= ×
1 (ab + cd )(ac + bd )(ad + bc )
4 (s − a )(s − b )(s − c )(s − d )
a
Radius of Inscribed Circle for Squares: r =
2
A
Radius of Inscribed Circle for Triangles: r =
s

a
Radius of Circumscribed Circle: r=
 180 
2 sin  
 n 
a
Radius of Inscribed Circle: r=
 180 
2 tan  
 n 

7.8 ABBREVIATIONS (7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7):

A=Angle ‘A’
A=Area
Page 69 of 286
a=side ‘a’
B=Angle ‘B’
b=side ‘b’
B=Angle ‘B’
c=side ‘c’
C=circumference
d=diameter
d=side ‘d’
h=shortest length from the center to the chord
r=radius
r1=radius 1 ( r1 < r2 )
r2=radius 2 ( r2 < r3 )
r3=radius 3
l=length
n=number of sides
P=perimeter
Q=central angle
s=semi-perimeter
w=width
w=length of chord from r1

7.9 CRESCENT GEOMETRY:

1
Area of a lunar crescent: A = πcd
4
Area of an eclipse crescent:
  −1  w + l − b 
2 2 2
  −1  w + l − b
2 2 2
  
 2π  cos 
       
   sin 2 cos  
  2 wl    2wl  
A = w π −
2
+ 
 360 2 
 
 
   w2 + l 2 − b 2    w2 + l 2 − b 2   
 2π  cos −1    sin 2 cos −1   
   
 2 wl   2wl  
− b 2 π −  + 

 360 2 
 
 

7.10 ABBREVIATIONS (7.9):

A=Area
b=radius of black circle
c=width of the crescent
d=diameter
l=distance between the centres of the circles
w=radius of white circle

Page 70 of 286
PART 8: PHYSICS
8.1 MOVEMENT:
v2
Stopping distance: s=
− 2a

v2
Centripetal acceleration: a=
r
mv 2
Centripetal force: FC = ma =
r
2h
Dropping time : t=
g
ma
Force: F= 3
 v2  2
1 − 2 
 c 
1
Kinetic Energy: E k = mv 2
2

Maximum height of a cannon: h=

( u sin θ )
2

g
l
Pendulum swing time: t = 2π
g
Potential Energy: E p = mgh
2u sin θ
Range of a cannon: s = t (u cos θ ) = × (u cos θ )
g
2u sin θ
Time in flight of a cannon: t=
g
mm
Universal Gravitation: F = G 12 2
r

ABBREVIATIONS (8.1):
a=acceleration (negative if retarding)
c=speed of light ( 3× 10 8 ms-1)
Ek=Kinetic Energy
Ep=potential energy
F=force
g=gravitational acceleration (≈9.81 on Earth)
G=gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10 −11
h=height
l=length of a pendulum
m=mass
m1=mass 1
m2=mass 2
Page 71 of 286
r=radius
r=distance between two points
s=distance
t=time
u=initial speed
v=final speed
θ=the angle

8.2 CLASSICAL MECHANICS:

Newton’s Laws:
First law: If an object experiences no net force, then its velocity is constant; the object is either at rest (if its
velocity is zero), or it moves in a straight line with constant speed (if its velocity is nonzero).

Second law: The acceleration a of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the net force F acting on
the body, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass m of the body, i.e.,
F = ma.

Third law: When two bodies interact by exerting force on each other, these forces (termed the action and
the reaction) are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.

Inertia:

Page 72 of 286
 Moments of Inertia:

Description Diagram Formulae

Two point masses, M
and m, with reduced
mass and separated
by a distance, x.
Rod of length L and
mass m
(Axis of rotation at the
end of the rod)

Rod of length L and

mass m

Thin circular hoop of

radius r and mass m

Thin circular hoop of

radius r and mass m

Thin, solid disk of

radius r and mass m

Page 73 of 286
 Thin cylindrical shell
with open ends, of
radius r and mass m

Solid cylinder of
radius r, height h and
mass m

Thick-walled
cylindrical tube with
open ends, of inner
radius r1, outer radius or when defining the normalized thickness tn = t/r and letting
r2, length h and mass m r = r2,

then

Sphere (hollow) of
radius r and mass m

Ball (solid) of radius r

and mass m

Page 74 of 286
 Right circular cone
with radius r, height h
and mass m

About a diameter:
Torus of tube radius a,
cross-sectional radius
b and mass m.
About the vertical axis:

Ellipsoid (solid) of
semiaxes a, b, and c
with axis of rotation a
and mass m

Thin rectangular plate

of height h and of
width w and mass m
(Axis of rotation at the
end of the plate)

Thin rectangular plate

of height h and of
width w and mass m

Solid cuboid of height

h, width w, and depth
d, and mass m

Page 75 of 286
Solid cuboid of height
D, width W, and length
L, and mass m with the
longest diagonal as the
axis.
Plane polygon with

vertices , , ,
..., and
mass uniformly
distributed on its
interior, rotating about
an axis perpendicular
to the plane and
passing through the
origin.
Infinite disk with mass
normally distributed
on two axes around the
axis of rotation
(i.e.

Where : is
the mass-density as a
function of x and y).

Velocity and Speed:

∆P
v AVE =
∆t

Acceleration:
∆V
a AVE =
∆t

Trajectory (Displacement):

Page 76 of 286
Kinetic Energy:

Centripetal Force:

Circular Motion:

, or

Angular Momentum:

Page 77 of 286
Torque:

Work:

Laws of Conservation:

Momentum:
Energy: ∑E IN = ∑ EOUT
Force: ∑F NET = 0 ⇒ ∑ FUP = ∑ FDN , ∑ FL = ∑ FR , ∑ cm = ∑ acm

ABBREVIATIONS (8.2)
a=acceleration
EK=Kinetic Energy
Er=rotational kinetic energy
F=force
I=mass moment of inertia
J=impulse
L=angular momentum
m=mass
P=path
p=momentum
t=time
v=velocity
W=work
τ=torque

8.3 RELATIVISTIC EQUATIONS:

Kinetic Energy:

Page 78 of 286
Momentum:

Time Dilation:

Length Contraction:

Relativistic Mass:

Page 79 of 286
PART 9: TRIGONOMETRY
9.1 CONVERSIONS:
Degrees 30° 60° 120° 150° 210° 240° 300° 330°

Radians

33⅓ 66⅔ 133⅓ 166⅔ 233⅓ 266⅔ 333⅓ 366⅔

Grads
grad grad grad grad grad grad grad grad

Degrees 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°

Radians

100
Grads 50 grad 150 grad 200 grad 250 grad 300 grad 350 grad 400 grad
grad

9.2 BASIC RULES:

sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ

a b c sin A sin B sin C

Sin Rule: = = or = =
sin A sin B sin C a b c
b +c −a
2 2 2
Cos Rule: cos A = or a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
2bc
Tan Rule:

Auxiliary Angle:

Pythagoras Theorem: a 2 + b2 = c2

Page 80 of 286
9.3 RECIPROCAL FUNCTIONS
1
secθ =
cos θ
1
csc θ =
sin θ
1 cos θ
cot θ = =
tan θ sin θ

9.4 BASIC IDENTITES:

Pythagorean Identity:

9.5 IDENTITIES (SINΘ):

•
•

•
Page 81 of 286
 •

9.6 IDENTITIES (COSΘ):

•
•

9.7 IDENTITIES (TANΘ):

•
•

•
•

9.8 IDENTITIES (CSCΘ):

•
•

•
•

9.9 IDENTITIES (COTΘ):

Page 82 of 286
 •

•
•

•
•

9.10 ADDITION FORMULAE:

Sine:
Cosine:

Tangent:
Arcsine:

Arccosine:

Arctangent:

9.11 DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAE:

Sine:

Generally,
n
n 1 
sin (nx ) = ∑   cos k ( x )sin n−k ( x )sin  (n − k )π 
k =0  k  2 

Cosine:

Generally,
n
n 1 
cos(nx ) = ∑   cos k ( x )sin n−k ( x )cos (n − k )π 
k =0  k  2 

Tangent:
Page 83 of 286
 Generally.
n
n 1 
∑   cos ( x ) sin ( x ) sin  (n − k )π 
k n −k

sin (nx ) k  2 
tan (nx ) =
k =0
=
cos(nx ) n
 n 1 
∑  k  cos (x )sin (x ) cos 2 (n − k )π 
k n− k

k =0  
Cot:

9.12 TRIPLE ANGLE FORMULAE:

Sine:

Cosine:

Tangent:

Cot:

9.13 HALF ANGLE FORMULAE:

Sine:

Cosine:

Tangent:

Cot:

Page 84 of 286
9.14 POWER REDUCTION:
Sine:

If n is even:

If n is odd:

Cosine:

If n is even:

If n is odd:

Page 85 of 286
Sine & Cosine:

9.15 PRODUCT TO SUM:

9.16 SUM TO PRODUCT:

9.17 HYPERBOLIC EXPRESSIONS:

Hyperbolic sine:

Hyperbolic cosine:

Hyperbolic tangent:

Hyperbolic cotangent:
Page 86 of 286
Hyperbolic secant:

Hyperbolic cosecant:

9.18 HYPERBOLIC RELATIONS:

9.19 MACHIN-LIKE FORMULAE:

Form:

Formulae:

Page 87 of 286
Identities:

for ,

for ,

for ,

for .
9.20 SPHERICAL TRIANGLE IDENTITIES:

1  1 
sin  ( A − B ) tan (a − b )
2 = 2 
1  1 
sin  ( A + B ) tan  c 
2  2 

1  1 
sin  (a − b ) tan  ( A − B )
2 = 2 
1  1 
sin  (a + b ) cot  c 
2  2 

1  1 
cos ( A − B ) tan (a + b )
2 = 2 
1  1 
cos ( A + B ) tan  c 
2  2 

1  1 
cos (a − b ) tan ( A + B )
2 = 2 
1  1 
cos (a + b ) cot  c 
2  2 

9.21 ABBREVIATIONS (9.1-9.19)

A=Angle ‘A’

Page 88 of 286
a=side ‘a’
B=Angle ‘B’
b=side ‘b’
B=Angle ‘B’
c=side ‘c’

Page 89 of 286
PART 10: EXPONENTIALS & LOGARITHIMS
10.1 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY:

10.2 IDENTITIES:

10.3 CHANGE OF BASE:

10.4 LAWS FOR LOG TABLES:

Page 90 of 286
10.5 COMPLEX NUMBERS:

10.6 LIMITS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC TERMS

Page 91 of 286
PART 11: COMPLEX NUMBERS
11.1 GENERAL:

Fundamental: i 2 = −1
Standard Form: z = a + bi
Polar Form: z = rcisθ = r (cos θ + i sin θ )

arg( z ) = θ , where tan θ =

b
Argument:
a
Modulus: mod( z ) = r = z = a + bi = a 2 + b 2
Conjugate: z = a − bi
Exponential: z = r ⋅ e iθ
De Moivre’s Formula:
z = rcisθ
 θ + 2kπ  , k=0,1,…,(n-1)
1 1
z = r cis
n n

 n 
Euler’s Identity: e iπ + 1 = 0 (Special Case when n=2)
n −1 2 iπk

∑e
k =0
n
=0 (Generally)

11.2 OPERATIONS:

Addition: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

Subtraction: (a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i.
Multiplication: (a + bi)(c + di) = ac + bci + adi + bdi 2 = (ac - bd) + (bc + ad)i.
Division:
(a + bi) (a + bi)(c - di) ac + bci - adi + bd  ac + bd   bc - ad 
= = = 2 2 
+ 2 2 
i.
(c + di) (c + di)(c - di) (c + di)(c - di) c +d  c +d 
Sum of Squares:

11.3 IDENTITIES:

Exponential:
Logarithmic:

Trigonometric:

Page 92 of 286
Hyperbolic:

Page 93 of 286
PART 12: DIFFERENTIATION
For Differential Equations, see Functions

12.1 GENERAL RULES:

Plus Or Minus:
y = f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ± h( x ) ...
y ' = f ' ( x ) ± g ' ( x ) ± h' ( x ) ...
Product Rule:
y = uv
y ' = u ' v + uv'
Quotient Rule:
u
y=
v
u ' v − uv'
y' =
v2
Power Rule:
y = ( f (x) )
n

y ' = n( f ( x ) )
n −1
× f '(x )
Chain Rule:
dy dy du dv
= × ×
dx du dv dx
Blob Rule:
y=e
f( x )

y ' = f '( x ) ×e
f( x )

Base A Log:
y = log a f ( x )
f '(x )
y' =
f ( x ) × ln (a )
Natural Log:
y = a ln ( f ( x ) )
f '(x )
y' = a ×
f (x )
Exponential (X):
y = kx
y ' = ln k × k x
First Principles:
 f (x+h ) − f ( x ) 
limf '(x ) =
 
h → 0  h 
12.2 EXPONETIAL FUNCTIONS:

Page 94 of 286
12.3 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS:

12.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:

12.5 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS:

Page 95 of 286
12.5 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION:

First Principles:

ie:

Gradient:

Total Differential:

Chain Rule:

Page 96 of 286
Implicit Differentiation:

Page 97 of 286
Therefore,

Higher Order Derivatives:

Page 98 of 286
PART 13: INTEGRATION
13.1 GENERAL RULES:

[ f( ) ] n +1

∫ f '( ) [ f( ) ] dx = n + 1
n
x x
x
+C
Power Rule:
[f ]
a ∫ f '( ) [ f ( ) ] dx = a ( )
n x
n +1

+C
n +1
x x

By Parts: ∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu

f ( x)

Constants: ∫ kdy = kf ( x)
0
13.2 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS:

Page 99 of 286
For

||

13.3 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE):

Page 100 of 286

13.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COSINE):

Page 101 of 286

13.5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (TANGENT):

13.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SECANT):

Page 102 of 286

13.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COTANGENT):

13.8 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE & COSINE):

Page 103 of 286

also:

also:

also:

Page 104 of 286

also:

also:

13.9 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE & TANGENT):

13.10 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COSINE & TANGENT):

13.11 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (SINE & COTANGENT):

13.12 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (COSINE & COTANGENT):

13.13 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCSINE):

Page 105 of 286

13.14 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCCOSINE):

13.15 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCTANGENT):

13.16 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCCOSECANT):

Page 106 of 286

13.17 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCSECANT):

13.18 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (ARCCOTANGENT):

13.19 EXPONETIAL FUNCTIONS

for

Page 107 of 286

 (erf is the Error function)

where

where

when b≠0, λ≠0 and

Page 108 of 286

for , which is the logarithmic mean

(!! is the double factorial)

(I0 is the modified Bessel function of the first kind)

13.20 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Page 109 of 286

Page 110 of 286
13.21 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

Page 111 of 286

13.22 INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

Page 112 of 286

13.23 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTIONS

13.24 SUMMARY TABLE

Page 113 of 286

13.25 SQUARE ROOT PROOFS

Page 114 of 286

∫ a 2 + x 2 dx
x
Let x = a tan θ ∴ dx = a sec 2 θdθ → tan θ =
a
= ∫ a 2 + (a tan θ ) 2 × a sec 2 θdθ

= ∫ a 2 + a 2 tan 2 θ × a sec 2 θdθ

= ∫ a 2 + a 2 (sec 2 θ − 1) × a sec 2 θdθ

= ∫ a 2 + a 2 sec 2 θ − a 2 × a sec 2 θdθ

= ∫ a 2 sec 2 θ × a sec 2 θdθ

= ∫ a secθ × a sec 2 θdθ

= ∫ a 2 sec 3 θ dθ

= a 2 ∫ secθ × sec 2 θ dθ
u = secθ , dv = sec 2 θdθ
du = secθ tan θdθ , v = tan θ
∴ a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ × tan θ − ∫ tan θ × secθ tan θdθ

a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ − ∫ tan 2 θ secθdθ

a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ − ∫ (sec 2 θ − 1) secθdθ

a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ − ∫ sec 3 θ − secθdθ

a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ − ∫ sec 3 θdθ + ∫ secθdθ

2a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ dθ = secθ tan θ + ∫ secθdθ

∫ sec
3 1
θ dθ =
2a 2
(
secθ tan θ + ∫ secθdθ )
∫ sec θ dθ = 2a 2 (secθ tan θ + ln secθ + tan θ ) + C
3 1

1  a2 + x2 s a 2 + x 2 s 
∴ ∫ a 2 + x 2 dx = 2  × + ln + +C
2a  a a a a
 

Page 115 of 286

∫ a 2 − x 2 dx
x
Let x = a sin θ ∴ dx = a cosθdθ → sin θ =
a
= ∫ a 2 − (a sin θ ) × a cosθdθ
2

= ∫ a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ × a cosθdθ

( )
= ∫ a 2 − a 2 1 − cos 2 θ × a cosθdθ

= ∫ a 2 − a 2 + a 2 cos 2 θ × a cosθdθ

= ∫ a 2 cos 2 θ × a cosθdθ

= ∫ a cosθ × a cosθdθ

= ∫ a 2 cos 2 θdθ
= a 2 ∫ cos 2 θdθ
1 + cos(2θ )
= a2 ∫ dθ
2
a2
=
2 ∫1 + cos(2θ )dθ
a2  sin (2θ ) 
=
2 θ + 2  + C
a2  2 sin θ cosθ 
=  θ+  + C
2  2
a2
= [θ + sin θ cosθ ] + C
2
a2  x x a2 − x2 
= arcsin  + × +C
2  a a a 

Page 116 of 286

∫ x 2 − a 2 dx
x
Let x = a secθ ∴ dx = a secθ tan θdθ → secθ =
a
=∫ (a secθ )2 − a 2 × a secθ tan θdθ
= ∫ a 2 sec 2 θ − a 2 × a secθ tan θdθ

( )
= ∫ a 2 1 + tan 2 θ − a 2 × a secθ tan θdθ

= ∫ a 2 + a 2 tan 2 θ − a 2 × a secθ tan θdθ

= ∫ a 2 tan 2 θ × a secθ tan θdθ

= ∫ a tan θ × a secθ tan θdθ

= ∫ a 2 tan 2 θ secθdθ
= a 2 ∫ tan 2 θ secθdθ

( )
= a 2 ∫ sec 2 θ − 1 secθdθ

= a 2 ∫ sec 3 θ − secθdθ
(
= a 2 ∫ sec 3 θdθ − ∫ secθdθ )
 1 
= a 2   2 (secθ tan θ + ln secθ + tan θ ) − (ln secθ + tan θ ) + C

  2a  
= (secθ tan θ + ln secθ + tan θ ) − a 2 (ln secθ + tan θ ) + C
1
2
1 x x2 − a2 x x 2 − a 2  2  x x 2 − a 2 
=  × + ln + − a ln + +C
2a a a a   a a 
   
1 x × x2 − a2 1 x x2 − a2 x x2 − a2
= + ln + − ln + +C
2 a2 2 a a a a

1 x × x2 − a2  1 2 x x2 − a2
= +  − a  ln + +C
2 a2 2  a a

13.26 CARTESIAN APPLICATIONS

b
Area under the curve: A = ∫ f ( x ) dx
a
b
Volume: V =∫A
a

[ ]
b b
Vx = π ∫ [ y ] dx = π ∫ f ( x ) dx
2 2
Volume about x axis:
a a

Page 117 of 286

 d
V y = π ∫ [x ] dy
2
Volume about y axis:
c

Surface Area about x axis: SA = 2π ∫ f ( x ) 1 + ( f '( x ) ) dx

b
2

b 2
 dy 
Length wrt x-ordinates: L=∫ 1 +   dx
a  dx 
2
d
 dx 
Length wrt y-ordinates: L=∫ 1 +   dy (Where the function is continually increasing)
c  dy 
t2 2 2
 dx   dy 
Length parametrically: L= ∫
t1
  +   dt
 dt   dt 

Page 118 of 286

PART 14: FUNCTIONS
14.1 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS:
Odd ± Odd = Odd
Odd ± Even = Neither
Even ± Even = Even
Odd x Odd = Even
Odd / Odd = Odd
Even x Even = Even
Even / Even = Even
Even of Odd = Even
Even of Even = Even
Even of Neither = Neither
Odd of Odd = Odd
Odd of Even = Even
Odd of Neither = Neither

a
If f(x) is odd:
−a
∫ f ( x)dx = 0
a a
If f(x) is even:
−a
∫ f ( x)dx = 2∫ f ( x)dx
0

14.2 MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS:

Limit: lim
( x , y )→( 0 , 0 )
(f )=
( x, y ) lim
( x , mx ) →( 0 , 0 )
(f ( x , mx ) )= lim ( f ( x ,mx ) )
( x )→( 0 )

D( x0 , y0 ) = z xx z yy − (z xy )
2
Discriminant:

Critical Points: z = f ( x, y)
z x = 0
Solve for: 
z y = 0
 If the critical point (x0,y0) is a local maximum, then
D(x0,y0) >= 0

fxx(x0,y0) <= 0 and fyy(x0,y0) <= 0

 If D(x0,y0) > 0, and either
fxx(x0,y0) < 0 or fyy(x0,y0) < 0
then the critical point (x0,y0) is a local maximum.
 If the critical point (x0,y0) is a local minimum, then
D(x0,y0) >= 0

fxx(x0,y0) >= 0 and fyy(x0,y0) >= 0

 If D(x0,y0) > 0, and either
fxx(x0,y0) > 0 or fyy(x0,y0) > 0
then the critical point (x0,y0) is a local minimum.
Page 119 of 286
  If the critical point (x0,y0) is a saddle point, then
D(x0,y0) <= 0
 If
D(x0,y0) < 0,

then the critical point (x0,y0) is a saddle point.

14.3 FIRST ORDER, FIRST DEGREE, DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:

Separable:
dy f ( x)
=
dx g ( y )
g ( y )dy = f ( x)dx

∫ g ( y )dy = ∫ f ( x)dx
Linear:
dy
+ P ( x ) × y = Q ( x)
dx
I ( x) = e ∫
P ( x ) dx

y=
1
I ( x)
(∫ I ( x) × Q( x)dx )
Homogeneous:
f ( λx , λ y ) = f ( x , y )
dy  y
= f ( x, y ) = F  
dx  x
y dy dv
Let v ( x ) = ,∴ =v+ x
x dx dx
dv
∴ v + x = F (v)
dx
dv
x = F (v ) − v
dx
dv dx
=
F (v ) − v x
dv dx
∫ F (v ) − v = ∫ x
Exact:
dy
= f ( x, y ) → M ( x, y )dx + N ( x, y )dy = 0
dx
If: M y = Nx
When: FX = M & FY = N
Page 120 of 286
 Therefore,
F = ∫ M ( x , y ) dx =Φ ( x , y ) + g ( y )
∂
FY = (Φ + g ( y ) ) = Φ Y + g ' ( y ) = N
∂y
∴ g ( y ) = ...
So: F ( x , y ) = Φ ( x, y ) + g ( y ) = C

14.4 SECOND ORDER

d2y dy
a 2
+ b + cy = f ( x)
Where dx dx
ay ' '+by'+cy = f ( x)

Homogeneous:
ay' '+by'+cy = 0
⇒ am 2 + bm + c = 0
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
m=
2a
There are three possible outcomes:
1) m1 , m2 where m1 ≠ m2 ⇒ yh = Ae m1x + Be m2 x
2) m1 ,m2 where m1 = m2 ⇒ y h = ( A + Bx )e m1x
3) m1, 2 = α ± β j ⇒ y h = eαx ( A cos(βx ) + B sin (βx ))

Undetermined Coefficients
Where f ( x) is in the form of
1) A polynomial ⇒ y p = An x n + An−1 x n−1 + A1 x + A0
2) α sin (kx ) ⇒ y p = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx)
3) αe kt ⇒ y p = Ae kt

NB: Multiplication is OK: eg:

f ( x) = 3 x 3 e x
( )(
y p = Ae x Bx 3 + Cx 2 + Dx + E )
yp = (e )(Bx
x 3
+ Cx + Dx + E
2
)
NB: If yp is part of yc, you multiply yp by x

To determine the unknown variables, substitute back into the original equation with
y p , y ' p , y ' ' p and compare the coefficients.

Then,
y = y h + y p1 + y p 2 + y p 3 + ...

Variation of Parameters

Page 121 of 286

y h = c1u1 ( x) + c2 u 2 ( x)
y p = v1 ( x)u1 ( x) + v2 ( x)u 2 ( x)
Where,
− u 2 ( x) f ( x) u ( x ) f ( x) u u2
v1 ' = , v2 ' = 1 ,∆ = 1 = u1u 2 '−u 2u1 '
∆ ∆ u1 ' u 2 '
− u 2 ( x) f ( x) u ( x) f ( x )
∴ v1 = ∫ dx, v2 = ∫ 1 dx
u1u 2 '−u 2u1 ' u1u 2 '−u 2 u1 '

Page 122 of 286

PART 15: MATRICIES
15.1 BASIC PRINICPLES:

Size = i × j , i=row, j=column

[ ]
A = aij

15.2 BASIC OPERTAIONS:

Addition: [
A + B = aij + bij ]
Subtraction: A − B = [a ij −b ]
ij

Scalar Multiple: kA = [ka ] ij

Transpose: [A ] = A
T
ij ji

eg:

( A + B + C + ...)T = AT + B T + C T + ...
( ABCD...)T = ...D T C T B T AT

 b1 
b 
Scalar Product: a • b = [a1 a2 a3 ...] 2 
b3 
 
 ... 
Symmetry: AT = A

Cramer’s Rule:
Ax = B
det( Ai ) where Ai = column i replaced by B
xi =
det( A)

Least Squares Solution

In the form Ax = b , (
x = AT A AT b)−1

For a linear approximation: r0 + r1 x = b

For a quadratic approximation: r0 + r1 x + r2 x 2 = b
Etc.

15.3 SQUARE MATRIX:

Page 123 of 286

Diagonal:

Lower Triangle Matrix:

Upper Triangle Matrix:

15.4 DETERMINATE:

2x2: det (A) = ad − bc

3x3: det (A) = aei + bfg + cdh − afh − bdi − ceg
n n
nxn: det (A) = a11C11 + a12 C12 + a1n C1n = ∑ a1 j C ij = ∑ a1 j Mi1 j × (− 1)(1+ j )
j =1 j =1

Rules:

Page 124 of 286

Page 125 of 286
15.5 INVERSE
−1
a b  1  d − b
2x2: c d  =
  ad − bc − c a 
3x3:
−1
a b c  ei − fh ch − bi bf − ce 
d e 
f =
1  fg − di ai − cg cd − af 
 aei − afh − bdi + bfg + cdh − ceg  
 g h i  dh − eg bg − ah ae − bd 

Minor: Mij = Determinate of Sub matrix which has deleted row i and column j

Page 126 of 286

 a b c
A = d e f 
 g h i 
b c
M 21 = 
h f 

Cij = Mij × (− 1)
(i + j )
Cofactor:

Adjoint Method for Inverse:

adj ( A) = C T
1
A−1 = adj ( A)
det( A)

Left Inverse:
AC = I
(
C = AT A ) −1
AT
(when rows(A)>columns(A))
Right Inverse:
CA = I
C = AT AAT ( )−1

(when rows(A)<columns(A))

15.6 LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Axioms for a linear transformation:

If F (u + v ) = F (u ) + F (v) [Preserves Addition]
And F (λ u ) = λF (u ) [Preserves Scalar Multiplication]

Transition Matrix:
The matrix that represents the linear transformation

Page 127 of 286

 T (v) = c1T (v1 ) + c2T (v2 ) + ... + cnT (vn )
T ( x) = Ax
A = [T (e1 ) | T (e 2 ) | ... | T (e 3 )] (With m columns and n rows)
( T : V → W , dim(V ) = m, dim(W ) = n )

Zero Transformation:
T (v) = 0, ∀vεV
Identity Transformation:
T (v) = v, ∀vεV

15.7 COMMON TRANSITION MATRICIES

Rotation (Clockwise):

Rotation (Anticlockwise):

Scaling:

Shearing (parallel to x-axis):

Shearing (parallel to y-axis):

15.8 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

Definitions: All solutions of Ax = λx

Eigenvalues: All solutions of λ of det(A-λI)=0
Eigenvectors: General solution of [A-λI][X]=0 (ie: the nullspace)
Characteristic Polynomial: The function p (λ ) = det( A − λI )

Algebraic Multiplicity: The number of times a root is repeated for a given

eigenvalue.
∑ of all algebraic multiplicity = degree of the
characteristic polynomial.
Geometric Multiplicity: The number of linearly independent eigenvectors
you get from a given eigenvalue.
Page 128 of 286
 T :V → V
Transformation:
T ( x) = λx
The same process for an ordinary matrix is used.
Linearly Independence: The set of eigenvectors for distinct eigenvalues is
linearly independent.
Digitalization: For a nxn matrix with n distinct eigenvalues; if and
only if there are n Linearly Independent
Eigenvectors:
D = P −1 AP
Where P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ], Pn is an eigenvector.
λ1 0 0 ... 0 
0 λ 0 ... 0 
 2

D=  0 0 λ3 ... 0 
 
 ... ... ... ... 0 
0 0 0 0 λn 


Cayley-Hamilton Theorem: Every matrix satisfies its own polynomial:

P(λ ) = an λn + an−1λn−1 ... + a1λ + a 0 = 0
P(λ ) = an A n + an −1 A n−1... + a1 A + a 0 = 0
Orthonormal Set: The orthonomal basis of a matrix A can be found
with P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ] , the orthonormal set will be
 P P P 
B =  1 , 2 ,... n 
 P1 P2 Pn 
QR Factorisation:
A = [u1 | u 2 | ... | u n ] = QR
dim( A) = n × k , k ≤ n
All columns are Linearly Independent

Q = [v1 | v2 | ... | vn ] by the Gram-Schmidt Process

 q1 T
u 2 v1 u3 v1
T T
u 4 v1 ... u k v1 
T

 T T T 
 0 q2 u 3 v2 u 4 v2 ... u k v2 
 0 0 q3
T
u 4 v3 ... u k v3 
T

R= T 
 0 0 0 q4 ... u k v4 
 ... ... ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 0 0 ... q k 

Page 129 of 286

  q1 u 2 • v1 u 3 • v1 u 4 • v1 ... u k • v1 
 
 0 q2 u3 • v2 u 4 • v2 ... u k • v2 
 0 0 q3 u 4 • v3 ... u k • v3 
R= 
 0 0 0 q4 ... u k • v4 
 ... ... ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 0 0 ... qk 

15.9 JORDAN FORMS

Generalised Diagonlisation:
P −1 AP = J
A = PJP −1

Jordan Block:
λ 1 0 ... 0 0
0 λ 1 ... 0 0 

0 0 λ ... 0 0
JB =  
... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... λ 1
 
 0 0 0 ... 0 λ 

 J1 0 ... 0 
 0 J ... 0 
Jordan Form: J = 2 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 ... J n 
Algebraic Multiplicity: The number of times λ appears on main diagonal
Geometric Multiplicity: The number of times λ appears on main diagonal
without a 1 directly above it
Generalised Chain: = {u m , u m−1 ,..., u 2 , u1 } , where u1 is an eigenvector
u k = ( A − λI )u k +1
u k +1 = [ A − λI | u k ]
P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pm | ...] , for every eigenvector of A

Page 130 of 286

Powers:
A k = PJ k P −1
k
 J1 0 ... 0  J 1k 0 ... 0 
0  
J2 ... 0  0 J2
k
... 0 
J =
k
=
 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
   k
0 0 ... J n   0 0 ... J n 
 k  k  k −1  k  k −2 
λ  λ  λ ...
 1  2 
  k  k −1 
=0 λk  λ
k
JB ...
 1 
0 0 λk ...
 ... ...
 ... ...

15.10 COMPLEX MATRICIS:

Conjugate Transpose:
A∗ = AT
∗
A∗ = A
( A + B )∗ = A∗ + B ∗
(zA)∗ = z A∗
( AB )∗ = B ∗ A∗
Hermitian Matrix: (Similar to Symmetric Matricis in the real case)
A square matrix such that A*=A
Eigenvalues of A are purely real
Eigenvectors from distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal. This leads to a unitary
digitalisation of the Hermitian matrix.
These are normal

Skew-Hermitian:
A square matrix such that A*=-A
Eigenvalues of A are purely imaginary
Eigenvectors from distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.
If A is Skew-Hermitian, iA is normal as: (iA) = i A = (− i )(− A) = iA
∗ ∗

These are normal

Unitary Matrix: (Similar to Orthogonal Matricis in the real case)

A square matrix such that A*A=I
Columns of A form an orthonormal set of vectors
Rows of A from an orthonormal set of vectors

Normal Matrix:
∗ ∗
Where AA = A A
These will have unitary diagonalisation
∗
All Hermition and Skew-Hermitian matricis are normal ( A A = AA = AA∗ )

Page 131 of 286

Diagonalisation:
For a nxn matrix with n distinct eigenvalues; if and only if there are n Linearly
Independent Eigenvectors:
D = P −1 AP
Where P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ], Pn is an eigenvector.
λ1 0 0 0
...
0 λ 0 ... 0 
 2

D=0 0 λ3 ... 0 
 
 ... ... ... ... 0 
0 0 0 0 λn 

−1 ∗
If A is Hermitian, D = P AP = P AP as P are an orthonormal set of vectors.

Spectral Theorem:
For a nxn Normal matrix and eigenvectors form an orthonormal set
P = [P1 | P2 | ... | Pn ]
A = λ1P1 P1 + λ2 P2 P2 + ... + λn Pn Pn
* * *

Therefore, A can be represented as a sum of n matricis, all of rank 1.

Therefore, A can be approximated as a sum of the dominant eigenvalues

15.11 NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS:

Rayleigh Quotient:

if (λ;v) is an eigenvalue/eigenvector pair of A, then

Page 132 of 286

Power method:
If A is a nxn matrix with Linearly Independent Eigenvectors, and distinct eigenvectors
arranged such that: λ1 ≥ λ2 ≥ ... ≥ λn and the set of eigenvectors are: {v1 , v2 ,..., vn }
Any vector “w” can be written as:
w0 = c1v1 + c2 v2 + ... + cn vn
w1 = Aw0 = c1 Av1 + c2 Av2 + ... + cn Avn = c1λ1v1 + c2 λ2v2 + ... + cn λn vn

Page 133 of 286

   λ2 
s
 λn  
s
s s s 
ws = Aws −1 = c1λ1 v1 + c2 λ2 v2 + ... + cn λn vn = λ1 c1v1 + c2   v2 + ... + cn   vn
  λ1   λ1  

λi   λ s 
As < 1 , lim  i   = 0
λ1 s →∞  λ 
 1  
∴ ws → c1λ1 v1
s

Appling this with the Rayleigh Quotient:

1
w  0
ws = A s −1 , λ = R( ws ), w0 can be any vector usually
  
 ws −1  ...

Page 134 of 286

PART 16: VECTORS
16.1 Basic Operations:
 a1 + b1 
Addition: a + b = a 2 + b2 
 a3 + b3 
 a1 − b1 
Subtraction: a − b = a 2 − b2 
 a3 − b3 
Equality: a = b ⇔ a1 = b1 , a 2 = b2 , a3 = b3
k a + lb = λ a + µb ⇒ k = λ, l = µ
 ka1 
Scalar Multiplication: k a =  ka 2 
 ka 3 
Parallel: a = kb ⇔ a b

Magnitude: a = (a1 )2 + (a 2 )2 + (a 3 )2
^
a
Unit Vector: a= a

Zero Vector: A vector with no magnitude and no specific direction

Dot Product: a • b = a ⋅ b ⋅ cos θ

a • b = a 1 b1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3

a•b
Angle Between two Vectors: cos θ =
a⋅b
a 1 b1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3
cos θ =
 a 2 + a 2 + a 3  ⋅  b1 + b 2 + b 3 
2 2 2 2 2

 1   

 a1 
 
 a   cos(α ) 
a 
a =  2  = cos( β ) 
^
Angle of a vector in 3D:
a
   cos(γ ) 
 3
a
a
 

Perpendicular Test: a•b = 0

Page 135 of 286

 ^
Scalar Projection: a onto b: P = a • b

 ^^
a onto b: P =  a • b  b = 2 (a • b )b
1
Vector Projection:
  b

Cross Product: a × b = a 2 b3 − a 3 b 2 , a 3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b 2 − a 2 b1
a × b = a ⋅ b ⋅ sin θ ⋅ n
a × b = a ⋅ b ⋅ sin θ
a × b = −b × a
a ⋅ (b × c ) = b ⋅ (c × a ) = c ⋅ (a × b )
i j k
 a a3    a a    a a  
a × b = det a1 a2 a3  = i det  2
 − j  det  1 3   + k  det  1 2  
 b2 b3    b1 b3    b1 b2  
b1 b2 b3 

16.2 Lines
r = a + λb , where a is a point on the line, and b is
a vector parallel to the line
x = a1 + λb1
y = a 2 + λb2
z = a3 + λb3
x − a1 y − a 2 z − a3
λ= = =
b1 b2 b3

16.3 Planes
n • AR = 0
n•r = n•a
n•r = k
Where: n = a, b, c & r = x, y, z : ax + by + cz = k

16.4 Closest Approach

Two Points: d = PQ

^
Point and Line: d = PQ × a

^
Point and Plane: d = PQ • n

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 d = PQ • n = PQ • (a × b )
^
Two Skew Lines:

[r b (t ) − r a (t )] • [v b − v a ] = 0
Solving for t:
[ a r b (t )] • [ a v b ] = 0
16.5 Geometry

AB × AC
Area of a Triangle: A=
2
Area of a Parallelogram: A = AB × AC
Area of a Parallelepiped: A = AD • ( AB × AC )

16.6 Space Curves

Where: r (t ) = x(t )i + y (t ) j + z (t )k

Velocity: v (t ) = r ' (t ) = x ' (t )i + y ' (t ) j + z ' (t )k

Acceleration: a(t ) = v ' (t ) = r ' ' (t ) = x' ' (t )i + y ' ' (t ) j + z ' ' (t )k

Definition of “s”:

The length of the curve from r to r+∆r

dr r ' (t )
T= =
Unit Tangent: ds r ' (t )
T =1

dr dr ds
Chain Rule: = ×
dt ds dt

Page 137 of 286

 dr dr ds
As = 1, = =speed
ds dt dt

Normal:
T •T =1
d
(T • T ) = 0
ds
dT dT
•T + T • =0
ds ds
dT
2T • =0
ds
dT
T• =0
ds
dT
As T is tangent to the curve, is normal
ds
 dT 
 
 ds 
N=
dT
ds

dT dT
Curvature: = N = κN
ds ds
dT r ' (t ) × r ' ' (t ) v(t ) × a (t )
∴κ = = 3
= 3
ds r ' (t ) v(t )

Unit Binomial: B =T × N

dB
Tortion: τ=
ds

16.7 Vector Space

16.8 ABBREVIATIONS
λ = a scalar value
µ = a scalar value
θ = the angle between the vectors
a = a vector
b = a vector
k = a scalar value
l = a scalar value
n = the normal vector
r = the resultant vector
Page 138 of 286
Page 139 of 286
PART 17: SERIES
17.1 MISCELLANEOUS

n
General Form: S n = a1 + a2 + a2 + a4 + ... + an = ∑ an
n =1
∞
Infinite Form: S ∞ = a1 + a2 + a2 + a4 + ... = ∑ an
n =1
i
Partial Sum of a Series: Si = a1 + a2 + a2 + a4 + ... + ai = ∑ an
n =1

17.2 TEST FOR CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

Test For Convergence: lim (S ) = L , if L exists, it is convergent

n→ ∞
n

Test For Divergence: lim (a ) ≠ 0

n →∞
n

Geometric Series
∞  Divergent , r ≥ 1
∑ ar n −1

n=1 Convergent, r < 1

P Series
∞
1  Divergent , p ≤ 1
∑x p
n=1 Convergent, p > 1

The Sandwich Theorem

If there is a positive series so that an ≤ bn ≤ cn
If lim (a ) = lim (c ) = L , then, lim (b ) = L
n→∞
n
n→∞
n
n→∞
n

Hence, if an & cn are convergent, bn must also be convergent

The Integral Test

If an = f ( x ) if f ( x ) is continuous, positive and decreasing

If S ∞ or ∫ 1
f ( x ) is true, then the other is true

1 1
an = = f ( n) = = f ( x )
n x
Eg: ∞ ∞
∴ ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ dx = [ln x ]1 = D.N .E.
1 ∞

1 1
x
∴ an is divergent

The Direct Comparison Test

If we want to test an , and know the behaviour of bn , where an is a series with only non-negative terms

Page 140 of 286

 If bn is convergent and an ≤ bn , then an is also convergent

The Limit Comparison Test

∞
 an  ∞
If there is a convergent series
n =1
∑ cn , then if
lim 
  
n→∞  c n 
< ∞ , then ∑
n =1
an converges

∞
a  ∞
If there is a divergent series ∑ d n , then if lim  n  > 0 , then ∑ an diverges
n=1 n→∞  d n  n =1

D’almbert’s Ratio Comparison Test

FOR POSITIVE TERMS:
 an+1 
Converges: lim   <1
n→∞ an 
 an+1 
Diverges: lim   >1
n→∞ an 
 an+1 
Not enough information: lim   =1
n→∞ an 

The nth Root Test

∞
For ∑a
n =1
n where an ≥ 0 , then if lim
n→∞
n an ,

Converges: lim n an < 1

n→∞

Diverges: lim n an > 1

n→∞

Not enough information: lim n an = 1

n→∞
Abel’s Test:
∞ ∞
If ∑a
n =1
n is positive and decreasing, and ∑c
n =1
n is a convergent series.

∞
Then ∑a
n =1
n × cn Converges

Negative Terms
∞ ∞
If ∑ an converges, then
n =1
∑a
n =1
n is said to be absolutely convergent

Alternating Series Test

∞ ∞
This is the only test for an alternating series in the form ∑ an = ∑ (−1) n × bn
n=1 n=1

Let bn be the sequence of positive numbers. If bn+1 < bn and lim b n = 0 , then the
n→∞
series is convergent.

Alternating Series Error

Rn = S − sn ≤ bn+1 , where Rn is the error of the partial sum to the nth term.

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17.3 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION:

Definition: a, a + d , a + 2d , a + 3d ,...
Nth Term: = a + d (n − 1)
n

∑a=1a = 2 (2a + d (n − 1))

n
Sum Of The First N Terms:

17.4 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION:

Definition: a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,...
Nth Term: = ar n−1
Sum Of The First N Terms: Sn = ∑ a =
n
(
a 1− rn )
a =1 1− r

Sum To Infinity: S ∞ = lim 

(
 a 1− rn )  = a
(given r < 1 )

n →∞  1 − r  1− r
P, A, Q,...
A Q
Geometric Mean: = r, = r
P A
A Q
∴ = ⇒ A 2 = PQ ⇒ A = PQ
P A

17.5 SUMMATION SERIES

n
n(n + 1)
Linear: 1+2+3+4+… ∑a =
a =1 2
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Quadratic: 12+22+32+42+… ∑a =a1 2 = 6
 n(n + 1) 
n 2

∑a=a1 =  2 
3 3 3 3 3
Cubic: 1 +2 +3 +4 +…

17.6 APPROXIMATION SERIES

Taylor Series
∞ ∞
f ( n) ( x0 )
f ( x ) = ∑ a n ( x − x0 ) n = ∑ ( x − x0 ) n = a 0 + a1 ( x − x0 ) + a 2 ( x − x0 ) 2 + a3 ( x − x0 ) 3 + ...
n=0 n=0 n!

f ( n ) ( x0 )
where, a n =
n!

Maclaurun Series
Special case of the Taylor Series where x0 = 0

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Linear Approximation:
1
1
f (n)( x 0 )
f ( x ) ≈ L( x ) = ∑ an ( x − x0 ) n = ∑ ( x − x0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( x − x0 )
n =0 n!
n =0

Quadratic Approximation:
2
2
f (n)( x 0 )
f ( x ) ≈ Q( x ) = ∑ an ( x − x0 ) n = ∑ ( x − x0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( x − x0 ) + a2 ( x − x0 ) 2
n =0 n!
n=0

Cubic Approximation:
3
3
f ( n ) ( x0 )
f ( x ) ≈ C( x ) = ∑ an ( x − x0 ) = ∑
n
( x − x0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( x − x0 ) + a2 ( x − x0 ) 2 + a3 ( x − x0 ) 3
n =0 n!
n =0

17.7 MONOTONE SERIES

an+1
Strictly Increasing: an+1 > an >1
an
Non-Decreasing: an+1 ≥ an
an+1
Strictly Decreasing: an+1 < an <1
an
Non-Increasing: an+1 ≤ an
Convergence: A monotone sequence is convergent if it is bounded, and hence the
limit exists when an → ∞

17.8 RIEMANN ZETA FUNCTION

∞
ζ (n ) = ∑
1
Form: n
k =1 k

Euler’s Table:
n=2 ∞
π2
ζ (2 ) = ∑
1 1 1
2
= 1 + + + ... =
k =1 k 4 9 6
n=4 ∞
π4
ζ (4 ) = ∑
1 1 1 1
4
= 1 + + + + ... =
k =1 k 16 81 256 90
n=6 ∞
π6
ζ (6 ) = ∑
1 1 1 1
6
= 1 + + + + ... =
k =1 k 64 729 4096 945
n=8 π8
ζ (8) =
9450
n=10 π 10
ζ (10) =
93555

Page 143 of 286

 n=12 691π 12
ζ (12) =
638512875
n=14 2π 14
ζ (14) =
18243225
n=16 3617π 16
ζ (16) =
325641566250
n=18 43867π 18
ζ (18) =
38979295480125
n=20 174611π 20
ζ (20 ) =
1531329465290625
n=22 155366π 22
ζ (22 ) =
13447856940643125
n=24 236364091π 24
ζ (24) =
201919571963756521875
n=26 1315862π 26
ζ (26) =
11094481976030578125

Alternating Series:

Proof for n=2:

x3 x5 x7
Taylor Series Expansion: sin( x) = x − + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
sin( x) = x( x − π )( x + π )( x − 2π )( x + 2π )...
Polynomial Expansion: ( )( )(
sin( x) = x x 2 − π 2 x 2 − 4π 2 x 2 − 9π 2 ... )
 x  2
x  2
x2 
sin( x) = Ax1 − 2 1 − 2 2 1 − 2 2 ...
 π  2 π  3 π 

Page 144 of 286

  sin( x) 
lim  =1= A
x →0
 x 
x3 x5 x7  x 2  x 2  x2 
x− + − + ... = x1 − 2 1 − 2 2 1 − 2 2 ..
3! 5! 7!  π  2 π  3 π 
1 1 1 1 1
− = − 2 − 2 2 − 2 2 − 2 2 ...
3! π 2 π 3π 4 π
Comparing the Coefficient of x3:
π 2
1 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 ...
6 2 3 4

17.9 SUMMATIONS OF POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSIONS

(Harmonic number)

where denotes a
Bernoulli number

17.10 SUMMATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTIAL TERMS

Where x ≠1

(m < n)

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 (geometric series starting at 1)

(special case when x = 2)

(special case when x = 1/2)

where is the Touchard polynomials.

17.11 SUMMATIONS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC TERMS

Page 146 of 286

 [

Page 147 of 286

17.12 INFINITE SUMMATIONS TO PI

17.13 LIMITS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC TERMS

ABBREVIATIONS
a = the first term
d = A.P. difference
r = G.P. ratio

17.14 POWER SERIES EXPANSION

Exponential:

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Trigonometric:

Page 149 of 286

Page 150 of 286
Exponential and Logarithm Series:

x −1
, y=
x +1

Page 151 of 286

Fourier Series:
a0 ∞
fW ( x ) = + ∑ a k cos(kx) + bk sin(kx)
2 k =1
a
fW ( x) = 0 + a1 cos( x) + a2 cos(2 x) + ... + a n cos(nx) + b1 sin( x) + b2 sin(2 x) + ... + bn sin(nx)
2
2π
1
ak =
π ∫ f ( x) cos(kx)dx
0
k = 0,1,2,..., n

2π
1
bk =
π ∫ f ( x) sin(kx)dx
0
k = 1,2,..., n

17.15 Bernoulli Expansion:

Fundamentally:
 A polynomial in n(n + 1) k odd
1k + 2 k + 3k + ... + n k = 
(2n + 1) x A polynomial in n(n + 1) k even

Page 152 of 286

 Expansions:
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n(n + 1)
2
1 1
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n 2 + n
2 2
1  2  2 
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =    B0 n 2 +   B1n 
2 0 1 

12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2 = (2n + 1) n(n + 1)

1
6
1 1 1
12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2 = n 3 + n 2 + n
3 2 6
1  3  3  3 
12 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2 =    B0 n 3 +   B1n 2 +   B2 n 
3 0 1  2 

13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n )
2

13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 =
1
(n(n + 1))2
4
1 1 1
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = n 4 + n 3 + n 2
4 2 4
1  4 4  4  4 
13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 =    B0 n 4 +   B1n 3 +   B2 n 2 +   B3 n 
4  0 1  2  3 

14 + 2 4 + 34 + ... + n 4 = (2n + 1) n(n + 1)(3n(n + 1) − 1)

1
30
1 1 1 1
14 + 2 4 + 34 + ... + n 4 = n 5 + n 4 + n 3 − n
5 2 3 30
1  5  5 5 5 5 
14 + 2 4 + 34 + ... + n 4 =    B0 n 5 +   B1n 4 +   B2 n 3 +   B3 n 2 +   B4 n 
5  0 1  2  3  4 

1   k + 1  k + 1 k +1−1  k + 1  k + 1  k + 1 
1k + 2 k + 3k + ... + n k =  
  B0 n k +1 +   B1n +   B2 n k +1−2 + ... +   Bk −1n 2 +   Bk n 
k +1 0   1   2   k − 1  k  

List of Bernoulli Numbers:

n B(n)
0 1
1
1 −
2
1
2
6
3 0

Page 153 of 286

 1
4 −
30
5 0
1
6
42
7 0
1
8 −
30
9 0
5
10
66
11 0
691
12 −
2730
13 0
7
14
6
15 0
3617
16 −
510
17 0
43867
18
798
19 0
174611
20 −
330

Page 154 of 286

PART 18: ELECTRICAL
18.1 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY

Charge: q = 6.24 ×1018 Coulombs

dq
Current: I=
dt
ρl
Resistance: R=
A
Ohm’s Law: V = IR
V2
Power: P = VI = I 2 R =
R
Conservation of Power: ∑ PCONSUMED = ∑ PDELIVERED
t
Electrical Energy: W = P × t = I 2 × R × t = ∫ Pdt
0
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law: The sum of the volt drops around a close loop is equal to zero.
∑V = 0
Kirchoff’s Current Law: The sum of the currents entering any junction is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.
∑I IN = ∑ I OUT
T
1
Average Current: I AVE = ∫ I (t )dt
T0
1
I AVE = × Area (under I(t))
T
T
1
(I (t ))2 dt
T ∫0
RMS Current:

∆ to Y Conversion:

Page 155 of 286

 R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
RA =
R1
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
RB =
R2
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
RC =
R3

18.2 COMPONENTS

Resistance in Series: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

1 1 1 1
Resistance in Parallel: = + + + ...
RT R1 R2 R3
Inductive Impedance: X L = jωL = j 2πfL
1 1
Capacitor Impedance: XC = − j =−j
ωC 2πfC
1 1 1 1
Capacitance in Series: = + + + ...
CT C1 C2 C3
Capacitance in Parallel: CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

Voltage, Current & Power Summary:

18.3 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Thevenin’s Theorem:
VTH = Open Circuit Voltage between a & b

Page 156 of 286

 RTH = Short Circuit any voltage source and Open Circuit any current source and calculate RTH as the
resistance from a & b. With dependant sources, SC terminals a & b and calculate the current in the wire
VTH
( I SC ). RTH =
I SC

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: PMAX =

(VTH )2 , where R = RTH
L
4 RTH

18.4 FIRST ORDER RC CIRCUIT

18.5 FIRST ORDER RL CIRCUIT

18.6 SECOND ORDER RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

Calculation using KVL:

− VS + VR + VL + VC = 0
V R + V L + VC = V S
di
Ri + L + VC = V S
di
Circuit current:
dVC
i = iC = C
dt
di d 2VC
∴ =C
dt dt 2
dV d 2VC
∴ RC C + LC + VC = VS
dt dt 2
d 2VC dV
LC 2
+ RC C + VC = VS
dt dt
2
d VC R dVC 1 V
2
+ + VC = S
dt L dt LC LC
Important Variables
s 2 + 2αs + ω0 = 0
2
Standard Format:

Page 157 of 286

 1R
Damping Factor: α=  
2 L
dV
Natural Frequency: s= c
dt
 1 
Undamped Natural Frequency: ω0 =  
 LC 
Damping Frequency: ωd = ω0 2 − α 2
∆ = α 2 − ω0
2
Mode Delta:
VC: VC (t ) = TRANSIENT +FINAL
Solving:
R 1
s2 + s+ =0
L LC
s = −α ± α 2 − ω0 = −α ± ∆
2

Mode 1:
If: ∆ > 0 , then :
s = −α ± ∆
V C ( t ) = TRANSIENT + FINAL
TRANSIENT = Ae s1t + Be s 2 t
FINAL = V C ( ∝ ) = V S
V C ( t ) = Ae s1t + Be s 2 t + V S
Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 − ) = V0
∴ A + B + VS = V0 → A + B = V0 − VS
dVc
= As1e s1t + Bs2 e s2t
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 − ) I 0
= = = = = As1 + Bs2
dt C C C C
V0 − VS = A + B 

∴ I0
= As1 + Bs2 
C 

Mode 2:
If: ∆ = 0 , then :
s = −α
VC (t ) = TRANSIENT + FINAL
TRANSIENT = ( A + Bt )e st = ( A + Bt )e −αt
FINAL = VC (∝) = VS
VC (t ) = ( A + Bt )e −αt + VS
Finding A & B:

Page 158 of 286

 VC (0 + ) = VC (0 − ) = V0
∴ A + VS = V0 → A = V0 − VS

= ( A + Bt )se st + Be st
dVc
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 − ) I 0
= = = = = As + B
dt C C C C
V0 − VS = A 

∴ I0
= As + B 
C 

Mode 3:
∆ < 0 , and letting ωd = ω0 − α 2 , then :
2
If:
s = −α ± jωd
VC (t ) = TRANSIENT + FINAL
TRANSIENT = ( A cos(ω d t ) + B sin(ω d t ) )e −αt
FINAL = VC (∝) = VS
VC (t ) = ( A cos(ω d t ) + B sin(ω d t ) )e −αt + VS
Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 − ) = V0
∴ A + VS = V0 → A = V0 − VS

= (− Aωd sin(ωd t ) + Bωd cos(ωd t ) )e −αt − α ( A cos(ωd t ) + B sin(ωd t ) )e −αt

dVc
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 − ) I 0
= = = = = Bωd − αA
dt C C C C
V0 − VS = A 

∴ I0
= Bωd − αA
C 

Mode 4:
If: R = 0 , then :
α = 0, ωd = ω0
s = ± jωd = ± jω0
VC (t ) = TRANSIENT + FINAL
TRANSIENT = A cos(ωd t ) + B sin(ωd t )
FINAL = VC (∝) = VS
VC (t ) = A cos(ωd t ) + B sin(ωd t ) + VS

Page 159 of 286

Finding A & B:
VC (0 + ) = VC (0 − ) = V0
∴ A + VS = V0 → A = V0 − VS
dVc
= − Aωd sin(ωd t ) + Bωd cos(ωd t )
dt
dVC (0 + ) iC (0 + ) iL (0 + ) iL (0 − ) I 0
= = = = = Bωd
dt C C C C
V0 − VS = A

∴ I0
= Bωd 
C 
Current through Inductor:
dV
iL = iC = C C
dt
Plotting Modes:
Mode 1: Over Damped

Mode 2: Critically Damped

Mode 3: Sinusoidal Damped

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 Mode 4: Not Damped
(Oscillates indefinitely)

18.7 SECOND ORDER RLC PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Calculation using KCL:

i S = i R + i L + iC
V dV
iS = + iL + C
R dt
Node Voltage:
diL
VL = L =V
dt
dV d 2i
= L 2L
dt dt
L diL d 2i
∴ iS = + iL + LC 2L
R dt dt
2
d i L diL
LC 2L + + iL = iS
dt R dt
d 2 iL 1 diL 1 1
2
+ + iL = iS
dt RC dt LC LC
Important Variables
s 2 + 2αs + ω0 = 0
2
Standard Format:
1 1 
Damping Factor: α=  
2  RC 
 1 
Undamped Natural Frequency: ω0 =  
 LC 
Damping Frequency: ωd = ω0 2 − α 2
∆ = α 2 − ω0
2
Mode Delta:

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Solving:
1 1
s2 + s+ =0
RC LC
s = −α ± α 2 − ω 0 = −α ± ∆
2

18.8 LAPLANCE TRANSFORMATIONS

Identities:

Page 162 of 286

Properties:

Page 163 of 286

18.9 THREE PHASE – Y

Line Voltage: VLINE = VPHASE × 3

V
Phase Voltage: VPHASE = LINE
3
Line Current: I LINE = I PHASE
Phase Current: I PHASE = I LINE
S = 3 × VLINE × I LINE
Power:
S = 3 × VPHASE × I PHASE

18.10 THREE PHASE – DELTA

Line Voltage: VLINE = VPHASE

Phase Voltage: VPHASE = VLINE
Line Current: I LINE = I PHASE × 3
I
Phase Current: I PHASE = LINE
3
S = 3 × VLINE × I LINE
Power:
S = 3 × VPHASE × I PHASE

18.11 POWER

Instantaneous: P(t ) = V (t ) × I (t )

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Average:
T
VMAX I MAX cos(θV − θ I ) = VRMS I RMS cos(θV − θ I )
1 1
T ∫0
= P (t ) dt =
2
2
V
Maximum Power: PMAX = TH where Z L = Z TH
8RTH
= I RMS R
2
Total Power:
Complex Power:
S = VRMS I RMS
S = I RMS Z
2

S = P + jQ
where P = Average or Active Power (W) [positive = load, negative = generator]
where Q = Reactive Power (VAr) [positive = inductive, negative = capacitive]

18.12 Electromagnetics

Definitions:
Magnetic Flux Φ Strength of magnetic field Wb
Reluctance ℜ Relative difficulty for flux to establish A-t/Wb
Permeability µ Relative ease for flux to establish H/m
Magnetomotive Force ℑ Ability of coil to produce flux A-t
Flux density B Flux per unit area Wb/m2 or T
Magnetic Field Intensity H MMF per unit length A-t/m

Permeability of free space: µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 Hm −1

ℑ NI
Magnetic Field Intensity: H= =
l l
1
Reluctance: ℜ=
µA
ℑ
Ohm’s Law: Φ= OR ℑ = NI
ℜ
Magnetic Force on a conductor: F = BIl
Φ − Φ1
EMF = − N 2
Electromagnetic Induction: t
EMF = Bvl
Magnetic Flux: Φ = BA
F V
Electric Field: E= =
q d
Magnetic force on a particle: F = qvB

Page 165 of 286

PART 19: GRAPH THEORY
19.1 Fundamental Explanations

List of vertices:
V = {v1 , v2 , v3 ,...}
List of edges:
E = {e1 , e2 , e3 ,...}
Subgaphs:
Any subgraph H such that
V ( H ) ⊂ V (G ) & E ( H ) ⊂ E (G )
Any subgraph H where V ( H ) = V (G ) , there are no cycles
and all verticies are connected.

Degree of vertex:
Number of edges leaving a vertex
∑ d (v) = 2 E (G )
v∈V ( G )

Distance: d (u , v) =Shortest path between u & v

Diameter: diam(G ) = max {d (u , v)}
u & v∈V ( G )

Total Edges in a simple bipartite graph:

V ( X ) V (Y )
E (G ) =
2
∑ d ( x) = ∑ d ( y )
x∈X y∈Y

Total Edges in K-regular graph:

k (k − 1)
E (G ) =
2
19.2 Factorisation:

1 Factorisation:
A spanning union of 1 Factors and only exists if there are an
even number of vertices.
1 Factors of a K n ,n bipartite graph:
F1 = [11' ,22' ,33' ,...]
F2 = [12' ,23' ,34' ,...]
F3 = [13' ,24' ,35'...]
Fn = ...
where all numbers are MOD(n)
1 Factors of a K 2 n graph:
F0 = {(1, ∞), (2,0), (3,2n − 2),..., (n, n + 1)}
Fi = {(i, ∞), (i + 1,2n − 2 + 1),..., (i + n − 1, i + n}
F2 n− 2 = ...
Where all numbers are MOD(2n-1)
19.3 Vertex Colouring

Page 166 of 286

Chromatic Number:
χ (G ) ≥ 3 if there are triangles or an odd cycle
χ (G ) ≥ 2 if is an even cycle
χ (G ) ≥ n if is K n is a subgraph of G
Union/Intersection:
G = G1 ∪ G2 and G1 ∩ G2 = K m , then
If
P(G1 , λ ) P(G2 , λ )
P(G, λ ) =
P( K m , λ )
Edge Contraction:
P(G , λ ) = P(G − e, λ ) − P (G.e, λ )
Common Chromatic Polynomials:
P(Tn , λ ) = λ (λ − 1) n−1
P(C n , λ ) = (λ − 1) n + (−1) n (λ − 1)
P( K n , λ ) = λ (λ − 1)(λ − 2)...(λ − n + 1)

Where the highest power is the number of vertices

Where the lowest power is the number of
components

Where the the coefficient of the 2nd highest power is
the number of edges.
19.4 Edge Colouring:

Common Chromatic Polynomials:

χ ' (G ) ≥ ∆(G )
χ ' ( K n ,n ) = n
χ ' (C2 n ) = 2
χ ' (C2 n+1 ) = 3
χ ' ( K 2 n ) = 2n − 1
χ ' ( K 2 n +1 ) = 2n + 1

Page 167 of 286

PART 99: CONVERSIONS
99.1 LENGTH:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

−10
ångström Å ≡ 1 × 10 m = 0.1 nm
astronomical unit AU ≈ Distance from Earth to Sun ≈ 149 597 871 464 m
≡ ⅓ in (see note above about
barleycorn (H) = 8.46 × 10−3 m
rounding)
≈ 5.291 772
bohr, atomic unit
a0 ≡ Bohr radius of hydrogen 0859 × 10−11 ±
of length
3.6 × 10−20 m
cable length
≡ 608 ft = 185.3184 m
(Imperial)
cable length
≡ 1/10 nmi = 185.2 m
(International)
cable length
≡ 720 ft = 219.456 m
(U.S.)
chain (Gunter's;
ch ≡ 66 ft ≡ 4 rods = 20.1168 m
Surveyor's)
≡ Distance from fingers to elbow
cubit (H) ≈ 0.5 m
≈ 18in
ell (H) ell ≡ 45 in = 1.143 m
fathom fm ≡ 6 ft = 1.8288 m
fermi fm ≡ 1 × 10 −15
m = 1 × 10−15 m
finger ≡ 7/8 in = 0.022 225 m
finger (cloth) ≡ 4½ in = 0.1143 m
foot (Benoît) (H) ft (Ben) ≈ 0.304 799 735 m
foot (Clarke's;
ft (Cla) ≈ 0.304 797 2654 m
Cape) (H)
foot (Indian) (H) ft Ind ≈ 0.304 799 514 m
foot
ft ≡ ⅓ yd = 12 inches = 0.3048 m
(International)
foot (Sear's) (H) ft (Sear) ≈ 0.304 799 47 m
foot (U.S.
ft (US) ≡ 1 200/3 937 m ≈ 0.304 800 610 m
Survey)
french; charriere F ≡ ⅓ mm = 3.3 × 10−4 m
furlong fur ≡ 10 chains = 660 ft = 220 yd = 201.168 m
hand ≡ 4 in = 0.1016 m
inch in ≡ 1/36 yd = 1/12 ft = 0.0254 m
league (land) lea ≡ 3 US Statute miles = 4 828.032 m
light-day ≡ 24 light-hours = 2.590 206 837
Page 263 of 286
 12 × 1013 m
= 1.079 252
light-hour ≡ 60 light-minutes
8488 × 1012 m
= 1.798 754
light-minute ≡ 60 light-seconds
748 × 1010 m
≡ Distance light travels in one
light-second = 299 792 458 m
second in vacuum
≡ Distance light travels in = 9.460 730 472
light-year l.y.
vacuum in 365.25 days 5808 × 1015 m
line ln ≡ 1/12 in = 0.002 116 m
link (Gunter's;
lnk ≡ 1/100 ch = 0.201 168 m
Surveyor's)
link (Ramsden's;
lnk ≡ 1 ft = 0.3048 m
Engineer's)
metre (SI base ≡ Distance light travels in 1/299
m =1m
unit) 792 458 of a second in vacuum.
mickey ≡ 1/200 in = 1.27 × 10−4 m
micron µ ≡ 1 × 10−6 m
mil; thou mil ≡ 1 × 10−3 in = 2.54 × 10−5 m
mil (Sweden and
mil ≡ 10 km = 10 000 m
Norway)
mile mi ≡ 1 760 yd = 5 280 ft = 80 chains = 1 609.344 m
mile
(geographical) ≡ 6 082 ft = 1 853.7936 m
(H)
mile (telegraph)
mi ≡ 6 087 ft = 1 855.3176 m
(H)
mile (U.S. = 5 280 × 1 200/3 937
mi ≡ 5 280 ft (US Survey feet)
Survey) m ≈ 1 609.347 219 m
nail (cloth) ≡ 2¼ in = 0.057 15 m
nautical league NL; nl ≡ 3 nmi = 5 556 m
nautical mile NM (Adm);
≡ 6 080 ft ≡ 1 853.184 m
(Admiralty) nmi (Adm)
nautical mile
NM; nmi ≡ 1 852 m = 1 852 m
(international)
pace ≡ 2.5 ft = 0.762 m
palm ≡ 3 in = 0.0762 m
Distance of star with parallax
≈ 3.085 677 82 × 1016
parsec pc shift of one arc second from a
± 6 × 106 m
base of one astronomical unit
Dependent on point
pica ≡ 12 points
measures.

Page 264 of 286

point (American,
pt ≡ 1/72.272 in ≈ 0.000 351 450 m
English)
≡ 1/12 × 1/72 of pied du roi; ≈ 0.000 375 97 m;
point (Didot;
pt
European) After 1878: After 1878:
≡ 5/133 cm ≈ 0.000 375 939 85 m
point (PostScript)
[11] pt ≡ 1/72 in = 0.000 352 7 m

point (TeX) pt ≡ 1/72.27 in = 0.000 351 4598 m

quarter ≡ ¼ yd = 0.2286 m
rod; pole; perch
rd ≡ 16½ ft = 5.0292 m
(H)
rope (H) rope ≡ 20 ft = 6.096 m
span (H) ≡ 9 in = 0.2286 m
spat ≡ 1 × 1012 m
stick (H) ≡ 2 in = 0.0508 m
stigma; bicron
pm ≡ 1 × 10−12 m
(picometre)
twip twp ≡ 1/1 440 in = 1.7638 × 10−5 m
x unit; siegbahn xu ≈ 1.0021 × 10−13 m
yard
yd ≡ 0.9144 m ≡ 3 ft ≡ 36 in ≡ 0.9144 m
(International)

99.2 AREA:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

≡ 1 ch × 10 ch = 4 840
acre (international) ac = 4 046.856 4224 m2
sq yd
≡ 10 sq ch = 4 840 sq
acre (U. S. survey) ac = 4 046.873 m2 [15]
yd
are a ≡ 100 m2 = 100 m2
barn b ≡ 10−28 m2 = 10−28 m2
= 1.618 742 568
barony ≡ 4 000 ac
96 × 107 m2
board bd ≡ 1 in × 1 ft = 7.741 92 × 10−3 m2
boiler horsepower equivalent bhp ≡ (1 ft2) (1 bhp) / (240
≈ 12.958 174 m2
direct radiation EDR BTUIT/h)
circular inch circ in ≡ π/4 sq in ≈ 5.067 075 × 10−4 m2
circular mil; circular thou circ mil ≡ π/4 mil2 ≈ 5.067 075 × 10−10 m2
cord ≡ 192 bd = 1.486 448 64 m2
dunam ≡ 1 000 m2 = 1 000 m2
Guntha ≡ 33 ft x 33 ft[citation ≈ 101.17 m2
Page 265 of 286
 needed]

hectare ha ≡ 10 000 m2 = 10 000 m2

hide ≈ 120 ac (variable) ≈ 5 × 105 m2
rood ro ≡ ¼ ac = 1 011.714 1056 m2
shed ≡ 10−52 m2 = 10−52 m2
square (roofing) ≡ 10 ft × 10 ft = 9.290 304 m2
≡ 66 ft × 66 ft = 1/10
square chain (international) sq ch = 404.685 642 24 m2
ac
≡ 66 ft(US) ×
square chain (U.S. Survey) sq ch = 404.687 3 m2
66 ft(US) = 1/10 ac
square foot sq ft ≡ 1 ft × 1 ft = 9.290 304 × 10−2 m2
≈ 9.290 341 161 327
square foot (U.S. Survey) sq ft ≡ 1 ft (US) × 1 ft (US)
49 × 10−2 m2
square inch sq in ≡ 1 in × 1 in = 6.4516 × 10−4 m2
square kilometre km2 ≡ 1 km × 1 km = 106 m2
= 4.046 856 4224 × 10−2
square link sq lnk ≡ 1 lnk × 1 lnk
m2
square metre (SI unit) m2 ≡1m×1m = 1 m2
square mil; square thou sq mil ≡ 1 mil × 1 mil = 6.4516 × 10−10 m2
= 2.589 988 110
square mile; section sq mi ≡ 1 mi × 1 mi
336 × 106 m2
≡ 1 mi (US) × 1 mi
square mile (U.S. Survey) sq mi ≈ 2.589 998 × 106 m2
(US)
square rod/pole/perch sq rd ≡ 1 rd × 1 rd = 25.292 852 64 m2
square yard sq yd ≡ 1 yd × 1 yd = 0.836 127 36 m2
stremma ≡ 1 000 m2 = 1 000 m2
township ≡ 36 sq mi (US) ≈ 9.323 994 × 107 m2
yardland ≈ 30 ac ≈ 1.2 × 105 m2

99.3 VOLUME:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

≡ 1 ac x 1 ft = 43 560 = 1 233.481 837 547 52
acre-foot ac ft
ft3 m3
acre-inch ≡ 1 ac × 1 in = 102.790 153 128 96 m3
barrel (Imperial) bl (Imp) ≡ 36 gal (Imp) = 0.163 659 24 m3
barrel (petroleum) bl; bbl ≡ 42 gal (US) = 0.158 987 294 928 m3
≡ 105 qt (US) = 105/32 = 0.115 628 198 985 075
barrel (U.S. dry) bl (US)
bu (US lvl) m3
barrel (U.S. fluid) fl bl (US) ≡ 31½ gal (US) = 0.119 240 471 196 m3
board-foot fbm ≡ 144 cu in = 2.359 737 216 × 10−3

Page 266 of 286

 m3
bucket (Imperial) bkt ≡ 4 gal (Imp) = 0.018 184 36 m3
bushel (Imperial) bu (Imp) ≡ 8 gal (Imp) = 0.036 368 72 m3
bushel (U.S. dry heaped) bu (US) ≡ 1 ¼ bu (US lvl) = 0.044 048 837 7086 m3
bu (US = 0.035 239 070 166 88
bushel (U.S. dry level) ≡ 2 150.42 cu in
lvl) m3
butt, pipe ≡ 126 gal (wine) = 0.476 961 884 784 m3
coomb ≡ 4 bu (Imp) = 0.145 474 88 m3
cord (firewood) ≡ 8 ft × 4 ft × 4 ft = 3.624 556 363 776 m3
cord-foot ≡ 16 cu ft = 0.453 069 545 472 m3
cubic fathom cu fm ≡ 1 fm × 1 fm × 1 fm = 6.116 438 863 872 m3
cubic foot cu ft ≡ 1 ft × 1 ft × 1 ft = 0.028 316 846 592 m3
cubic inch cu in ≡ 1 in × 1 in × 1 in = 16.387 064 × 10−6 m3
cubic metre (SI unit) m3 ≡1m×1m×1m = 1 m3
= 4 168 181 825.440 579
cubic mile cu mi ≡ 1 mi × 1 mi × 1 mi
584 m3
cubic yard cu yd ≡ 27 cu ft = 0.764 554 857 984 m3
cup (breakfast) ≡ 10 fl oz (Imp) = 284.130 625 × 10−6 m3
cup (Canadian) c (CA) ≡ 8 fl oz (Imp) = 227.3045 × 10−6 m3
cup (metric) c ≡ 250.0 × 10−6 m3 = 250.0 × 10−6 m3
≡ 8 US fl oz ≡ 1/16 gal
cup (U.S. customary) c (US) = 236.588 2365 × 10−6 m3
(US)
cup (U.S. food nutrition
c (US) ≡ 240 mL[16] = 2.4×10−4 m3
labeling)
≡ 1/384 gi (Imp) = ½ = 369.961 751 302 08
dash (Imperial)
pinch (Imp) 3 × 10−9 m3
≡ 1/96 US fl oz = ½ US = 308.057 599 609
dash (U.S.)
pinch 375 × 10−9 m3
= 11.838 776 0416 × 10−6
dessertspoon (Imperial) ≡ 1/12 gi (Imp)
m3
= 98.656 467 013
drop (Imperial) gtt ≡ 1/288 fl oz (Imp)
8 × 10−9 m3
drop (Imperial) (alt) gtt ≡ 1/1 824 gi (Imp) ≈ 77.886 684 × 10−9 m3
drop (medical) ≡ 1/12 ml = 83.03 × 10−9 m3
drop (metric) ≡ 1/20 mL = 50.0 × 10−9 m3
= 82.148 693
drop (U.S.) gtt ≡ 1/360 US fl oz
22916 × 10−9 m3
drop (U.S.) (alt) gtt ≡ 1/456 US fl oz ≈ 64.854 231 × 10−9 m3
fifth ≡ 1/5 US gal = 757.082 3568 × 10−6 m3
firkin ≡ 9 gal (US) = 0.034 068 706 056 m3
= 3.551 632 8125 × 10−6
fluid drachm (Imperial) fl dr ≡ ⅛ fl oz (Imp)
m3
Page 267 of 286
fluid dram (U.S.); U.S. = 3.696 691 195
fl dr ≡ ⅛ US fl oz
fluidram 3125 × 10−6 m3
fl oz
fluid ounce (Imperial) ≡ 1/160 gal (Imp) = 28.413 0625 × 10−6 m3
(Imp)
fluid ounce (U.S. = 29.573 529 5625 × 10−6
US fl oz ≡ 1/128 gal (US)
customary) m3
fluid ounce (U.S. food
US fl oz ≡ 30 mL[16] = 3×10−5 m3
nutrition labeling)
= 1.183 877 60416 × 10−6
fluid scruple (Imperial) fl s ≡ 1/24 fl oz (Imp)
m3
= 4.621 152 048 × 10−3
gallon (beer) beer gal ≡ 282 cu in
m3
gallon (Imperial) gal (Imp) ≡ 4.546  09 L = 4.546 09 × 10−3 m3
= 4.404 883 770
gallon (U.S. dry) gal (US) ≡ ⅛ bu (US lvl)
86 × 10−3 m3
= 3.785 411 784 × 10−3
gallon (U.S. fluid; Wine) gal (US) ≡ 231 cu in
m3
gi (Imp);
gill (Imperial); Noggin ≡ 5 fl oz (Imp) = 142.065 3125 × 10−6 m3
nog
= 118.294 118 25 × 10−6
gill (U.S.) gi (US) ≡ 4 US fl oz
m3
hogshead (Imperial) hhd (Imp) ≡ 2 bl (Imp) = 0.327 318 48 m3
hogshead (U.S.) hhd (US) ≡ 2 fl bl (US) = 0.238 480 942 392 m3
jigger (bartending) ≡ 1½ US fl oz ≈ 44.36 × 10−6 m3
kilderkin ≡ 18 gal (Imp) = 0.081 829 62 m3
lambda λ ≡ 1 mm3 = 1 × 10−9 m3
last ≡ 80 bu (Imp) = 2.909 4976 m3
litre L ≡ 1 dm3 [17] = 0.001 m3
load ≡ 50 cu ft = 1.415 842 3296 m3
≡ 1/480 fl oz (Imp) = = 59.193 880 208
minim (Imperial) min
1/60 fl dr (Imp) 3 × 10−9 m3
≡ 1/480 US fl oz = 1/60 = 61.611 519 921
minim (U.S.) min
US fl dr 875 × 10−9 m3
peck (Imperial) pk ≡ 2 gal (Imp) = 9.092 18 × 10−3 m3
= 8.809 767 541
peck (U.S. dry) pk ≡ ¼ US lvl bu
72 × 10−3 m3
perch per ≡ 16½ ft × 1½ ft × 1 ft = 0.700 841 953 152 m3
≡ 1/192 gi (Imp) = ⅛ = 739.923 502
pinch (Imperial)
tsp (Imp) 60416 × 10−9 m3
≡ 1/48 US fl oz = ⅛ US = 616.115 199 218
pinch (U.S.)
tsp 75 × 10−9 m3
pint (Imperial) pt (Imp) ≡ ⅛ gal (Imp) = 568.261 25 × 10−6 m3
pint (U.S. dry) pt (US ≡ 1/64 bu (US lvl) ≡ ⅛ = 550.610 471
Page 268 of 286
 dry) gal (US dry) 3575 × 10−6 m3
pint (U.S. fluid) pt (US fl) ≡ ⅛ gal (US) = 473.176 473 × 10−6 m3
= 22.180 147 171
pony ≡ 3/4 US fl oz
875 × 10−6 m3
≡ ½ gal (Imp) = 80 fl
pottle; quartern = 2.273 045 × 10−3 m3
oz (Imp)
quart (Imperial) qt (Imp) ≡ ¼ gal (Imp) = 1.136 5225 × 10−3 m3
≡ 1/32 bu (US lvl) = ¼ = 1.101 220 942
quart (U.S. dry) qt (US)
gal (US dry) 715 × 10−3 m3
quart (U.S. fluid) qt (US) ≡ ¼ gal (US fl) = 946.352 946 × 10−6 m3
quarter; pail ≡ 8 bu (Imp) = 0.290 949 76 m3
register ton ≡ 100 cu ft = 2.831 684 6592 m3
= 0.109 106 16 m3[citation
sack (Imperial); bag ≡ 3 bu (Imp) needed]

= 0.105 717 210 500 64

sack (U.S.) ≡ 3 bu (US lvl)
m3
= 0.281 912 561 335 04
seam ≡ 8 bu (US lvl)
m3[citation needed]
shot ≡ 1 US fl oz ≈ 29.57 × 10−6 m3
strike (Imperial) ≡ 2 bu (Imp) = 0.072 737 44 m3
= 0.070 478 140 333 76
strike (U.S.) ≡ 2 bu (US lvl)
m3
= 14.206 531 25 × 10−6
tablespoon (Canadian) tbsp ≡ ½ fl oz (Imp)
m3
= 17.758 164 0625 × 10−6
tablespoon (Imperial) tbsp ≡ 5/8 fl oz (Imp)
m3
tablespoon (metric) ≡ 15.0 × 10−6 m3
tablespoon (U.S. = 14.786 764 7825 × 10−6
tbsp ≡ ½ US fl oz
customary) m3
tablespoon (U.S. food
tbsp ≡ 15 mL[16] = 1.5×10−5 m3
nutrition labeling)
= 4.735 510 416 × 10−6
teaspoon (Canadian) tsp ≡ 1/6 fl oz (Imp)
m3
= 5.919 388 02083 × 10−6
teaspoon (Imperial) tsp ≡ 1/24 gi (Imp)
m3
teaspoon (metric) ≡ 5.0 × 10−6 m3 = 5.0 × 10−6 m3
= 4.928 921 595 × 10−6
teaspoon (U.S. customary) tsp ≡ 1/6 US fl oz
m3
teaspoon (U.S. food
tsp ≡ 5 mL[16] = 5×10−6 m3
nutrition labeling)
timber foot ≡ 1 cu ft = 0.028 316 846 592 m3
ton (displacement) ≡ 35 cu ft = 0.991 089 630 72 m3
ton (freight) ≡ 40 cu ft = 1.132 673 863 68 m3
Page 269 of 286
ton (water) ≡ 28 bu (Imp) = 1.018 324 16 m3
tun ≡ 252 gal (wine) = 0.953 923 769 568 m3
wey (U.S.) ≡ 40 bu (US lvl) = 1.409 562 806 6752 m3

99.4 PLANE ANGLE:

Relation to
Name of unit Symbol Definition
SI units
≈ 0.981
angular mil µ ≡ 2π/6400 rad
748 × 10−3 rad
≈ 0.290
arcminute ' ≡ 1°/60
888 × 10−3 rad
≈ 4.848
arcsecond " ≡ 1°/3600
137 × 10−6 rad
centesimal ≈ 0.157
' ≡ 1 grad/100
minute of arc 080 × 10−3 rad
centesimal ≈ 1.570
" ≡ 1 grad/(10 000)
second of arc 796 × 10−6 rad
degree (of ≈ 17.453
° ≡ π/180 rad = 1/360 of a revolution
arc) 293 × 10−3 rad
grad; gradian; ≈ 15.707
grad ≡ 2π/400 rad = 0.9°
gon 963 × 10−3 rad
≈ 0.785 398
octant ≡ 45°
rad
≈ 1.570 796
quadrant ≡ 90°
rad
The angle subtended at the center of a circle by
radian (SI
rad an arc whose length is equal to the circle's radius. = 1 rad
unit)
One full revolution encompasses 2π radians.
≈ 1.047 198
sextant ≡ 60°
rad
≈ 0.523 599
sign ≡ 30°
rad

99.5 SOLID ANGLE:

Name of Relation to
Symbol Definition
unit SI units
The solid angle subtended at the center of a sphere of
steradian
sr radius r by a portion of the surface of the sphere = 1 sr
(SI unit)
having an area r2. A sphere encompasses 4π sr.[14]

99.6 MASS:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

Page 270 of 286

 ≈ 1.660 538 73 × 10−27 ±
atomic mass unit, unified u; AMU
1.3 × 10−36 kg
atomic unit of mass, ≈ 9.109 382 15 × 10−31 ±
me
electron rest mass 45 × 10−39 kg [18]
bag (coffee) ≡ 60 kg = 60 kg
bag (Portland cement) ≡ 94 lb av = 42.637 682 78 kg
barge ≡ 22½ sh tn = 20 411.656 65 kg
carat kt ≡ 3 1/6 gr ≈ 205.196 548 333 mg
carat (metric) ct ≡ 200 mg = 200 mg
clove ≡ 8 lb av = 3.628 738 96 kg
crith ≈ 89.9349 mg
≈ 1.660 902 10 × 10−27 ±
dalton Da
1.3 × 10−36 kg
dram (apothecary; troy) dr t ≡ 60 gr = 3.887 9346 g
dram (avoirdupois) dr av ≡ 27 11/32 gr = 1.771 845 195 3125 g
≡ 1 eV (energy unit)
electronvolt eV = 1.7826 × 10−36 kg
/ c2
gamma γ ≡ 1 µg = 1 µg
grain gr ≡ 64.798 91 mg = 64.798 91 mg
long cwt or
hundredweight (long) ≡ 112 lb av = 50.802 345 44 kg
cwt
hundredweight (short);
sh cwt ≡ 100 lb av = 45.359 237 kg
cental
≡ 1 gee × 1 g × 1
hyl (CGS unit) = 9.806 65 g
s2/m
≡ 1 gee × 1 kg × 1
hyl (MKS unit) = 9.806 65 kg
s2/m
kilogram, grave kg; G (SI base unit)[8]
kip kip ≡ 1 000 lb av = 453.592 37 kg
mark ≡ 8 oz t = 248.827 8144 g
mite ≡ 1/20 gr = 3.239 9455 mg
mite (metric) ≡ 1/20 g = 50 mg
ounce (apothecary; troy) oz t ≡ 1/12 lb t = 31.103 4768 g
ounce (avoirdupois) oz av ≡ 1/16 lb = 28.349 523 125 g
ounce (U.S. food nutrition
oz ≡ 28 g[16] = 28 g
labeling)
pennyweight dwt; pwt ≡ 1/20 oz t = 1.555 173 84 g
point ≡ 1/100 ct = 2 mg
pound (avoirdupois) lb av ≡ 7 000 grains = 0.453 592 37 kg
pound (metric) ≡ 500 g = 500 g
pound (troy) lb t ≡ 5 760 grains = 0.373 241 7216 kg

Page 271 of 286

 ≡ 1/4 long cwt = 2 st
quarter (Imperial) = 12.700 586 36 kg
= 28 lb av
quarter (informal) ≡ ¼ short tn = 226.796 185 kg
quarter, long (informal) ≡ ¼ long tn = 254.011 7272 kg
quintal (metric) q ≡ 100 kg = 100 kg
scruple (apothecary) s ap ≡ 20 gr = 1.295 9782 g
sheet ≡ 1/700 lb av = 647.9891 mg
≡ 1 gee × 1 lb av × 1
slug; geepound slug ≈ 14.593 903 kg
s2/ft
stone st ≡ 14 lb av = 6.350 293 18 kg
≡ 1 mg × 1 long tn ÷
ton, assay (long) AT ≈ 32.666 667 g
1 oz t
≡ 1 mg × 1 sh tn ÷ 1
ton, assay (short) AT ≈ 29.166 667 g
oz t
long tn or
ton, long ≡ 2 240 lb = 1 016.046 9088 kg
ton
ton, short sh tn ≡ 2 000 lb = 907.184 74 kg
tonne (mts unit) t ≡ 1 000 kg = 1 000 kg
= 114.305 277 24 kg
wey ≡ 252 lb = 18 st
(variants exist)
Definitions vary; see
Zentner Ztr. [19]
and.[14]

99.7 DENSITY:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

gram per millilitre g/mL ≡ g/mL = 1,000 kg/m3
kilogram per cubic metre (SI unit) kg/m3 ≡ kg/m3 = 1 kg/m3
kilogram per litre kg/L ≡ kg/L = 1,000 kg/m3
ounce (avoirdupois) per cubic foot oz/ft3 ≡ oz/ft3 ≈ 1.001153961 kg/m3
≈
ounce (avoirdupois) per cubic inch oz/in3 ≡ oz/in3
1.729994044×103 kg/m3
ounce (avoirdupois) per gallon (Imperial) oz/gal ≡ oz/gal ≈ 6.236023291 kg/m3
ounce (avoirdupois) per gallon (U.S.
oz/gal ≡ oz/gal ≈ 7.489151707 kg/m3
fluid)
pound (avoirdupois) per cubic foot lb/ft3 ≡ lb/ft3 ≈ 16.01846337 kg/m3
≈
pound (avoirdupois) per cubic inch lb/in3 ≡ lb/in3
2.767990471×104 kg/m3
pound (avoirdupois) per gallon (Imperial) lb/gal ≡ lb/gal ≈ 99.77637266 kg/m3
pound (avoirdupois) per gallon (U.S.
lb/gal ≡ lb/gal ≈ 119.8264273 kg/m3
fluid)
slug per cubic foot slug/ft3 ≡ slug/ft3 ≈ 515.3788184 kg/m3

Page 272 of 286

99.8 TIME:

Relation to SI
Name of unit Symbol Definition
units
atomic unit of ≈ 2.418 884
au ≡ a0/(α·c)
time 254 × 10−17 s
≡ 441 mo (hollow) + 499 mo (full) = 76 = 2.398 3776 × 109
Callippic cycle
a of 365.25 d s
≡ 100 a (see below for definition of year
century = 100 × year
length)
day d = 24 h = 86400 s
≡ Time needed for the Earth to rotate
once around its axis, determined from
successive transits of a very distant
day (sidereal) d ≈ 86 164.1 s
astronomical object across an observer's
meridian (International Celestial
Reference Frame)
≡ 10 a (see below for definition of year
decade = 10 × year
length)
fortnight ≡ 2 wk = 1 209 600 s
helek ≡ 1/1 080 h = 3.3 s
= 9.593 424 × 109
Hipparchic cycle ≡ 4 Callippic cycles - 1 d
s
hour h ≡ 60 min = 3 600 s
jiffy ≡ 1/60 s = .016 s
jiffy (alternate) ≡ 1/100 s = 10 ms
= 60 × 60 / 4 s =
ke (quarter of an
≡ ¼ h = 1/96 d 900 s = 60 / 4 min
hour)
= 15 min
= 24 × 60 × 60 /
100 s = 864 s = 24
ke (traditional) ≡ 1/100 d
* 60 / 100 min =
14.4 min
lustre; lustrum ≡ 5 a of 365 d = 1.5768 × 108 s
Metonic cycle; ≡ 110 mo (hollow) + 125 mo (full) =
= 5.996 16 × 108 s
enneadecaeteris 6940 d ≈ 19 a
≡ 1 000 a (see below for definition of
millennium = 1000 × year
year length)
= 24 × 60 × 60 / 1
milliday md ≡ 1/1 000 d
000 s = 86.4 s
minute min ≡ 60 s = 60 s
moment ≡ 90 s = 90 s
month (full) mo ≡ 30 d[20] = 2 592 000 s

Page 273 of 286

 Average Gregorian month = 365.2425/12
month (Greg. av.) mo ≈ 2.6297 × 106 s
d = 30.436875 d
month (hollow) mo ≡ 29 d[20] = 2 505 600 s
Cycle time of moon phases ≈ 29.530589
month (synodic) mo ≈ 2.551 × 106 s
days (Average)
= 48 mo (full) + 48 mo (hollow) + 3 mo = 2.524 608 × 108
octaeteris
(full)[21][22] = 8 a of 365.25 d = 2922 d s
≈ 1.351 211
Planck time ≡ (Gℏ /c5)½
868 × 10−43 s
time of 9 192 631 770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the transition
between the 2 hyperfine levels of the
second s (SI base unit)
ground state of the caesium 133 atom at
[8]
0 K (but other seconds are sometimes
used in astronomy)
shake ≡ 10−8 s = 10 ns
−6
sigma ≡ 10 s = 1 µs
= 4.607
Sothic cycle ≡ 1 461 a of 365 d
4096 × 1010 s
svedberg S ≡ 10−13 s = 100 fs
week wk ≡7d = 604 800 s
= 365.2425 d average, calculated from
a, y, or common years (365 d) plus leap years
year (Gregorian) = 31 556 952 s
yr (366 d) on most years divisible by 4. See
leap year for details.
= 365.25 d average, calculated from
a, y, or
year (Julian) common years (365 d) plus one leap year = 31 557 600 s
yr
(366 d) every four years
≡ time taken for Sun to return to the
a, y, or ≈ 365.256 363 d ≈
year (sidereal) same position with respect to the stars of
yr 31 558 149.7632 s
the celestial sphere
≡ Length of time it takes for the Sun to
a, y, or ≈ 365.242 190 d ≈
year (tropical) return to the same position in the cycle of
yr 31 556 925 s
seasons

99.9 FREQUENCY:

Relation to SI
Name of unit Symbol Definition
units
hertz (SI unit) Hz ≡ Number of cycles per second = 1 Hz = 1/s
≡ One unit rpm equals one rotation
revolutions per ≈
rpm completed around a fixed axis in one
minute 0.104719755 rad/s
minute of time.

99.10 SPEED OR VELOCITY:

Page 274 of 286

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
foot per hour fph ≡ 1 ft/h ≈ 8.466 667 × 10−5 m/s
foot per
fpm ≡ 1 ft/min = 5.08 × 10−3 m/s
minute
foot per
fps ≡ 1 ft/s = 3.048 × 10−1 m/s
second
furlong per
≡ furlong/fortnight ≈ 1.663 095 × 10−4 m/s
fortnight
inch per
ipm ≡ 1 in/min ≈ 4.23 333 × 10−4 m/s
minute
inch per
ips ≡ 1 in/s = 2.54 × 10−2 m/s
second
kilometre per
km/h ≡ 1 km/h ≈ 2.777 778 × 10−1 m/s
hour
knot kn ≡ 1 NM/h = 1.852 km/h ≈ 0.514 444 m/s
knot ≡ 1 NM (Adm)/h = 1.853 184
kn = 0.514 773 m/s
(Admiralty) km/h[citation needed]
The ratio of the speed of an object Unitless. Actual speed of
moving through a fluid to the sound varies depending on
mach number M speed of sound in the same atmospheric conditions. See
medium; typically used as a "speed of sound" below for
measure of aircraft speed. one specific condition.
metre per
second (SI m/s ≡ 1 m/s = 1 m/s
unit)
mile per hour mph ≡ 1 mi/h = 0.447 04 m/s
mile per
mpm ≡ 1 mi/min = 26.8224 m/s
minute
mile per
mps ≡ 1 mi/s = 1 609.344 m/s
second
speed of light
c ≡ 299 792 458 m/s = 299 792 458 m/s
in vacuum
speed of ≈ 344 m/s at 20 °C, 60%
s
sound in air relative humidity [23]

99.11 FLOW (VOLUME):

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

cubic foot per minute CFM ≡ 1 ft3/min = 4.719474432×10−4 m3/s
cubic foot per second ft3/s ≡ 1 ft3/s = 0.028316846592 m3/s
cubic inch per minute in3/min ≡ 1 in3/min = 2.7311773 × 10−7 m3/s
cubic inch per second in3/s ≡ 1 in3/s = 1.6387064×10−5 m3/s
cubic metre per second (SI unit) m3/s ≡ 1 m3/s = 1 m3/s
gallon (U.S. fluid) per day GPD ≡ 1 gal/d = 4.381263638 × 10−8 m3/s
Page 275 of 286
gallon (U.S. fluid) per hour GPH ≡ 1 gal/h = 1.051503273 × 10−6 m3/s
gallon (U.S. fluid) per minute GPM ≡ 1 gal/min = 6.30901964×10−5 m3/s
litre per minute LPM ≡ 1 L/min = 1.6 × 10−5 m3/s

99.12 ACCELERATION:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

foot per hour per second fph/s ≡ 1 ft/(h·s) ≈ 8.466 667 × 10−5 m/s2
foot per minute per second fpm/s ≡ 1 ft/(min·s) = 5.08 × 10−3 m/s2
foot per second squared fps2 ≡ 1 ft/s2 = 3.048 × 10−1 m/s2
gal; galileo Gal ≡ 1 cm/s2 = 10−2 m/s2
inch per minute per second ipm/s ≡ 1 in/(min·s) ≈ 4.233 333 × 10−4 m/s2
inch per second squared ips2 ≡ 1 in/s2 = 2.54 × 10−2 m/s2
knot per second kn/s ≡ 1 kn/s ≈ 5.144 444 × 10−1 m/s2
metre per second squared (SI unit) m/s2 ≡ 1 m/s2 = 1 m/s2
mile per hour per second mph/s ≡ 1 mi/(h·s) = 4.4704 × 10−1 m/s2
mile per minute per second mpm/s ≡ 1 mi/(min·s) = 26.8224 m/s2
mile per second squared mps2 ≡ 1 mi/s2 = 1.609 344 × 103 m/s2
standard gravity g ≡ 9.806 65 m/s2 = 9.806 65 m/s2

99.13 FORCE:

Relation to SI
Name of unit Symbol Definition
units
≈ 8.238 722
atomic unit of force ≡ me· α2·c2/a0
06 × 10−8 N [24]
dyne (cgs unit) dyn ≡ g·cm/s2 = 10−5 N
kilogram-force;
kgf; kp;
kilopond; grave- ≡ g × 1 kg = 9.806 65 N
Gf
force
kip; kipf; = 4.448 221 615
kip; kip-force ≡ g × 1 000 lb
klbf 2605 × 103 N
milligrave-force,
mGf; gf ≡g×1g = 9.806 65 mN
gravet-force
A force capable of giving a mass of one
=1N=
newton (SI unit) N kg an acceleration of one meter per
[25] 1 kg·m/s2
second, per second.
= 0.278 013 850
ounce-force ozf ≡ g × 1 oz
953 7812 N
= 4.448 230 531
pound lb ≡ slug·ft/s2
N
= 4.448 221 615
pound-force lbf ≡ g × 1 lb
2605 N

Page 276 of 286

 = 0.138 254 954
poundal pdl ≡ 1 lb·ft/s2
376 N
sthene (mts unit) sn ≡ 1 t·m/s2 = 1 × 103 N
= 8.896 443 230
ton-force tnf ≡ g × 1 sh tn
521 × 103 N

99.14 PRESSURE OR MECHANICAL STRESS:

Relation to SI
Name of unit Symbol Definition
units
atmosphere (standard) atm ≡ 101 325 Pa [26]
= 9.806 65 × 104
atmosphere (technical) at ≡ 1 kgf/cm2
Pa [26]
bar bar ≡ 105 Pa
barye (cgs unit) ≡ 1 dyn/cm2 = 0.1 Pa
≈ 1.333 22 × 103
centimetre of mercury cmHg ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 cm × g
Pa [26]
centimetre of water (4 °C) cmH2O ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 × 1 cm × g ≈ 98.0638 Pa [26]
foot of mercury ≈ 40.636
ftHg ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 ft × g
(conventional) 66 × 103 Pa [26]
≈ 2.988 98 × 103
foot of water (39.2 °F) ftH2O ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 × 1 ft × g
Pa [26]
inch of mercury ≈ 3.386
inHg ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 in × g
(conventional) 389 × 103 Pa [26]
inch of water (39.2 °F) inH2O ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 × 1 in × g ≈ 249.082 Pa [26]
kilogram-force per square = 9.806 65 × 106
kgf/mm2 ≡ 1 kgf/mm2
millimetre Pa [26]
≈ 6.894
kip per square inch ksi ≡ 1 kipf/sq in
757 × 106 Pa [26]
micron (micrometre) of ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 µm × g ≈ ≈ 0.133 3224 Pa
µmHg [26]
mercury 0.001 torr
≡ 13 595.1 kg/m3 × 1 mm × g ≈ 1
millimetre of mercury mmHg ≈ 133.3224 Pa [26]
torr
millimetre of water (3.98 ≈ 999.972 kg/m3 × 1 mm × g =
mmH2O = 9.806 38 Pa
°C) 0.999 972 kgf/m2
pascal (SI unit) Pa ≡ N/m2 = kg/(m·s2) = 1 Pa [27]
= 1 × 103 Pa = 1
pièze (mts unit) pz ≡ 1 000 kg/m·s2
kPa
≈ 47.880 25 Pa
pound per square foot psf ≡ 1 lbf/ft2 [26]

≈ 6.894
pound per square inch psi ≡ 1 lbf/in2
757 × 103 Pa [26]
≈ 1.488 164 Pa
poundal per square foot pdl/sq ft ≡ 1 pdl/sq ft [26]

Page 277 of 286

 ≈ 95.760
short ton per square foot ≡ 1 sh tn × g / 1 sq ft
518 × 103 Pa
torr torr ≡ 101 325/760 Pa ≈ 133.3224 Pa [26]

99.15 TORQUE OR MOMENT OF FORCE:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

foot-pound force ft lbf ≡ g × 1 lb × 1 ft = 1.355 817 948 331 4004 N·m
foot-poundal ft pdl ≡ 1 lb·ft2/s2 = 4.214 011 009 380 48 × 10−2 N·m
inch-pound force in lbf ≡ g × 1 lb × 1 in = 0.112 984 829 027 6167 N·m
metre kilogram m kg ≡N×m/g ≈ 0.101 971 621 N·m
Newton metre (SI unit) N·m ≡ N × m = kg·m2/s2 = 1 N·m

99.16 ENERGY, WORK, OR AMOUNT OF HEAT:

Relation to SI
Name of unit Symbol Definition
units
barrel of oil equivalent bboe ≈ 5.8 × 106 BTU59 °F ≈ 6.12 × 109 J
British thermal unit
BTUISO ≡ 1.0545 × 103 J = 1.0545 × 103 J
(ISO)
British thermal unit = 1.055 055 852
BTUIT
(International Table) 62 × 103 J
British thermal unit
BTUmean ≈ 1.055 87 × 103 J
(mean)
British thermal unit ≈ 1.054 350 × 103
BTUth
(thermochemical) J
British thermal unit (39
BTU39 °F ≈ 1.059 67 × 103 J
°F)
British thermal unit (59 = 1.054 804 × 103
BTU59 °F ≡ 1.054 804 × 103 J
°F) J
British thermal unit (60
BTU60 °F ≈ 1.054 68 × 103 J
°F)
British thermal unit (63
BTU63 °F ≈ 1.0546 × 103 J
°F)
calorie (International
calIT ≡ 4.1868 J = 4.1868 J
Table)
calorie (mean) calmean ≈ 4.190 02 J
calorie
calth ≡ 4.184 J = 4.184 J
(thermochemical)
calorie (3.98 °C) cal3.98 °C ≈ 4.2045 J
calorie (15 °C) cal15 °C ≡ 4.1855 J = 4.1855 J
calorie (20 °C) cal20 °C ≈ 4.1819 J
Celsius heat unit = 1.899 100 534
CHUIT ≡ 1 BTUIT × 1 K/°R
(International Table) 716 × 103 J
Page 278 of 286
cubic centimetre of
cc atm;
atmosphere; standard ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm3 = 0.101 325 J
scc
cubic centimetre
cubic foot of
cu ft atm; = 2.869 204 480
atmosphere; standard ≡ 1 atm × 1 ft3
scf 9344 × 103 J
cubic foot
= 1.055 055 852
cubic foot of natural gas ≡ 1 000 BTUIT
62 × 106 J
cubic yard of
cu yd = 77.468 520 985
atmosphere; standard ≡ 1 atm × 1 yd3
atm; scy 2288 × 103 J
cubic yard
≈ 1.602 177
electronvolt eV ≡e×1V 33 × 10−19 ±
4.9 × 10−26 J
erg (cgs unit) erg ≡ 1 g·cm2/s2 = 10−7 J
= 1.355 817 948
foot-pound force ft lbf ≡ g × 1 lb × 1 ft
331 4004 J
= 4.214 011 009
foot-poundal ft pdl ≡ 1 lb·ft2/s2
380 48 × 10−2 J
gallon-atmosphere imp gal = 460.632 569 25
≡ 1 atm × 1 gal (imp)
(imperial) atm J
US gal = 383.556 849
gallon-atmosphere (US) ≡ 1 atm × 1 gal (US)
atm 0138 J
hartree, atomic unit of ≈ 4.359
Eh ≡ me· α2·c2 (= 2 Ry)
energy 744 × 10−18 J
= 2.684 519 537
horsepower-hour hp·h ≡ 1 hp × 1 h 696 172 792 × 106
J
= 0.112 984 829
inch-pound force in lbf ≡ g × 1 lb × 1 in
027 6167 J
The work done when a force of
one newton moves the point of
= 1 J = 1 m·N =
joule (SI unit) J its application a distance of one
1 kg·m2/s2
meter in the direction of the
force.[25]
kilocalorie; large calorie kcal; Cal ≡ 1 000 calIT = 4.1868 × 103 J
kilowatt-hour; Board of kW·h;
≡ 1 kW × 1 h = 3.6 × 106 J
Trade Unit B.O.T.U.
litre-atmosphere l atm; sl ≡ 1 atm × 1 L = 101.325 J
= 1.055 055 852
quad ≡ 1015 BTUIT
62 × 1018 J
≈ 2.179
rydberg Ry ≡ R∞· ℎ ·c
872 × 10−18 J
= 105.505 585
therm (E.C.) ≡ 100 000 BTUIT
262 × 106 J
Page 279 of 286
therm (U.S.) ≡ 100 000 BTU59 °F = 105.4804 × 106 J
thermie th ≡ 1 McalIT = 4.1868 × 106 J
ton of coal equivalent TCE ≡ 7 Gcalth = 29.3076 × 109 J
ton of oil equivalent TOE ≡ 10 Gcalth = 41.868 × 109 J
ton of TNT tTNT ≡ 1 Gcalth = 4.184 × 109 J

99.17 POWER OR HEAT FLOW RATE:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

atmosphere-cubic
atm ccm ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm3/min = 1.688 75 × 10−3 W
centimetre per minute
atmosphere-cubic
atm ccs ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm3/s = 0.101 325 W
centimetre per second
atmosphere-cubic foot = 0.797 001 244 704
atm cfh ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/h
per hour W
atmosphere-cubic foot = 47.820 074 682 24
atm·cfm ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/min
per minute W
atmosphere-cubic foot = 2.869 204 480
atm cfs ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/s
per second 9344 × 103 W
BTU (International
BTUIT/h ≡ 1 BTUIT/h ≈ 0.293 071 W
Table) per hour
BTU (International
BTUIT/min ≡ 1 BTUIT/min ≈ 17.584 264 W
Table) per minute
BTU (International = 1.055 055 852
BTUIT/s ≡ 1 BTUIT/s
Table) per second 62 × 103 W
calorie (International
calIT/s ≡ 1 calIT/s = 4.1868 W
Table) per second
foot-pound-force per ≈ 3.766 161 × 10−4
ft lbf/h ≡ 1 ft lbf/h
hour W
foot-pound-force per = 2.259 696 580 552
ft lbf/min ≡ 1 ft lbf/min
minute 334 × 10−2 W
foot-pound-force per = 1.355 817 948 331
ft lbf/s ≡ 1 ft lbf/s
second 4004 W
≈ 9.810 657 × 103
horsepower (boiler) bhp ≈ 34.5 lb/h × 970.3 BTUIT/lb
W
horsepower
hp ≡ 75 kp·m/s = 736 W
(European electrical)
horsepower (Imperial
hp ≡ 746 W = 746 W
electrical)
horsepower (Imperial = 745.699 871 582
hp ≡ 550 ft lbf/s
mechanical) 270 22 W
horsepower (metric) hp ≡ 75 m kgf/s = 735.498 75 W
litre-atmosphere per
L·atm/min ≡ 1 atm × 1 L/min = 1.688 75 W
minute
Page 280 of 286
litre-atmosphere per
L·atm/s ≡ 1 atm × 1 L/s = 101.325 W
second
lusec lusec ≡ 1 L·µmHg/s [14] ≈ 1.333 × 10−4 W
poncelet p ≡ 100 m kgf/s = 980.665 W
square foot equivalent
sq ft EDR ≡ 240 BTUIT/h ≈ 70.337 057 W
direct radiation
ton of air conditioning ≡ 1 t ice melted / 24 h ≈ 3 504 W
ton of refrigeration ≡ 1 BTUIT × 1 lng tn/lb ÷ 10 ≈ 3.938 875 × 103
(Imperial) min/s W
ton of refrigeration ≡ 1 BTUIT × 1 sh tn/lb ÷ 10 ≈ 3.516 853 × 103
(IT) min/s W
The power which in one second = 1 W = 1 J/s =
watt (SI unit) W of time gives rise to one joule of 1 N·m/s =
energy.[25] 1 kg·m2/s3

99.18 ACTION:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

atomic unit of action au ≡ ℏ = ℎ /2π ≈ 1.054 571 68 × 10−34 J·s[28]

99.19 DYNAMIC VISCOSITY:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

pascal second (SI unit) Pa·s ≡ N·s/m2 , kg/(m·s) = 1 Pa·s
poise (cgs unit) P ≡ 10−1 Pa·s = 0.1 Pa·s
pound per foot hour lb/(ft·h) ≡ 1 lb/(ft·h) ≈ 4.133 789 × 10−4 Pa·s
pound per foot second lb/(ft·s) ≡ 1 lb/(ft·s) ≈ 1.488164 Pa·s
pound-force second per square foot lbf·s/ft2 ≡ 1 lbf·s/ft2 ≈ 47.88026 Pa·s
pound-force second per square inch lbf·s/in2 ≡ 1 lbf·s/in2 ≈ 6,894.757 Pa·s

99.20 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

square foot per second ft2/s ≡ 1 ft2/s = 0.09290304 m2/s
square metre per second (SI unit) m2/s ≡ 1 m2/s = 1 m2/s
stokes (cgs unit) St ≡ 10−4 m2/s = 10−4 m2/s

99.21 ELECTRIC CURRENT:

Relation to SI
Name of unit Symbol Definition
units
≡ The constant current needed to
ampere (SI base
A produce a force of 2 × 10−7 newton per = 1 A
unit)
metre between two straight parallel
Page 281 of 286
 conductors of infinite length and
negligible circular cross-section placed
one metre apart in a vacuum.[8]
electromagnetic
unit; abampere (cgs abamp ≡ 10 A = 10 A
unit)
esu per second;
≈
statampere (cgs esu/s ≡ (0.1 A·m/s) / c
3.335641×10−10 A
unit)

99.22 ELECTRIC CHARGE:

Relation to SI
Name of unit Symbol Definition
units
abcoulomb;
electromagnetic unit (cgs abC; emu ≡ 10 C = 10 C
unit)
≈ 1.602 176
atomic unit of charge au ≡e
462 × 10−19 C
≡ The amount of electricity
coulomb (SI unit) C carried in one second of time by = 1 C = 1 A·s
one ampere of current.[25]
≈ 96 485.3383
faraday F ≡ 1 mol × NA·e
C
statcoulomb; franklin;
statC; Fr; ≈ 3.335
electrostatic unit (cgs ≡ (0.1 A·m) / c
esu 641 × 10−10 C
unit)

99.23 ELECTRIC DIPOLE:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

atomic unit of electric dipole moment ea0 ≈ 8.478 352 81 × 10−30 C·m

99.24 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

Name of Relation to SI
Symbol Definition
unit units
abvolt
abV ≡ 1 × 10−8 V = 1 × 10−8 V
(cgs unit)
statvolt
statV ≡ c· (1 µJ/A·m) = 299.792 458 V
(cgs unit)
The difference in electric potential across two
volt (SI points along a conducting wire carrying one ampere = 1 V = 1 W/A =
V
unit) of constant current when the power dissipated 1 kg·m2/(A·s3)
between the points equals one watt.

Page 282 of 286

99.25 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE:

Name Relation to SI
Symbol Definition
of unit units
The resistance between two points in a conductor
ohm (SI when one volt of electric potential difference, = 1 Ω = 1 V/A = 1
Ω
unit) applied to these points, produces one ampere of kg·m2/(A2·s3)
current in the conductor.

99.26 CAPACITANCE:

Name Relation to SI
Symbol Definition
of unit units
The capacitance between two parallel plates that
farad = 1 F = 1 C/V = 1
F results in one volt of potential difference when
(SI unit) A2·s4/(kg·m2)
charged by one coulomb of electricity.

99.27 MAGNETIC FLUX:

Name of Relation to SI
Symbol Definition
unit units
maxwell
Mx ≡ 10−8 Wb = 1 × 10−8 Wb
(CGS unit)
Magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of one
weber (SI turn, would produce in it an electromotive force = 1 Wb = 1 V·s =
Wb
unit) of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero at a uniform 1 kg·m2/(A·s2)
rate in 1 second.

99.28 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

gauss (CGS unit) G ≡ Mx/cm = 10 T = 1 × 10−4 T
2 −4

tesla (SI unit) T ≡ Wb/m2 = 1 T = 1 Wb/m2 = 1 kg/(A·s2)

99.29 INDUCTANCE:

Name Relation to SI
Symbol Definition
of unit units
The inductance of a closed circuit that produces one
henry volt of electromotive force when the current in the = 1 H = 1 Wb/A =
H
(SI unit) circuit varies at a uniform rate of one ampere per 1 kg·m2/(A·s)2
second.

99.30 TEMPERATURE:

Name of Symbol Definition Conversion to

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 unit kelvin
°C = K − 273.15. A unit of °C is the same size
degree as a unit of K; however, their numerical values [K] = [°C] +
°C
Celsius differ as the zero point of Celsius is set at 273.15
273.15 K (the ice point).
degree [K] = 373.15 −
°De
Delisle [°De] × 2/3
degree 0 °F ≡ freezing pt. of H2O+NaCl, 180°F [K] = ([°F] +
°F
Fahrenheit between freezing and boiling pt of H2O @ 1atm 459.67) × 5/9
degree [K] = [°N] ×
°N
Newton 100/33 + 273.15
degree
°R; °Ra 0 °R ≡ absolute zero [K] = [°R] × 5/9
Rankine
degree [K] = [°Ré] × 5/4
°Ré
Réaumur + 273.15
[K] = ([°Rø] −
degree
°Rø 7.5) × 40/21 +
Rømer
273.15
kelvin (SI ≡ 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature
K 1K
base unit) of the triple point of water.

99.31 INFORMATION ENTROPY:

Relation to
Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
bits
SI unit J/K ≡ J/K = 1 J/K
= 1.380 650 5(23) × 10−23
nat; nip; nepit nat ≡ kB
J/K
bit; shannon bit; b; Sh ≡ ln(2) × kB = 9.569 940 (16) × 10−24 J/K = 1 bit
ban; ≡ ln(10) × = 3.179 065 3(53) × 10−23
ban; hartley
Hart kB J/K
= 3.827 976 0(64) × 10−23
nibble ≡ 4 bits = 22 bit
J/K
byte B ≡ 8 bits = 7.655 952 (13) × 10−23 J/K = 23 bit
kilobyte (decimal) kB ≡ 1 000 B = 7.655 952 (13) × 10−20 J/K
kilobyte
KB; KiB ≡ 1 024 B = 7.839 695 (13) × 10−20 J/K = 210 bit
(kibibyte)

99.32 LUMINOUS INTENSITY:

Relation
Name of unit Symbol Definition
to SI units
candela (SI The luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a
base unit); cd source that emits monochromatic radiation of = 1 cd
candle frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that has a radiant
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 intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per
steradian.
candlepower ≡ cd The use of candlepower as a unit is
cp = 1 cd
(new) discouraged due to its ambiguity.
candlepower Varies and is poorly reproducible. Approximately
cp ≈ 0.981 cd
(old, pre-1948) 0.981 cd.

99.33 LUMINANCE:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

candela per square foot cd/ft2 ≡ cd/ft2 ≈ 10.763910417 cd/m2
candela per square inch cd/in2 ≡ cd/in2 ≈ 1,550.0031 cd/m2
candela per square metre (SI unit); cd/m2 ≡ cd/m2 = 1 cd/m2
footlambert fL ≡ (1/π) cd/ft2 ≈ 3.4262590996 cd/m2
lambert L ≡ (104/π) cd/m2 ≈ 3,183.0988618 cd/m2
stilb (CGS unit) sb ≡ 104 cd/m2 ≈ 1 × 104 cd/m2

99.34 LUMINOUS FLUX:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

lumen (SI unit) lm ≡ cd·sr = 1 lm = 1 cd·sr

99.35 ILLUMINANCE:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

footcandle; lumen per square foot fc ≡ lm/ft2 = 10.763910417 lx
lumen per square inch lm/in2 ≡ lm/in2 ≈ 1,550.0031 lx
lux (SI unit) lx ≡ lm/m2 = 1 lx = 1 lm/m2
phot (CGS unit) ph ≡ lm/cm2 = 1 × 104 lx

99.36 RADIATION - SOURCE ACTIVITY:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

becquerel (SI unit) Bq ≡ Number of disintegrations per second = 1 Bq = 1/s
curie Ci ≡ 3.7 × 1010 Bq = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
rutherford (H) rd ≡ 1 MBq = 1 × 106 Bq

99.37 RADIATION – EXPOSURE:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

roentgen R 1 R ≡ 2.58 × 10 C/kg = 2.58 × 10−4 C/kg
−4

99.38 RADIATION - ABSORBED DOSE:

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Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
2 2
gray (SI unit) Gy ≡ 1 J/kg = 1 m /s = 1 Gy
rad rad ≡ 0.01 Gy = 0.01 Gy

99.39 RADIATION - EQUIVALENT DOSE:

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

Röntgen equivalent man rem ≡ 0.01 Sv = 0.01 Sv
sievert (SI unit) Sv ≡ 1 J/kg = 1 Sv

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