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Waheed 2020
Waheed 2020
Review
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Background: Owing to increased egg consumption globally, a corresponding surge of about 18% in egg pro
Eggshell duction has been recorded during the last decade as reported by WATT Global Media’s Executive Guide to World
Waste utilization Poultry Trends. Up till 2017, global egg production has hit 80-million metric-ton mark with China, USA and
Pharmaceutical industry
India, being the leading egg-producing countries contributing their share of 458, 109 and 95 billion eggs per
Supplements
Medicinal importance
annum, respectively. Global egg production for the year 2018 was 78 million metric tons, contributing
approximately 8.58 million metric ton of eggshells which are being discarded mostly as waste. This calcium-rich
commodity is dumped into landfills, leading to various environmental issues, and therefore should be tackled
properly.
Scope and approach: Eggshells are obtained from egg processing plants, egg stations, chicken hatcheries, in
dustries and homes in millions of tonnes and can be employed in a myriad of fields. The following review article
provides a brief insight into various applications of eggshells in our society, such as their use in medicinal
supplements, bone graft substitute and denture base. Eggshells can also be employed in constructing floor tiles
and in cement to enhance compressive strength. Other diverse applications of eggshell may include animal feed,
plant fertiliser, batteries, inkjet printers, biodiesel production and removal of heavy metals from soil and water.
Key findings and conclusion: The increasing urbanisation and industrialization with amplified waste generation
have wreaked havoc on our climate; thus, making it necessary to take certain extravagant measures to ensure the
safety and sustainability of our planet.
1. Introduction even more vexing is the fact that these are a valuable commodity
(Ravindran & Jaiswal, 2016).
The ever-increasing global population requires different resources in In the past few years, with the increase in income and greater dietary
addition to the basic needs of food and residence for survival. Conse acceptance, higher egg consumption has been observed. This trend is
quently, it has led to increased urbanisation, higher food demand and more noticeable among developing countries as the population has
hence heightened food waste generation. This problem was further accepted eggs as being a source of high-quality protein which in turn has
intensified due to slow development in the field of waste management. influenced the consumer’s purchasing decision. According to the report
Food waste-being a reservoir of various nutrients can act as a raw ma of World Agriculture Supply and Demand Estimates; in the United States
terial for manufacturing various value-added products. Among other alone, egg consumption is expected to augment from around 7951.8
food wastes, eggshells constitute a bulk and what makes this dilemma million dozen in 2019 to over 8000 million dozen in 2020. Per capita
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mrkhan_ft@yahoo.com (M.R. Khan), dilrana89@gmail.com (R.M. Aadil).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.10.009
Received 15 July 2020; Received in revised form 11 September 2020; Accepted 2 October 2020
Available online 7 October 2020
0924-2244/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
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M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
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M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
hydroxyapatite nanorods from eggshell powder, intending to apply this 2.6. Pharmaceutical industry/excipient
therapy to osteosarcoma patients post operatively. Se-doped hydroxy
apatite not only improved the growth of normal bone cells but also A new application of eggshell powder involves its use as a pharma
inhibited cancerous cells proliferation. Salama et al. (2019) evaluated ceutical excipient in fast and sustained release of acetaminophen tablets,
the regenerative ability and biocompatibility of an eggshell containing where this drug was used as a model by Than, Lawanprasert, and
supplement as a bone graft in rabbits. They first created bone cavities Jateleela (2012). Four different eggshell powders were prepared.
surgically and then filled them with eggshell based supplement powder. Namely: untreated eggshell powder, ethanol treated, chloroform treated
Histological examination of the bones revealed newly formed bone eggshell and water treated eggshell powder. Constituents of tablets
trabeculae (fibrous tissue). including acetaminophen, microcrystalline cellulose and eggshell pow
der were prepared by direct compression method. Results demonstrated
that untreated eggshell powder triggered the fast release of the drug,
2.5. Dentistry whereas, treated eggshell powders induced sustained release of the drug.
Habib et al. (2015) undertook a study to prepare sustained release
The extreme surface coarseness of dental plate or artificial teeth can tablets of aceclofenac by incorporating eggshell powder as a pharma
impair the health of the oral cavity. Onwubu, Vahed, Singh, and Kanny ceutical excipient. The results of the investigation were suggestive that
(2017) determined the effectiveness of eggshell powder in reducing eggshells could act as a cheap pharmaceutical excipient contrary to the
surface roughness. They prepared different specimens and polished commercially available expensive release retardant polymers. More
them with eggshell powder of varying particle sizes. Some of the spec over, the release pattern of the drug also relied upon the solution with
imens were polished with pumice – a volcanic rock. After analysing which eggshell was treated. In the given case, chloroform treated
surface roughness with different techniques, it was concluded that eggshell powder formulation yielded better results since the formulation
eggshell powder is more effective in reducing the surface roughness of can promote desirable drug release upon hydration, swelling and gel
dental plate or artificial teeth. These dental cements are extensively formation.
being practised in the field of dentistry. These can be employed as a base
material, for temporary filling and luting. Calcium based cement are 2.7. Heavy metals removal
utilised in root canal filling, apexification and apexogenesis.
Mony, Ebenezar, Ghani, and Narayanan (2015) evaluated the po 2.7.1. Lead, cadmium and copper removal
tential of eggshell powder solution to re-mineralize enamel carious le With increasing industrialization, the aquatic environment is being
sions. Enamel carious lesions are referred to as white spots which occur contaminated by heavy metals at a very rapid rate. Metal-based indus
on the surface of teeth as a result of acidic pH of mouth due to acid trial operations, smeltering, mining and foundries all lead to heavy
production by cariogenic bacteria. Un-erupted, third molars were metal contamination. Inorganic pollutants such as lead, cadmium,
exploited in this study where each molar was divided into 4 parts and arsenic, chromium and mercury are particularly a concern because they
subjected to demineralization protocol and was then divided into 4 are non-biodegradable, toxic and mobile. These heavy metals can
groups. These groups were untreated group, sub-surface demineraliza accumulate in the human body and lead to serious toxicity issues and
tion group, sub-surface demineralization followed by 7-day immersion health concerns even at low concentrations. Eggshells can also be uti
in chicken eggshell powder solution and sub-surface demineralization lised as a low-cost sorbent for the removal of cadmium, lead and copper
followed by clinpro application. It was inferred that chicken eggshell ions from aqueous solutions. Waste eggshells contain around 95% of
powder with a higher content of calcium was capable of re-mineralizing calcium carbonate which can reduce environmental pollution by
enamel carious lesions. Onwubu, Mdluli, Singh, Madikizela, and immobilizing heavy metals (Ahmad et al., 2012). Fig. 2 shows how
Ngombane (2019) evaluated acid resistant nanosized dental eggshells act as an adsorbing agent and remove heavy metals from
eggshell-titanium dioxide material and deduced that these were effec polluted water.
tive in re-mineralizing enamel lesions and provided a better protective Kanyal and Bhatt (2015) studied the effect of eggshell waste in
covering to tooth enamel. removing contaminants (heavy metals) from wastewater. They postu
lated that eggshells are best adsorbents and provide the highest yield at a
2.5.1. Filler on bio-composite acrylic resin for denture based neutral pH, 100 revolutions per minute and 90-min contact time. They
Due to poor dental hygiene, tooth loss has increased in the past few further stated that if the particle size of eggshell was reduced to nano
years and in order to counter this problem, the use of denture is also scale, results could be more cost-effective. They used other household
expected to rise. The denture base is that part of the denture which rests wastes such as powder of banana peel and pumpkin, but eggshells were
on soft tissues and; therefore, should be biocompatible. Mechanical considered effective as they made filtration process easier (they left
properties of denture material depend upon particle size, morphology colourless solution). Jahan, Mollah, Ahmed, and Susan (2017) prepared
and distribution of filler molecule. Eggshell, due to high source of cal nano-hydroxyapatite from eggshell-derived-calcium precursor and these
cium carbonate, is a good biocompatible biomaterial. Denture material
prepared by employing eggshell as a bio-filler indicates high modulus of
elasticity and modulus of rapture i.e. it has higher stiffness and strength
(Lubis, Ginting, Dalimunthe, Hasibuan, & Sastrodihardjo, 2017). Similar
results were reported by Mohammed (2020) who further reported that
specimen with 1% eggshell powder displayed highest average value of
elongation percentage at break (i.e. more ductile) while specimen with
5% eggshell powder had a high mean value of impact strength (ability to
resist certainly applied force).
KareemBurhan, Kareem, and Abed (2020) determined the impact of
adding eggshell powder on flexural strength of eggshell-PMMA com
posites when treated with various denture cleansers. Final results
demonstrated that when 1% eggshell was added; flexural strength
improved by 15% and upon treatment with dental cleansers flexural
strength improved by 25% with tap water, 11% with peroxide based
cleansers and 30% with salty water. Fig. 2. Removal of heavy metals through adsorption/sorption.
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M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
proved to be very effective adsorbent in removing heavy metals like at toxic levels. Therefore, it is necessary to remove such heavy metals
arsenic from aqueous solutions. from soil and for this purpose chicken eggshells-liming material is
An experiment by Tizo et al. (2018) depicted that chicken eggshells effective. Chicken eggshell also serves as an alternative source of cal
could help to remove more than 70% of Cadmium from aqueous solu cium carbonate. Incorporation of eggshells elevates the pH level of soil
tion. The highest adsorption capacity of 146 mg/g was obtained at 150 which may result in precipitation of heavy metals in soil (Ok et al.,
mg/L with a contact time of 1 h and 15 min and 0.75 g adsorbent. The 2011). Fig. 3 shows how calcium carbonate or other liming agent
rate of adsorption depended upon concentration factor while valence immobilize heavy metals in soil.
forces (through sharing and exchanging of electrons) between cadmium Ashrafi, Mohamad, Yusoff, and Hamid (2015) made two low-cost
ion and calcium carbonate from eggshell determined rate limiting step. amendments to treat slightly alkaline soil. These included eggshells
This confirmed that eggshells can be a good non-renewable adsorbent as and banana peel for immobilization of lead, zinc and cadmium in soil.
compared to other commercial or waste-derived adsorbents for heavy The soil was contaminated artificially before treatment with 10% ba
metal removal. nana stem or 5% eggshell powder. Metal leaching experiments were also
Makuchowska-Fryc (2019) prepared a mixed solution of nickel, conducted for 3 months and towards the end of experimentation,
cadmium and copper and checked the effectiveness of eggshell and clay sequential extraction was carried out. According to experimental results,
limestone in removing these metals. These three elements are also found soil treated with eggshell showed considerably reduced mobility of the
in effluent from wet flue gas desulphurisation installations; so, the ratio metals particularly by transforming themselves into less accessible
(of minerals) was kept like that in the effluent. The results of the study fractions.
demonstrated that the metals were removed when they bind to hy
droxides or carbonates (i.e. precipitate out) and that eggshells can be 2.7.3. Separation of chromium from water
used as a replacement of clay limestone. Chromium, a hazardous pollutant obtained from industrial effluent is
highly soluble in water and its oxidised form i.e. hexavalent chromium is
2.7.2. Immobilization of Lead and Cadmium in contaminated soil very toxic for animals and humans. Once this element reaches blood
In order to immobilize heavy metals present in the soil; such as circulation, it damages organs and initiates serious life-threatening
cadmium and lead, liming materials can be tested. One of the liming complications. To overcome this problem, waste eggshells are feasible
materials is calcium carbonate which is present in high amounts in as a sorbent for removing chromium ions from water. Maximum
eggshells. These heavy metals in the ground can contaminate ground removal (93%) of hexavalent chromium was obtained at 25 ◦ C, pH 5-
water and end up accumulating in plants. When humans consume these and 90-min contact time (Daraei, Mittal, Noorisepehr, & Mittal, 2015).
plants, these elements are amassed in the human body and are not Ravi and Sundararaman (2020) have also stated that eggshell coated
removed. Constant accumulation results in a build-up of these elements magnetic nanoparticles were promising adsorbent for separating
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chromium from water. According to their findings, these nanoparticles 2.8. Catalytic applications
removed hexavalent chromium from tested water, underground, tan
nery and surface wastewater by ≈ 92%, 84%, ≈72% and ≈90% 2.8.1. Biodiesel production
respectively. Growing demand for energy and awareness about environmental
Chen, Xiao, and Yang (2016) loaded Iron (III) oxide-hydroxide conditions has led to the development of alternative fuel sources which
(α-FeOOH) particles on the eggshell surface through covalent bond can replace already depleting fossil fuels. Biodiesel, which is an alter
interaction and electrostatic attraction to evaluate adsorption capacity native fuel for diesel engines, is biodegradable, non-toxic and renewable
and mechanism of eggshell to adsorb and remove hexavalent chromium which means that it is environment friendly (Niju, Sheriffa Begum, &
and phosphate from aqueous solutions. After series of experiments; they Anantharaman, 2014). In the context of environmental problems due to
concluded that α-FeOOH modification was effective in improving reliance on traditional homogenous catalysts and food-fuel rivalry,
sorption ability of eggshell and proved that eggshells could be a po production of biodiesel from vegetable oil by traditional homogenous
tential pollutant remedy. Removal rate of both these pollutants was catalysts will no longer be permissible and acceptable in the near future.
directly proportional to adsorbent dosage; while rate decreased when A substantial rise has been discerned in the use of heterogeneous cata
pH increased from 3 to 9 and ionic strength increased from 0 to 0.1 M. lysts to produce biodiesel particularly because of ecological numerations
and its ability to counter greenhouse gases (Mansir et al., 2018).
2.7.4. Removal of heavy metals from acid mine drainage To manufacture cost-effective biodiesel; non-edible oils, fish oils and
During mining and extraction of minerals; fragmentation of sulphur animal fat can be employed as raw material instead of using edible plant
containing minerals (sulphur ores) generates acid mine drainage and vegetable oil. Alkaline earth metal oxides with a high pH value are
through a series of geochemical reactions. This acid mine drainage is appropriate for biodiesel manufacturing. Among these alkaline earth
extremely acidic (pH 3) with a heavy load of minerals like iron, man metals oxides, oxide of calcium is a favourable heterogeneous base
ganese, aluminium and sulphates (Muliwa, Leswifi, & Onyango, 2018). catalyst. To obtain calcium oxide, waste shells of egg, molluscs and
When minerals and sulphide ores are exposed to water and oxygen then oysters etc. were calcined to utilise them in biodiesel production (Niju
acid mine drainage or acid rock drainage is formed. Heavy metals are et al., 2014). Fig. 4 shows a schematic diagram for biodiesel production.
released in water once the ore is exposed resulting in the water body to Eggshells from hen and ducks have been utilised as raw material for
have a low pH, high heavy metal load and salinity which ultimately preparing heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production and are
impacts water resources and living organisms (Moodley, Sheridan, considered as a bioresource for the production of heterogeneous catalyst
Kappelmeyer, & Akcil, 2018). and can be employed for manufacturing biodiesel with high purity. Wei,
Though neutralisation through limestone was an effective way to Xu, and Li (2009) reported that a highly active and reusable catalyst can
counter the problem, but limestone mining has its demerits. Therefore; it be obtained by calcination of eggshells. The utilization of eggshell as a
was necessary to develop an alternative, economical way of neutralising catalyst in biodiesel production is not only cost-effective but also re
acid mine drainage. The focus was then shifted to biomaterials and re duces biodiesel production cost. Tshizanga, Aransiola, and Oyekola
ports indicated that sawdust, sugar cane bagasse, rice husks, orange and (2017) reported a significantly higher yield of biodiesel by using
banana peel were also effective, but eggshells proved to be most bene calcined eggshell ash. More than 90% of biodiesel yield was obtained in
ficial owing to their composition. Calcium carbonate-the major 2 h by using only 3.5% weight of eggshell ash. Table 3 summarises
component of eggshell could be useful in binding or exchanging ions and utilization of eggshell powder for the production of biodiesel by various
is a significant alkalising agent (when equilibrated with acidic water, researchers.
heavy metals precipitate on eggshell’s surface i.e. neutralisation takes
place) (Muliwa et al., 2018). 2.9. Partial replacement of cement
Muliwa et al. (2018) employed eggshells for removal of heavy metals
from acid mine drainage and their results revealed that eggshells not Eggshells rich in calcium carbonate are deemed to be a solid waste
only had an excellent acid-neutralising effect as compared to limestone material which is very difficult to dispose. Various scientists have
but were economical as well. Eggshell particles reduced the acidity of partially replaced cement with eggshell and reported using the mixture
acid mine drainage. Removal of heavy metals was dominated by pre in road pavements, floor tiles, earth canals, dams and as a soil stabilizer.
cipitation in alkaline reactions and co-precipitation of heavy metals with Amaral, Siqueira, Destefani, and Holanda (2013) discovered an alter
iron ions. The sludge formed by eggshells settled faster as compared to native way to use eggshell waste. They exploited it as a raw material in
that obtained from limestone counterpart and therefore can be used in the cement-brick body and replaced up to 30% cement with eggshell
sedimentation ponds. Iron and aluminium were removed easily and waste. Soil, cement and eggshell waste were employed as raw materials.
completely at a lower temperature; while manganese was partially Bricks with 0% calcium carbonate were considered as control or refer
removed at a higher temperature. Kinetic models revealed that ence brick. Bricks with added eggshell waste showed higher density, low
aluminium and iron were completely removed in a shorter time water absorption and beneficial effect on mechanical strength. These
whereas; manganese needed a longer time. traits could be attributed to the presence of calcium carbonate which
Choi and Lee (2015) investigated the effect of calcined eggshell and acts as a filler and positively influences the granulometric composition
microalgae specie for the removal of heavy metals from acid mine of cement, decreases open pores of cured bricks and leads to augmented
drainage, which is a serious environmental issue. Calcined eggshells densification.
partially removed heavy metals from acid mine drainage and signifi Kumar, Vijaya, and Jose (2016) have reported that compressive and
cantly neutralized acidic pH of water. The removal rate of iron, zinc, flexural strength of concrete was enhanced with the addition of eggshell
copper, cadmium, manganese and arsenic were 99.66, 99.90, 99.47, powder. Addition of silica further improved its strength. Bandhavya,
100, 99.81 and 100%, respectively. Moreover; as measured through an Sandeep, and Bindhushree (2017) replaced cement with eggshell pow
optical panel photobioreactor (OPPBR) biomass productivity was re der at varying concentrations of 0–15% and lower concentrations
ported to increase by 8 times. A linear relationship was seen between resulted in higher compressive strengths. Balouch, Rashid, Javed, and
biomass productivity and heavy metal removal. Therefore, it can be Ahmad (2017) replaced cement with eggshell powder in varying con
inferred that calcined eggshells and microalgae hybrid system appear to centrations of up to 5–20% and compressive strengths measured after 7,
be suitable alternatives for the treatment of wastewater on a large scale. 14, 28 and 63 days demonstrated that compressive strength increased
after 28 days and was maximum when 15% of cement was replaced with
eggshell.
Ing and Choo (2014) investigated the effect of 5 different
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M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
concentrations of eggshell powder on the compressive strength of them from waste waters by various methods. Among these methods,
cement. The highest compressive strength was achieved with 10% adsorption techniques are easy to use, inexpensive, simple and absorb
eggshell powder and this was around 60% higher than the control group. dyes at higher concentrations. Recently, some considerable interest has
Findings of these studies indicated that eggshell powder can be suc been generated for developing inexpensive adsorbents from waste ma
cessfully used as a partial replacement of cement to produce concrete. terials. Eggshells discarded as waste materials by food manufacturers
Concrete with eggshell powder absorbed less water and allowed less and restaurants can be employed as adsorbents. The main component of
water penetration. Moreover, cement produced by using eggshell pow the eggshell is calcium carbonate, whereas eggshell membranes are
der is cheap and can be feasible in constructions where strength is not composed of fibrous protein network which has a large surface area.
considered as a matter of concern. Apart from that, the addition of Certain studies have indicated that eggshells are able to absorb metal
eggshell powder is known to reduce the plasticity index of soil which is a ions, dye stuffs and organic compounds effectively. When eggshells
measure of the plasticity of soil (Soundara & Vilasini, 2015). particles are combined as filler with polymeric hydrogels, these can act
as cost-effective adsorbents with improved adsorption capacity (Bakhshi
2.10. Dye bio sorbent and adsorbent & Darvishi, 2016). J. Li, Ng, Ma, Zuo, and Song (2017) stated that
eggshell derived MgFe2O4 was a very good adsorbent for capturing,
Heavy metals, volatile organic compounds and dye stuffs are carci transferring and removing antibiotic doxycycline. Their study further
nogenic materials found in wastewater, thus, posing a threat to living reported that adsorbed MgFe2O4 was reusable after magnetic separation
organisms. Therefore, it is the need of the hour to eliminate or reduce from water and acidic treatment.
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Table 3
Utilization of eggshell powder as catalyst for production of biodiesel.
Calcium oxide source Procedure % biodiesel % Reaction Reference
yield catalyst time
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of waste cooking oil 96.07 1.50 50 min Gupta and Rathod (2018)
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of waste cooking oil for biodiesel 96.74 5 4h Borah, Das, Das, Bhuyan, and Deka (2019)
production
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of date seed oil for biodiesel 93.5 5 1.5 h Farooq et al. (2018)
production
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of soya bean oil for biodiesel 93 7 3h Goli, Mondal, and Sahu (2018)
production
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of jatropha curcas oil 90 2 2.5 h Chavan, Kumbhar, Madhu, Singh, and Sharma
(2015)
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of vegetable oil 90 10 3h Majhi and Ray (2016)
Calcined chicken eggshell Transesterification of waste cotton cooking oil 92 3 1h Sinha and Murugavelh (2016)
waste
Waste chicken eggshells Transesterification of waste cooking oil 90.63 7.728 75 min El-Gendy and Deriase (2015)
Chicken eggshell waste Transesterification of waste cooking oil 96.2 2 2h Mansir, Teo, Ibrahim, and Hin (2017)
Calcined chicken eggshell Transesterification of waste frying oil 95.05 3 3h Niju, Sheriffa Begum, and Anantharaman
(2015)
Chicken eggshell Transesterification of waste cooking oil 94 1.5 2h Tan, Abdullah, Nolasco-Hipolito, and
Taufiq-Yap (2015)
Chicken eggshells Transesterification of fresh soya bean oil 98 5.8 9h Piker, Tabah, Perkas, and Gedanken (2016)
Transesterification of waste cooking oil 97 11 h
Pettinato, Chakraborty, Arafat, and Calabro (2015) aimed to calcination-carbonation cycles and reported that more than 75% of
improve the efficiency of membrane biological reactor (MBR) system in carbon dioxide was converted after the first cycle.
removing heavy metals by using eggshells. Metal presence in the system
can cause membrane fouling and to counter that problem, eggshells 2.12. Development of rigid polyurethane foam composites
prove to be an effective strategy. Owing to their surface properties and
porous structure, eggshells possess the ability to remove heavy metals, Rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) is efficient, high performance
pesticides, dyes and phenolic compounds from water. Eggshells were insulating material, which can be employed as an effective mean to cut
reported to be effective in removing contaminants like Congo red down energy cost and render the products more economical and
(Seyahmazegi, Mohammad-Rezaei, & Razmi, 2016), rhodamine B, comfortable. These RPUFs are manoeuvred in construction to limit noise
eriochrome black T, murexide dyes (Borhade & Kale, 2017), methyl and maintain temperature. These can also be utilised to insulate walls,
violet (Foroutan et al., 2019), acidic fuchsine and malachite green roofs, windows and doors (ACC, 2019). Recent research trends
(Moosavi, Amooey, & Marzbali, 2020). encourage utilization of environment friendly raw materials and to
Another application of eggshell as a bio-adsorbent involves the address the issue of waste management. Zieleniewska et al. (2016)
enhanced synthesis of bio-methane gas from ammonia rich waste developed RPUF using eggshell powder as a filler and evaluated prop
(livestock waste in particular). High levels of ammonia produced from erties of the developed product. Results indicated that incorporation of
livestock waste can inhibit anaerobic digestion and as a result, bio- eggshell powder increased its apparent density and strength. Moreover,
methane gas (a non-fossil fuel source of energy) would not be pro the material offered no toxicity to human skin cells and had higher
duced. So, eggshells and lignite-modified zeolite can be considered stability. Tangboriboon, Mulsow, Sangwan, and Sirivat (2018)
reliable as a bio-adsorbent during anaerobic digestion of livestock waste embedded eggshell derived composite foams of calcium sodium alumi
to prevent the accumulation of by-products and ensure that anaerobic nosilicate in polyurethane and noted improvement in polyurethane. It
digestion process is carried out smoothly (Zhang et al., 2019). now possessed high thermal decomposition temperature, high specific
surface area and was lighter in weight.
2.11. Carbon dioxide sorbent
2.13. Linearly low-density polyethylene
As a result of the industrial revolution, environmental pollution is
escalating. This fact can be explained by exacerbated emission of Linearly low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) is an important product
greenhouse gases which includes carbon dioxide as well. Therefore, polymer which is employed for processing of useful products like con
capturing and storage of carbon dioxide is necessary to prevent or at tainers, sheets, table coverings etc. It is used in various applications
least reduce global warming. Utilization of eggshells not only provides because of its chemical resistance, toughness, anti-corrosiveness and
technology with economical sorbent processing costs but also concur anti-cracking flexibility. Regardless of its excellent properties, it is
rently eradicates the waste. Fig. 5 illustrates how eggshells can be uti expensive in nature. To overcome this issue and to improve its physio
lised in sequestering carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide sorbent logical and chemical properties, inorganic materials which are cheap are
capacity of calcined eggshell and commercially available calcium car added to low-density polyethylene as filler. For this purpose, various
bonate was compared, it was observed that capacity of calcined eggshell filler materials were studied and inorganic oxides especially those ob
to capture carbon dioxide was higher as compared to that of commer tained from eggshells (eggshell derived calcium oxide and eggshell
cially available calcium carbonate. This phenomenon could be derived hydroxyapatite) were found to be beneficial in improving
explained due to the small particle size of calcium oxide which provides physicochemical properties. After analysis of LLDPE composites through
a large exposed surface area for the surface reactions of carbon dioxide various techniques, it was assumed that linearly low-density lipoprotein,
(Witoon, 2011). He et al. (2017) derived from their experimental study which was prepared by using eggshells had a macroporous structure,
that hydrated eggshells combined with 10% red mud displayed an op with improved hardness, tensile strength (maximum stress which the
timum absorption performance and the conversion rate was more than material can withhold before breaking), impact strength (ability to resist
50%. Salaudeen, Tasnim, Heidari, Acharya, and Dutta (2018) deter suddenly applied force) and flame retardancy (ability to retard fire
mined the performance of eggshell as a sorbent in multiple propagation) (Jirimali et al., 2018).
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2.14. Bio-filler for polypropylene composites when compared with polypropylene composites made of other materials
like calcium carbonate or talc. Moreover, eggshell polypropylene com
Bashir and Manusamy (2016) characterised eggshells through posites displayed higher tensile strength when compared with those
various analysing techniques like Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), made of calcium carbonate. Eggshells also indicate better reinforcement
Fourier Transform Infra-red Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray Diffraction properties and therefore, are a good substitute to inorganic fillers like
(XRD), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) calcium carbonate and talc.
and their analysis showed that eggshell could be beneficial as a bio filler
for bulk quantity since it is cheap, lightweight and low-load bearing.
2.15. Harvesting microalgae species
Moreover; eggshells had a higher interfacial adhesion as compared to
other ingredients which are used as bio-filler. Feng et al. (2014) also
Microalgae are photosynthetic micro-organisms which convert
exerted the same techniques to characterise eggshell based composites
water, solar energy and carbon dioxide to algal biomass and are an
and deduced that eggshell based polypropylene composites had higher
attractive raw material for biodiesel since they can be cultivated in less
tensile strength with highest values being observed at 4% eggshell
space and have a short growth period. However; harvesting microalgae
powder concentration.
is expensive particularly because of their small size and low cell density
For polypropylene composites, eggshells can be viable as bio-filler.
(H.-J. Choi, 2017). Currently various mechanical, chemical, electrical
Toro, Quijada, Yazdani-Pedram, and Arias (2007) compared tensile
and biological techniques are being employed for harvesting microalgae
strengths of polypropylene composites with distinctive ratios of talc,
(Pandey, Pathak, Kothari, Black, & Tyagi, 2019). Though some of the
calcium carbonate and eggshell powder. Eggshells have low density and
techniques previously developed for harvesting microalgae (such as
polypropylene composites with eggshells exhibited higher crystallinity
flocculation and adsorption) are simple and cost-effective, but they
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require a considerable amount of chemical consumption. Apart from 2.17. Template for high performance lithium-sulphur batteries
that; use of excessive metals causes further problems if an algal mass is
to be considered as a food source for fishes or fuel production (Choi, With the increasing demand for high energy density storage devices,
2017). lithium-sulphur batteries have attracted more attention in recent de
To counter this problem; eggshells are considered as a novel cades. However, due to certain disadvantages like poor electrical con
approach since they are a natural coagulating material and are highly ductivity, shuttle effect (transport of soluble polysulfides between both
recommended owing to their non-toxic, easy to use and non-corrosive electrodes) and volume expansion they are not considered efficient for
nature. Eggshells have a high cationic charge density, and therefore; commercial applications. In order to address this issue, Yuan et al.
strongly destabilize negatively charged microalgae cells. Fig. 6 illus (2017) modified the separator by preparing Nitrogen and Sulphur
trates how eggshells are used as flocculant in harvesting microalgae. co-doped mesoporous carbon prepared by exploiting eggshell. The
Harvesting of microalgae using eggshell is not only cost-effective but manufactured product had a large surface area and therefore provided
also environment friendly. Microalgae separation of about 99% was effective active sites for adsorption of polysulphides and has potential to
attained at optimal conditions i.e. 80 mg/L eggshells, 150 r/minute be used as a commercial product. Zhang et al. (2018) tested eggshells as
mixing rate, 20 min mixing time and 20 min settling time at an optimum a bio-template to manufacture δ-MnO2 nanoplatelets anode of high ca
pH of 6 (H. J. Choi, 2015). Pandey et al. (2019) compared the ability of pacity for lithium-ion batteries. They compared its performance with
waste eggshell, laboratory available calcium carbonate and alum for eggshell free δ-MnO2 batteries. The results registered that eggshell based
harvesting microalgae. According to his results, bio-flocculants (waste batteries had a much higher electrochemical performance as compared
eggshells) were effective in dewatering algal biomass from aqueous to other battery materials.
media (99% efficiency at pH 4).
2.18. Animal feed
2.16. Coating pigment
Eggshells can also be incorporated as a calcium source in animal feed
Corrosion has long been a problem for carbon steel (a most common (Fig. 7). Kismiati, Yuwanta, Zuprizal, and Supadmo (2012) incorporated
and versatile engineering material wielded as pipes and vessels for water eggshells in the dietary regimen of brown laying hens and studied its
transportation) and coatings are applied to protect the material. Calcium overall impact. Hens were divided into four groups; one group was given
carbonate obtained from eggshells had been used as a coating pigment the only limestone while other was fed with only eggshell powder.
for carbon steel by Bakar, Rosly, and Jafar (2017). They tried the elec Whereas, other two groups were provided with a combination of
trophoretic deposition (EPD) method for this purpose and inferred that eggshell powder and limestone. Results showed that eggshell powder
the method was successful at optimum conditions of 60 s, 80 V and considerably optimised dietary calcium and phosphorus intake. It also
600 ◦ C. had a significant effect on egg production and egg weight as compared to
Incorporation of eggshells as a coating pigment for inkjet printers the other two groups, highlighting the importance of eggshell calcium.
provides another way to utilise eggshell waste. In past, synthetic pig Kismiati, Yuwanta, Zuprizal, Supadmo, and Atmomarsono (2018)
ments based on silicon oxide were considered suitable in inkjet printers aimed to determine deposition of calcium in eggs of Isa brown strains
but they had certain advantages and disadvantages. Silica provided high (chicken breed) which were fed eggshell flour as a substitute to lime
image resolution, high colour intensity and rapid drying but it was not stone in the feed. Different treatment groups were formed with varying
cost-effective and had high binder demand. Therefore, eggshells proved concentrations of limestone being replaced with eggshell powder.
to be an effective alternative to silicon oxide, since these are readily Experimental results illustrated that upon 7.5% substitution of lime
available and cheap. Utilization of eggshells as a coating pigment for stone with eggshell flour; calcium deposition was highest in the yolk, but
inkjet printer improved optical density for dye-based inks and reduced this resulted in a loss of calcium from tibia bone. Use of 2.5% eggshell
the density of black ink and paper gloss. Therefore, eggshells could be an powder resulted in calcium deposition in albumen. Another study by
effective source for their utilization in inkjet printers with multi-colour Cherifi, Benammar, and Abdelli (2019) stated that supplementation of
prints rather than simple black and white prints (Yoo, Hsieh, Zou, & eggshell powder in the diet of laying hens improved external charac
Kokoszka, 2009). teristics of the eggs, such as weight of eggs (+3 g) and shell (+1.3 g),
shape index (p = 0.01), shell proportion and mean thickness of the shell
(0.41 g); hence, improving its solidity as a whole and preventing it from
breakage while laying and handling.
87
M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
which was commercially available and yielded better results as produce a myriad of products which may have medicinal, pharmaceu
compared to eggshell in powdered form. Radha and Karthikeyan (2019) tical and industrial applications. Moreover, this raw material is easily
noted the positive effect of using eggshell powder on the growth of and readily available at a low cost. With eggshells being regarded as the
cowpea seeds. The growth of the plant (germination, root and shoot 15th leading cause of environmental pollution, it is need of the time to
length and number of leaves) was positively correlated with eggshell reuse and recycle this industrial food waste for sustainable development
powder concentration. Wazir, Gul, and Hussain (2018) reported that of our globe. Though this could not play a drastic role in eliminating
eggshell powder as a fertiliser improved overall growth and develop pollution, at least it could be a step forward towards a better environ
ment of potato and pea plant. Eggshell powder improved mean plant ment because small drops can create mighty oceans! Based upon diverse
height, a number of nodes, leaves, leaf area, branches and tuber size. applications as explained through our exhaustive literature review, it
can be enumerated that eggshell cannot be simply ignored or dumped as
3. Conclusions waste to landfills, rather can easily and effectively be transformed into
valuable products of industrial applications.
The egg industry has developed rapidly in recent decades owing to
increased nutritional awareness. People have now adopted it as a good Acknowledgements
source of high-quality protein. But at the same time, a heck of pile of
eggshells are discarded in the environment causing environmental We are thankful to the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
pollution. These eggshells are a useful commodity and can be utilised to Pakistan for their support.
88
M. Waheed et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 106 (2020) 78–90
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