Diesel-Electric Hybrid Vehicles

Diesel power plays a central role in one of the most important new
powertrain technologies for reducing vehicle emissions and fuel consumption from
heavy-duty vehicles: hybrid-electric technology. Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) are
vehicles that are powered both by an electric motor and by an internal combustion
engine, including diesel engines. Today’s diesel HEVs combine the latest advances
in hybrid vehicle technology with the inherent efficiency and reduced emissions of
modern clean diesel technology to produce dramatic reductions in both emissions
and fuel consumption. Specifically, diesel hybrid technology is being used
increasingly to improve the performance of a number of urban transit bus fleets
across the country.

UNDERSTANDING HYBRID-ELECTRIC VEHICLES

The term “hybrid vehicle” refers to a vehicle with at least two sources
of power. A “hybrid-electric vehicle” indicates that one source of power is provided
by an electric motor. The other source of motive power can come from a number of
different technologies, but is typically provided by an internal combustion engine
designed to run on either gasoline or diesel fuel. The term “diesel-electric hybrid”
describes an HEV that combines the power of a diesel engine with an electric motor.

The diesel engine in a diesel-electric hybrid vehicle generates

electricity for the electric motor, and in some cases can also power the vehicle
directly (See “Series vs. Parallel Hybrids” below). HEVs are fueled just like their
more traditional counterparts with conventional diesel fuel. HEVs generate all the
electricity they need on-board and never need to be recharged before use. The diesel
fuel powers an internal combustion engine that is usually smaller (and thus more
efficient) than a conventional engine, which works along with an electric motor to
provide the same power as a larger engine. The electric motor derives its power
from an alternator or generator that is coupled with an energy storage device (such
as a set of batteries or super capacitors).

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 Series vs. Parallel Hybrids

There are two principal types of HEVs, “Series” and “Parallel.”

In a series hybrid, the engine is not directly linked to the transmission for mechanical driving
power. Rather, all of the energy produced from the engine is converted to electric power by the
generator, which re-charges the energy storage device in order to provide power to one or more
electric motors. The electric motor system—by itself—provides torque to turn the wheels of the
vehicle. Because the combustion engine is not directly connected to the wheels, it can operate at
a more optimum rate, and can be automatically (or sometimes manually) switched off for
temporary all-electric, zero-emission operation. Series hybrids are well-suited for lightweight
commuting vehicles and stop-and-go transit buses.

In a parallel hybrid, both the combustion engine and the electric motor have direct,
independent connections to the transmission. Either power source—or both of them together—
can be used to turn the vehicle’s wheels. These vehicles are often designed so that the
combustion engine provides power at high, constant speeds; the electric motor provides power
during stops and at low speeds; and both power sources work together during accelerations.
Parallel hybrids are well-suited to improve the fuel economy of higher performing vehicles.

Sources of Diesel Hybrid Efficiency and Emissions Reductions

Whenever a power system transfers energy from one form to another—

such as a hybrid’s conversion of mechanical energy into electricity and then back
again—the system will experience a decrease in energy efficiency. Diesel hybrid-
electric vehicles offset those losses in a number of ways which, when combined,
produce a significant net gain in efficiency and related emissions reductions. In
other words, these aspects of the diesel HEV system are able to save so much
energy that the vehicle as a whole overcomes the initial conversion losses. There
are four primary sources of efficiency and emissions reduction found in diesel
hybrids:

• Smaller Engine Size: In diesel HEVs, the largest gain in efficiency comes
from using a smaller, more efficient combustion engine. Most traditional
“direct drive” vehicle engines are sized to provide enough power for relatively
infrequent, fast accelerations. In the more frequent cruising mode, these
engines are much larger than they need to be. By adding an electric motor to
deliver partial or complete power during accelerations, an HEV can be
equipped with a smaller, more efficient combustion engine while providing
acceleration performance equal to its conventional counterpart.

• Regenerative Braking: Regenerative braking is another important energy-

saving mechanism used in most diesel HEVs. Regenerative braking recovers
energy normally lost as heat during braking, and stores it in the batteries for
later use by the electric motor. Therefore, the engine-powered generator is

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 used to produce electric energy only when regenerative braking does not
provide a full charge.

• Power-On-Demand: Another feature that saves energy and reduces

emissions in diesel HEVs is the ability to temporarily shut off the combustion
engine during idle or coasting modes, when the electric motor alone can
provide sufficient power to keep the vehicle’s systems running without
burning petroleum fuel.

• Constant Engine Speeds and Power Output: In a hybrid application,

the vehicle can be designed to use its diesel engine only at the engine’s
optimum power output and engine speed range. In a series hybrid, this is
enabled by the fact that the engine is only used to power the electric
generator, and not to directly provide power to the wheels at various vehicle
speeds or during intermittent accelerations. In a parallel hybrid, the diesel
engine can be used to power the wheels directly only at the engine’s optimum
operating speeds. Allowing the diesel engine to operate more consistently at
its optimum engine speed, power output, and operating temperature both
increases fuel efficiency and reduces emissions. Emissions are reduced
because the engine can be tuned to minimize engine-out emissions for a
specific set of consistent operating conditions. This fine-tuned operation,
which delivers consistent exhaust flows and temperatures, also allows
modern after-treatment emission control technologies to be optimized.

Secondary Benefits of Diesel HEV Technology

While other technologies can also reduce emissions or increase fuel

economy from diesel-powered vehicles, diesel HEVs come with several important
secondary benefits that make them more attractive for certain applications.

• Vehicle Performance: HEVs achieve performance levels comparable to

conventional vehicles. Diesel HEVs have excellent power and acceleration,
and a driving range that is equal to or greater than conventional or
alternative fuel powered direct drive vehicles.

• Conventional Fuel and Fueling Infrastructure: In contrast to certain

alternative fuel vehicles, diesel HEVs use diesel fuel and can therefore be re-
fueled at conventional fueling stations.

• Cost and Availability: Gasoline HEVs are currently available in a very

limited number of passenger cars, and diesel HEVs are available in an
increasing number of transit bus applications. This experience indicates that
diesel HEVs, compared to some other alternative vehicle technologies (such
as gaseous fuels or fuel cell technology), may currently be more cost-effective.

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EVOLUTION OF DIESEL-ELECTRIC HYBRID VEHICLES

Diesel-Electric Concept Cars

In 1993, seven federal agencies and the nation’s Big Three automakers
entered a cooperative research and development program called the Partnership for
a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV). The challenging central goal of the PNGV
was to develop family-size sedans that would achieve up to triple the fuel efficiency
of their conventional counterparts and meet very stringent upcoming emission
standards—all while maintaining levels of performance, utility, safety and cost that
American consumers expect from their automobiles. Engineers studied many
different advanced technologies, but ultimately each auto company decided that
diesel-electric hybrid propulsion would be the powertrain of choice for the PNGV
program. The companies chose diesel technology because—as many European
drivers know—modern diesel passenger cars offer significant fuel economy savings
while providing high performance and reliability. Because of such inherent benefits,
state-of-the-art diesel engines were coupled with electric-hybrid systems to take full
advantage of two technologies that make vehicles much more efficient.

In 2000, General Motors, Ford and DaimlerChrysler unveiled PNGV

diesel-electric concept cars. Ford Motor Company introduced a Prodigy diesel-
electric hybrid, capable of getting better than 70 miles per gallon (gasoline
equivalent). DaimlerChrysler rolled out the Dodge ESX3 family sedan that used a
diesel-electric hybrid system to achieve the gasoline equivalent of 72 miles per
gallon. General Motors presented the aerodynamic diesel-electric Precept, which
obtained the highest PNGV average city/highway fuel economy rating of 79.6 mpg
(gasoline equivalent). Considering the performance, size, comfort and safety
features of these concept demonstration vehicles, it was an extraordinary
achievement to obtain fuel economy ratings between 70 and 80 mpg—but such
results were made possible by combining the thermal efficiency of diesel power with
the latest advances in hybrid technology.

Manufacturers are exploring the possibility of light-duty diesel HEVs

for cars, trucks and SUVs, but these powertrains must compete against many new,
and in many cases less expensive, technologies under consideration. Both the diesel
engine and the hybrid powertrain technology would add significant incremental cost
to the vehicle. Currently, the most promising applications for diesel hybrid
technology are in transit bus and commercial vehicle applications.

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 Heavy-Duty Diesel-Electric Hybrids

Diesel engines are dominant in the heavy-duty vehicle sector because

of their power, efficiency, durability and reliability. In certain applications, a
diesel-electric hybrid system can magnify two of these important advantages—it
can add more power at low engine speeds and improve diesel’s already high
efficiency. Because hybrids create some of their efficiency gains through
regenerative braking and power-on-demand, the heavy-duty applications that
benefit most from diesel-electric hybrid technology are those that are driven in stop-
and-go conditions—such as transit buses and urban delivery trucks. Moreover,
such fleets are often subject to public policy initiatives that require or encourage
actions to reduce heavy-duty vehicle emissions, and diesel-electric hybrid
technology is proving to be an excellent way to meet those goals.

Diesel Electric HEVs Are A Proven Concept

Some heavy-duty diesel applications that rely on extremely large engines—such

as diesel locomotives and certain giant mining trucks—have for many years used both diesel
engines and electric motors in combination. These series hybrids differ from more modern HEV
technologies discussed in this paper, because they do not use electric storage devices,
regenerative braking or power-on-demand controls to limit the use of the internal combustion
engine. Instead, these vehicles employ a hybrid system that enables the diesel engine to run
constantly in a narrow optimal rpm range, without the need for a gearbox that would otherwise
be extremely large and inefficient. Rather than shifting through the many gears that would be
required to accelerate these massive vehicles with a mechanical transmission, the diesel
engines supply constant power to a generator. The generator then produces electricity for
electric traction motors, which are capable of providing sufficient torque at any speed.

Diesel-Electric Hybrid Buses

To date, the largest application of diesel-electric hybrid technology has

occurred in urban transit buses. Public transportation managers are often under
political and regulatory pressure to reduce emissions and cut fuel consumption.
Diesel-electric hybrid buses are now helping to achieve these goals in several cities,
including New York, Los Angeles, Seattle and Philadelphia.

New York City Transit (NYCT) operates the largest fleet of diesel-
electric hybrid buses in the United States. The City’s experience with hybrid
technology began in 1997, when NYCT ordered a pilot fleet of 10 Orion model VI
diesel-electric buses powered by Detroit Diesel engines coupled with a series hybrid
propulsion system—the engine powers a generator; the generator produces
electricity that is stored in a battery pack; the battery pack supplies energy to an
electric traction motor; and the electric traction motor provides torque to turn the
wheels of the bus. Regenerative braking helps to slow and stop the bus, which re-
charges the batteries while reducing brake wear. Because the diesel engine is used

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only to power a generator, it is smaller than the engine in a conventional diesel bus,
and operates at a more constant speed. Emissions are thereby reduced because the
engine can be tuned to minimize engine-out emissions for a specific set of consistent
operating conditions.

For more than one year, NYCT gathered daily in-service fuel and
maintenance data for its hybrid buses. NYCT also conducted periodic driver and
passenger interviews. The transit agency found that the hybrid buses provided up
to a 22% fuel economy advantage over conventional diesels. Facility preparations
for accommodating hybrid buses were minor, especially compared to the major
infrastructure modifications required to fuel and maintain compressed natural gas
(CNG) buses. Operators of the diesel-electric hybrids were very pleased to find that
the buses offered faster acceleration into busy traffic, better traction in bad weather,
and smoother braking. Passengers report favoring the smoother, quieter ride, and
are very supportive of the emission benefits offered by hybrid technology.

The only disadvantages that NYCT experienced were the higher

purchase prices and maintenance costs of hybrid technology. Each prototype hybrid
bus was purchased at a price of $465,000, compared to a price of about $320,000 for
CNG buses and $290,000 for conventional diesels. Maintenance costs for the hybrid
buses were 76-150% higher than those for conventional diesels. NYCT was neither
surprised nor deterred by these higher costs, which are typical for prototype
technologies. As expected, the purchase price differential between hybrid and
standard diesels has already fallen significantly—the next generation of NYCT’s
diesel-electric hybrid buses came with a purchase price of $385,000. Furthermore,
monthly maintenance figures at NYCT demonstrated a significant decrease in
maintenance time and costs over the 12-month testing period. As more hybrids are
produced and mechanics become more familiar with the hybrid technologies, the
purchase price and maintenance costs of diesel-electric hybrids will continue to fall.

In early 2002, NYCT significantly increased its diesel-electric hybrid

fleet with the purchase of 125 Orion model VII buses powered by Cummins engines
and an upgraded series hybrid propulsion system. These hybrids are equipped with
catalyzed (regenerative) particulate filters and operated on low sulfur (< 30 ppm)
diesel fuel. In a chassis dynamometer testing program conducted by Environment
Canada, the emissions and fuel economy performances of these diesel-electric
hybrids were compared to Orion V buses powered by standard diesel engines
certified to 1999 emissions standards and equipped with the same type of
aftertreatment particulate filters. As shown in Table 1, the new generation of
diesel-electric hybrids achieved almost 60% better fuel economy than the standard
diesels. The diesel-electric hybrids produced 60% less particulate matter (PM), and
produced 49% less nitrogen oxides (NOx) than the standard diesels. The hybrids
also out-performed the standard diesels with regard to carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.

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Table 1: Transit Bus Emissions and Fuel Economy (Central Business District Cycle)

PM NOx CO CO2
Bus MPG
g/mi g/mi g/mi g/mi
Orion VII Diesel HEV 0.012 12.9 0.08 1848 5.4
(with filter)
Orion V Standard 0.03 25.1 0.13 2958 3.4
Diesel (with filter)
Diesel HEV -60% -49% -38% -38% +59%
Compared to
Standard Diesel

Source: “NYCT Diesel Hybrid-Electric Buses,” U.S. Dept. of Energy, July 2002

In another testing program, Allison Transmission tested its diesel-

electric hybrid bus systems against comparable CNG systems. The results, depicted
below in Figure 1, show that the buses equipped with Allison Diesel HEV systems
produced fewer PM and NOx emissions than the CNG system. The tests also
confirmed that the Diesel HEV produces significantly fewer PM and NOx emissions
than the standard diesel buses.

Figure 1: Diesel HEV, CNG and Standard Diesel Bus Emission Comparison

Source: Allison Transmission, a division of General Motors Corp., August 2002

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 Diesel-Electric Hybrid Trucks

Buses are not the only applications benefiting from diesel-electric

hybrid technology. Diesel-electric hybrid trucks have been developed by both
Nissan Diesel and a partnership between Hino Motors and Toyota. Because diesel
hybrids produce exceptionally clean emissions when driving in stop-and-go urban
areas, these manufacturers have used hybrid technology in their urban delivery
trucks.

The development of diesel-electric hybrid technology for the trucking

sector recently received a significant boost when FedEx Corporation, the world’s
largest express transportation company, announced plans to convert its entire fleet
of medium-weight pickup/delivery trucks into diesel-electric hybrids. The project
began in early 2001 when FedEx invited proposals from automotive manufacturers
to develop and supply delivery trucks that would reduce emissions by 90%, increase
fuel economy by 50%, and still meet FedEx’s standards for functionality and cost-
effectiveness. It soon became clear that diesel-electric hybrid trucks would be the
only method by which FedEx could meet such demanding criteria. On May 20, 2003,
FedEx announced that it selected Eaton Corporation to supply an advanced diesel-
electric hybrid powertrain for FedEx’s pilot fleet of 20 hybrid delivery trucks. After
FedEx gains experience with the pilot fleet, this program has the potential to lead
to the use of diesel-electric hybrid technology in replacing all 30,000 FedEx
medium-duty delivery trucks over the next 10 years.

Conclusions

Hybrid-electric technologies using both gasoline and diesel engines

show promise for certain applications. Available in only three small passenger car
applications of two manufacturers, gasoline HEVs have gained in popularity in the
United States, though issues such as resale value and longevity are not well
understood. In addition, these gasoline HEVs must compete with diesel and other
advanced powertrain technologies.

Concept diesel HEVs developed for the PNGV project successfully

demonstrated the significant fuel efficiency possibilities of the inherently fuel-
efficient diesel engine mated to an electric drive powertrain. Currently, diesel
transit bus and commercial delivery vehicles appear to be well-suited applications
and are experiencing a substantial growth in use.

For more information about diesel technology visit

www.dieselforum.org.

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