What Are Conjunctions?

Grammarly

Without conjunctions, you’d be forced to express every complex idea in a series

of short, simplistic sentences: I like cooking. I like eating. I don’t like washing
dishes afterward.

How do conjunctions work?

Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.

I like cooking and eating, but I don’t like washing dishes afterward.

Sophie is clearly exhausted, yet she insists on dancing till dawn.

Conjunctions allow you to form complex, elegant sentences and avoid the
choppiness of multiple short sentences. Make sure that the phrases joined by
conjunctions are parallel (share the same structure).

I work quickly and careful.

I work quickly and carefully.

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Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of

equal grammatical rank in a sentence. The most common coordinating
conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can remember them by
using the mnemonic device FANBOYS.

I’d like pizza or a salad for lunch.

We needed a place to concentrate, so we packed up our things and went to the
library.
Jesse didn’t have much money, but she got by.

Notice the use of the comma when a coordinating conjunction is joining two

independent clauses.

Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Some

examples are either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also.

Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing my
history essay.
I am finished with both my English essay and my history essay.

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses. A

subordinating conjunction can signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast,
or some other kind of relationship between the clauses. Common subordinating
conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though, while, and whereas.
Sometimes an adverb, such as until, after, or before can function as a
conjunction.

I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.

Here, the adverb until functions as a subordinating conjunction to connect two

ideas: I can stay out (the independent clause) and the clock strikes twelve (the
dependent clause). The independent clause could stand alone as a sentence; the
dependent clause depends on the independent clause to make sense.

The subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the middle of the sentence.

It has to be part of the dependent clause, but the dependent clause can come
before the independent clause.

Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.

If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before the independent clause.

I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty.

Because I was thirsty, I drank a glass of water.

Starting a sentence with a conjunction

Many of us were taught in school that it is an error to begin a sentence with a

conjunction, but that rule is a myth. As mentioned above, a subordinating
conjunction can begin a sentence if the dependent clause comes before the
independent clause. It’s also correct to begin a sentence with a coordinating
conjunction. Often, it’s a good way to add emphasis. Beginning too many
sentences with conjunctions will cause the device to lose its force, however, so
use this technique sparingly.

Have a safe trip. And don’t forget to call when you get home.
Gertie flung open the door. But there was no one on the other side.
List of conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Correlative conjunctions

both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but, whether/or

Subordinating conjunctions

after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, because,
before, by the time, even if, even though, if, in order that, in case, in the event
that, lest , now that, once, only, only if, provided that, since, so, supposing, that,
than, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever,
whether or not, while

Determiners
Determiners are words that introduce nouns. These are the different types:

 Articles: a, an, the

 Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
 Possessive Adjectives: my, your, her, his, our, its, their, whose
 Quantifiers: a little, a few, many, much, a lot of, most, any, some,
enough
 Numbers: one, five, forty
 Distributives: both, all, half, neither, either, every, each
 Interrogatives: what, which, whose
CHAPTER 28.  CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction may be used to indicate the relationship between the

ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in the rest of a
sentence. The conjunctions in the following examples are printed in
bold type.

e.g. We could go to the library, or we could go to the park.

e.g. He neither finished his homework nor studied for the test.
e.g. I went out because the sun was shining.

1. Coordinate conjunctions

Coordinate conjunctions are used to join two similar grammatical

constructions; for instance, two words, two phrases or two clauses.

e.g. My friend and I will attend the meeting.

e.g. Austria is famous for the beauty of its landscape and the
hospitality of its people.
e.g. The sun rose and the birds began to sing.
In these examples, the coordinate conjunction and is used to join the
two words friend and I, the two phrases the beauty of its
landscape and the hospitality of its people, and the two clauses the sun
rose and the birds began to sing.
The most commonly used coordinate conjunctions
are and, but and or. In addition, the words nor and yet may be used
as coordinate conjunctions. In the following table, each coordinate
conjunction is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.
Note the use of inverted word order in the clause beginning with nor.

Coordinate Conjunctions

and:  in addition   She tried and succeeded.

 but:  however   They tried but did not succeed.

or:  alternatively   Did you go out or stay at home?

nor:  and neither   I did not see it, nor did they.

yet:  however   The sun is warm, yet the air is cool.

As illustrated above, when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs

which have the same subject, the subject need not be repeated. For
instance, in the example she tried and succeeded, the pronoun she acts
as the subject for both the verb tried and the verb succeeded. It
should also be noted that when a coordinate conjunction joins two
verbs which do not have the same subject, the two coordinate
clauses may be separated by a comma or semicolon, in order to
make the meaning clear.
See Exercise 1.

2. Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the

relationship between the ideas expressed in different parts of a
sentence. For instance, in the following example, the
expression either ... or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in
the two clauses represent two alternative choices of action.
e.g. Either you should study harder, or you should take a different
course.
The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are both ...
and, either ... or and neither ... nor. In the table below, each pair of
correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of its use.
Note that in the construction if ... then, the word then can usually be
omitted.

Correlative Conjunctions
 both ... and He is both intelligent and good-natured.

either ... or I will either go for a walk or read a book.

neither ... nor He is neither rich nor famous.

He had hardly begun to work, when he was

hardly ... when interrupted.

If that is true, then what happened is not

if ... then surprising.

no sooner ... No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus

than came.

not only ... but

also She is not only clever, but also hard-working.

rather ... than I would rather go swimming than go to the library.

scarcely ...
when Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain.

what with ... What with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she

and has many relatives.

whether ... or Have you decided whether you will come or not?

See Exercise 2.

3. Subordinate conjunctions

As has been seen in previous chapters, subordinate clauses may

begin with relative pronouns such
as that, what, whatever, which, who and whom, as well as with words
such as how, when, where, wherever and why.
In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are underlined.
e.g. The house, which stood on a hill, could be seen for miles.
e.g. I wonder how he did that.
In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which
are commonly referred to as subordinate conjunctions. In the following
examples, the subordinate conjunctions are printed in bold type.
e.g. Because it was cold, I wore my winter coat.
e.g. Let us wait until the rain stops.
The subordinate conjunctions below are accompanied by their
meanings and examples of use.

Subordinate Conjunctions

As
1. because:  As he is my friend, I will help him.
2. when:  We watched as the plane took off.

After
1. later in time:  After the train left, we went home.

Although or though
1. in spite of the fact that:  Although it was after midnight, we did
not feel tired.

Before
1. earlier than:  I arrived before the stores were open.

Because
1. for the reason that:  We had to wait, because we arrived early.

For
1. for, because:  He is happy, for he enjoys his work.

If
1. on condition that:  If she is here, we will see her.

Lest
1. for fear that:  I watched closely, lest he make a mistake.
Note the use of the Subjunctive Mood in the clause with lest.

Providing or provided
    1. on condition that:  All will be well, providing you are careful.

Since
1. from a past time:  I have been here since the sun rose.
2. as, because:  Since you are here, you can help me.

So or so that
1. consequently:  It was raining, so we did not go out.
2. in order that:  I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.
Note: When used with the meaning in order that, so is usually
followed by that in formal English.
e.g. I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle.

Supposing
1. if:  Supposing that happens, what will you do?

Than
    1. used in comparisons:  He is taller than you are.

Unless
    1. except when, if not:  Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.

Until or till
    1. up to the time when:  I will wait until I hear from you.

Whereas
    1. because:  Whereas this is a public building, it is open to
everyone.
    2. on the other hand:  He is short, whereas you are tall.

Whether
    1. if:  I do not know whether she was invited.

While
    1. at the time when:  While it was snowing, we played cards.
    2. on the other hand:  He is rich, while his friend is poor.
    3. although:  While I am not an expert, I will do my best.

In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of

subordinate clauses.

As if
    1. in a similar way:  She talks as if she knows everything.
As long as
    1. if:  As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
    2. while:  He has lived there as long as I have known him.

As soon as
    1. immediately when:  Write to me as soon as you can.

As though
    1. in a similar way:  It looks as though there will be a storm.

Even if
    1. in spite of a possibility:  I am going out even if it rains.

In case
    1. because of a possibility:  Take a sweater in case it gets cold.

Or else
    1. otherwise:  Please be careful, or else you may have an
accident.

So as to
    1. in order to:  I hurried so as to be on time.

See Exercise 3.
Certain words, such as after, before, since and until may function either
as prepositions or subordinate conjunctions. However it should be
noted that in some cases different words must be used as
prepositions and subordinate conjunctions, in order to express
similar meanings. This is illustrated in the table below.

Differing Prepositions and Conjunctions

Meaning Preposition Conjunction

for this reason because of because

in spite of this despite although

 at the time when during while

in a similar way like as if

In the following examples, the objects of the prepositions, and the

verbs of the subordinate clauses are underlined.

Preposition: They were upset because of the delay.

Conjunction: They were upset because they were delayed.

Preposition: Despite the rain, we enjoyed ourselves.

Conjunction: Although it rained, we enjoyed ourselves.

Preposition: We stayed indoors during the storm.

Conjunction: We stayed indoors while the storm raged.

Preposition: It looks like rain.
Conjunction: It looks as if it will rain.
In the above examples, it can be seen that the prepositions because
of, despite, during and like have the noun objects delay, rain and storm;
whereas the subordinate conjunctions because, although, while and as
if introduce subordinate clauses containing the verbs were
delayed, rained, raged and will rain.
It should be noted that like is sometimes used as a subordinate
conjunction in informal English.
e.g. It looks like it will rain.
However, this use of like is considered incorrect in formal English.
See Exercise 4.

4. Connecting adverbs

Connecting adverbs are often used to show the relationship between

the ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in a
preceding clause, sentence or paragraph. In the following examples,
the connecting adverbs are printed in bold type.
e.g. I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.
e.g. We knew what to expect. Therefore, we were not surprised at
what happened.
In the first example, the connecting adverb however shows that there
is a conflict between the idea expressed in the clause I was too
tired and the idea expressed in the preceding clause I wanted to study.
In the second example, the connecting adverb therefore shows that
there is a cause and effect relationship between the idea expressed
in the sentence we knew what to expect, and the clause we were not
surprised at what happened.
Connecting adverbs are similar to conjunctions in that both may be
used to introduce clauses. However, the use of connecting adverbs
differs from that of conjunctions in the ways indicated below.

a. Stress and punctuation

In spoken English, a connecting adverb is usually given more stress
than a conjunction. Correspondingly, in formal written English a
connecting adverb is usually separated from the rest of a clause by
commas, whereas a conjunction is usually not separated from the
rest of a clause by commas.

In addition, in formal written English a clause containing a

connecting adverb is often separated from a preceding clause by a
semicolon; whereas a clause beginning with a conjunction is usually
not separated from a preceding clause by a semicolon.
e.g. I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.
      I wanted to study, but I was too tired.
In the first example, the connecting adverb however is preceded by
a semicolon, and is separated from I was too tired by a comma. In
the second example, the conjunction but is preceded by a comma
rather than by a semicolon, and is not separated from I was too
tired by a comma.

It should be noted that when no conjunction is present, a semicolon

may be used to connect two main clauses. For example:
      The clouds dispersed; the moon rose.
In this example, the two main clauses the clouds
dispersed and the moon rose are connected by a semicolon rather
than by a conjunction.
b. Connecting adverbs used to connect sentences
Unlike conjunctions, connecting adverbs may be used in formal
English to show the relationship between ideas expressed in
separate sentences. For example:
      The wind was strong. Thus, I felt very cold.
In this example, the connecting adverb thus shows that there is a
cause and effect relationship between the ideas expressed by the
two sentences the wind was strong and I felt very cold.

In informal English, coordinate conjunctions are sometimes used to

show the relationship between the ideas expressed in separate
sentences. For example:
      The wind was strong. And I felt very cold.
However, this use of coordinate conjunctions is considered to be
grammatically incorrect in formal English.

c. Position in a clause
A subordinate conjunction must usually be placed at the beginning
of a clause. However, as was seen in the discussion on adverbs, a
connecting adverb may be placed at the beginning, in the middle, or
at the end of a clause. This is illustrated below.
His visit was unexpected. Nevertheless, I was pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was, nevertheless, pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was pleased to see him, nevertheless.
d. Examples of connecting adverbs
The following are examples of words which may be used as
connecting adverbs. Each connecting adverb is followed by its
meaning and an example of its use.

Connecting Adverbs

  He was very persuasive; accordingly, I did

accordingly:  so what he asked.

  She is my neighbor; she is also my best

also:  in addition friend.
besides:  in addition   I like the job. Besides, I need the money.

  She had a fever; consequently, she stayed

consequently:  so at home.

furthermore:  in   You should stop smoking. Furthermore,

addition you should do it at once!

hence:  for that   He is a good friend. Hence, I was not

reason embarrassed to ask him for help.

  We wanted to arrive on time; however, we

however:  but were delayed by traffic.

  The region is beautiful. Likewise, the

likewise:  in addition climate is excellent.

moreover:  in   She is very intelligent; moreover, she is

addition very ambitious.

nevertheless:  but   They are proud. Nevertheless, I like them.

  The ascent was dangerous. Nonetheless, he

nonetheless:  but decided to attempt it.

otherwise:  if not, or   We should consult them; otherwise, they

else may be upset.

  It is a long way to the beach. Still, it is a

still:  but fine day to go swimming.

then:  1. next,
afterwards   We went shopping, then we had lunch.

  2. so   If you are sure, then I must believe you.

therefore:  for that   I was nervous; therefore, I could not do

reason my best.

  He travelled as quickly as possible. Thus,

thus:  so, in this way he reached Boston the next day.
As indicated in the following table, several connecting adverbs have
meanings similar to those of the conjunctions and, but or so.

Connecting Adverbs with meanings similar to And, But and

So

Similar to And Similar to But Similar to So

  also   however   accordingly

  besides   nevertheless   consequently

  furthermore   nonetheless   hence

  likewise   still   therefore

  moreover     thus

See Exercises 5 and 6.

5. Parallel construction

The repetition of a particular grammatical construction is often

referred to as parallel construction. This is illustrated in the following
examples.
e.g. I am neither angry nor excited.
e.g. The resort contains tennis courts, swimming pools and a snack
bar.
In the first example, the two phrases neither angry and nor
excited exhibit parallel construction. In the second example, the three
phrases tennis courts, swimming pools and a snack bar exhibit parallel
construction.
In English, it is considered preferable to use parallel construction
whenever parallel ideas are expressed.
Thus, whenever possible, parallel construction should be employed
when correlative conjunctions are used. In the following example,
the correlative conjunctions are printed in bold type.
Incorrect: He has both a good education, and he has good work
habits.
Corrected: He has both a good education and good work habits.
The first sentence is incorrect, since both and and are followed by
different grammatical constructions. Both is followed by the phrase a
good education; whereas and is followed by the clause he has good work
habits. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the
clause he has good work habits into the phrase good work habits.
The following example illustrates the use of parallel construction
with the correlative conjunctions neither ... nor.
Incorrect: She turned neither right nor to the left.
Corrected: She turned neither right nor left.
or Corrected: She turned neither to the right nor to the left.
The first sentence is incorrect, since neither is followed by a single
word; whereas nor is followed by a prepositional phrase. The second
sentence has been corrected by changing the phrase to the left to the
word left. Alternatively, as shown in the third sentence, two
prepositional phrases can be used.
See Exercise 7.
Parallel construction should also be used when listing a series of
ideas. For example:
Incorrect: The hotel is charming, well-situated and is not expensive.
Corrected: The hotel is charming, well-situated and inexpensive.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first two items in the
series, charming and well-situated, are adjectives, whereas the last
item, is not expensive, contains a verb. The second sentence has been
corrected by changing is not expensive to the adjective inexpensive.
The following is another example of the use of parallel construction
when listing a series of ideas.
Incorrect: I like to ski, skating and swimming.
Corrected: I like skiing, skating and swimming.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first item in the series, to
ski, is an infinitive, whereas the second and third
items, skating and swimming, are gerunds. The second sentence has
been corrected by changing the infinitive to ski to the gerund skiing.
See Exercise 8.