International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)

ISSN (Online): 2319-7064 ISSN (Online): 2319-7064

Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2014): 5.611 Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2014): 5.611

A Study of Single Electron Transistor (SET)

Monika Gupta
New Horizon College of Engineering, Bangalore, India

Abstract: Recent research in SET gives new ideas which are going to revolutionize the random access memory and digital data storage
technologies. The goal of this paper is to discuss about the basic physics, applications of nano electronic device ‘Single electron
transistor [SET]’ which is capable of controlling the transport of only one electron. Single-electron transistor (SET) is a key element of
current research area of nanotechnology which can offer low power consumption and high operating speed. The single electron Figure 3: Single electron transistor circuits with Dual Island
transistor is a new type of switching device that uses controlled electron tunneling to amplify current. and retains its scalability even on as SET is composed of two tunnel junctions along with one
an atomic scale. Here, scalability means that the performance of electronic devices increases with a decrease of the device dimensions. island which are capatively coupled to gate electrode. SET
In this paper, we also focus on some basic device characteristics like ‘Coulomb blockade’, single electron tunneling effect & ‘Coulomb
can electrostatically be controlled by the gate capacitance.
staircase’ on which this Single electron transistor [SET] works and the basic comparison of SET & MOSFET characteristics and also
its [SET] advantages as well as disadvantages to make a clear picture about the reason behind its popularity in the field of Thus the total capacitance of the island is given by
Figure 1: Schematic structure of a SET
nanoelectronics.
C∑ = C1+C2+Cg (2)
Quantum dot which is less than 100 nm in diameter is a
Keywords: Single-electron tunneling, Coulomb blockade, Coulomb staircase, Single electron Transistor, Quantum dot, Nanoelectronics.
mesoscopic system in which the electrostatic energy or Thus, such a set up is called single electron transistor.
coulomb energy can be changed due to removal or addition
1. Introduction of a single electron that is greater than the thermal energy
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 3. Principle of Single-Electron Tunneling &
and can control the electron transport into and out of the
In today‟s digital integrated circuit architectures, transistors states about the SET schematic and working. Section 3 gives Coulomb Blockade
quantum dot. In other words, Quantum dot is a small
serve as circuit switches to charge and discharge capacitors the description of principle of Single electron tunneling &
conducting island that contains a tunable number of electrons
to the required logic voltage levels[1]. A transistor is a three Coulomb Blockade. Section 4 presents the I-V characteristics
occupying discrete orbitals.
terminal semiconductor device used to amplify and switch of single electron transistors. Section 5 presents the
electronic signals and electrical power. It has been observed comparison between SET and MOSFET. Section 6 presents
that the Scaling down of electronic device sizes has been the the comparison between SET and CMOS. Section 7 presents
fundamental strategy for improving the performance of the applications of Single Electron Transistor. Finally,
ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (ULSIs). Metal-oxide- Section 8 & 9 describes the advantages & disadvantages of
semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) have been SET followed by conclusion.
the most prevalent electron devices for ULSI applications,
and thus the scaling down of the sizes of MOSFETs [1][2] 2. SET Schematic and its Working
has been the basis of the development of the semiconductor
industry for the last 30 years. However, in the early years of Single-electron transistors (SETs) are essential elements of
the 21st century, the scaling of CMOSFETs is entering the ULSI logic circuit design. A three terminal switching device Figure 4: Schematic structure of SET showing tunnel
deep sub-50 nm regime [3]. In this deep-nanoscaled regime, in which the effect of coulomb blockade can be observed is junctions
fundamental limits of CMOSFETs and technological generally known as single-electron transistor. Unlike field -
Figure 2: Single electron transistor circuits with Single
challenges with regard to the scaling of CMOSFETs are effect transistors, single-electron transistors are based on an
Island
encountered [4]. On the other hand, quantum-mechanical intrinsically quantum phenomenon which is known as
effects are expected to be effective in these small structured „Tunnel effect.’
devices. Therefore, in order to extend the prodigious As shown in Fig. 2 & 3, Single electron transistor circuits are
progress of LSI performance, it is essential to introduce a made of small tunnel junctions, capacitances, and voltage
This tunnel effect may be observed when two metallic
new device having an operation principle that is effective in sources. A gate voltage Vg is used to control the opening and
electrodes are separated by an insulating barrier known as
closing of the SET or in other words, it controls one-by-one Figure 5: Tunnel junction or Insulating Barrier
smaller dimensions and which may utilize the quantum- tunnel junction. These three terminal switching devices can
mechanical effects, and thus provide a new functionality electron transfer. Here, a tunneling electron can be described
transfer electrons form source to drain one by one. The
beyond that attainable with CMOSFETs. as a discrete charge due to stochastic nature of a tunneling As shown in Fig 4 & 5, a tunnel junction is considered as a
schematic structure of SETs is shown in Fig. 1.
event. In Figures 2 & 3, node 1 represents source electrode, thin insulating barrier between two conducting electrodes. In
Single-electron devices [5] are promising as new nanoscaled node 2 (and 4) is island, and node 3 represents drain case of classical electrodynamics, no current can flow
devices because single-electron devices retain their electrode. The tunnel junctions are located in between these through an insulating barrier. But according to the quantum
nodes, which are described by tunnel capacitance and tunnel mechanics approach, there is some probability (i.e. greater
scalability even on an atomic scale and moreover, they can
control the motion of even a single electron. Therefore, if the resistance. The single electron tunneling theory depends on than zero) for an electron located at one side of the barrier
single-electron devices are used as ULSI elements, the ULSI the „Orthodox theory‟ which focuses on charging of the (tunnel junction) to reach the other side. Thus, the transfer of
will have the attributes of extremely high integration and small conducting island of diameter ≤ 100 nm. The electrons through the barriers between the quantum dots
extremely low power consumption. Power consumption is capacitance of island is given by the equation for a would result in charging of the neighboring quantum dots.
Conducting spherical capacitance Now, this would result in an increase of the electrostatic
roughly proportional to the electron number transferred from
C = 2πЄ0Єd (1) energy which is given by
voltage source to the ground in logic operations. Therefore,
the utilization of single electron devices in ULSIs is expected
to reduce the power consumption of ULSIs. SET is said to be (3)
the tiny transistor with tiniest power consumption. Since the
Where C is the effective capacitance of the island. Later on,
technology reaches nano size, the behavior of a
this electrostatic energy became known as Coulomb charging
nanoelectronic single electron transistor (SET) is controlled
energy or coulomb blockade energy. This coulomb blockade
by the quantum mechanical effects.
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Paper ID: NOV152704 474 Paper ID: NOV152704 475
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International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064 ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2014): 5.611 Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2014): 5.611
energy is the repelling energy of previous electron present in The coulomb blockade can be achieved only if, in case, when another very rapidly. Thus this rapid movement of excess transition merely switches the detector current on this device
the island to the next electron coming towards the island. In the following three conditions meet: electrons from one junction to another raises the total charge is not limited to one electron tunneled through the system per
case of a tiny system, the capacitance C of the island is very of the island. If the bias is increased, it will tend to increase absorbed photon. This makes the device an extremely
small. Thus, according to equation (3), the coulomb charging 1. The bias voltage must be lower than the elementary charge the population of electrons in the island. In this case the I-V sensitive and potentially useful detector of microwave
or blockade energy (E ) will be very high and due to this
C divided by the self-capacitance of the island. i.e. Curve represents Stair-like characteristics, which are radiation.
reason, electrons are unable to move simultaneously, but commonly referred to as the „Coulomb Staircase‟.[1]
pass one-by-one. Thus, this coulomb charging energy or Vbias < e/C 5.4. Supersensitive Electrometer
coulomb blockade energy is responsible for the suppression 5. Applications of SET The high sensitivity of single-electron transistors have
of the electrons transfer simultaneously. This phenomenon is 2. The thermal energy KBT must be below the charging enabled them as electrometers in unique physical
known as “Coulomb blockade.” The suppression of electron energy i.e. 5.1 Charge Sensor experiments. For example, they have made possible
transfer can be removed by one of these two possible cases: unambiguous observations of the parity effects in
KBT < e2/C; or else the electron will be able to pass the The Single-electron transistors (SETs) are efficient charge superconductors. Absolute measurements of extremely low
(a) When the coulomb charging energy is overcome by quantum dot (QD) via thermal excitation. sensors for reading out spin. To investigate their capacitive dc currents (~10-20 A) have been demonstrated. The
thermal excitations at a temperature T, i.e parameters, which are related to the signal-to-noise ratio transistors have also been used in the first measurements of
(4) 3. The Tunneling resistance (RT) should be greater than (SNR) during quantum bits readout, twin silicon single single-electron effects in single-electron boxes and traps. A
h/2πe2, which is derived from „Heisenberg's uncertainty (quantum dots) QDs were fabricated using a lithographic modified version of the transistor has been used for the first
(b) When the coulomb charging energy is overcome by an principle‟. i.e. process on a silicon-on insulator substrate. Since the proof of the existence of fractional-charge excitations in the
externally applied voltage V, i.e. configuration and dimensions of the QDs could be fractional quantum hall effect.
RT > h/2πe2 = 25813Ω. determined by direct imaging, the theoretical capacitive
(5) This is the required condition for tunnel resistance. parameters could be compared to the measured values. Good 5.5. Single-Electron Spectroscopy
agreement was found between the calculated and measured One of the most important application of single-electron
Where, is known as „Threshold voltage‟ which is defined as 4. I-V Characteristics of SET value, which confirms the validity of the calculation method. electrometry is the possibility of measuring the electron
an applied voltage that is just sufficient to increase the The results indicated that decreasing the SET diameter addition energies (and hence the energy level distribution) in
energy of electron above the coulomb blockade of tunneling Fig. 6(a) shows the I-V Characteristics for the symmetric reduces the capacitive coupling between quantum bits but quantum dots and other nanoscale objects.
so that the current can start to flow though the tunnel junction circuit of single electron transistor where C1=C2 and increases the signal-to-noise ratio for both dc and radio
junction (Barrier) . This suppression of electron transfer is R1=R2. It is clear from the I-V characteristics of the SET that frequency single shot measurements. Since these results are 5.6. Temperature Standards
normally termed as „Coulomb blockade (CB) of tunneling‟. for |V|< e/C∑, the current is zero. This state is called independent of the device materials, they are useful for Theoretical analysis based on the orthodox theory has shown
Thus, it is clear that if the voltage V is less than the threshold Coulomb blockade that suppresses the tunneling of single establishing guidelines for the design of SET charge sensors that ΔV= 5.44NkBT/e is surprisingly stable with respect to
voltage Vt, the system is in Coulomb blockade (CB) state. In electron in case of low bias condition. Now, if the externally in lateral QD-SET structures based on a two dimensional almost any variations of the array parameters (with the
case, when the voltage V exceeds Vt, an electron tunnels applied junction voltage V is increased up to a level that is electron gas. important exception of a substantial spread in the junctions
through the barrier (tunnel junction) into the quantum dot. above the threshold voltage by charging energy, this effect of resistances) providing a remarkable opportunity to use the
Fig. 2 & 3 represents the single electron circuits with Single Coulomb blockade can be removed and the current flows. In 5.2. Detection Of Infrared Radiation arrays for absolute thermometry, since the fundamental
Island and with Double Island. For making the concept of this situation, the junction behaves like a resistor. The The single-electron transistor can also be used to detect constants are known with high accuracy. Each particular
coulomb blockade of tunneling more clearly, we again sequential entrance and leaving of an electron from one infrared signals at room temperature. Generally, the response array may give high (1%) accuracy of within less than one
consider the single electron circuits in which on applying junction to another is generally known as „Correlated differs from that the well-known Tien-Gordon theory of decade of temperature variations, but for arrays with
photon-assisted tunneling. In fact, this is based on the different island size, these ranges may be shifted and
bias voltage, there will be a current flow. Now, if we avoid tunneling of electrons‟.
additional effects, in that case, the first order approximation assumption of uncorrelated tunneling events, while in single- overlap. Thus, it is possible to have an absolute standard of
tunneling current is proportional to the applied bias voltage. electron systems the electron transfer is typically correlated temperature with a very broad (say, two-decade) total range
In other words, we can say that a tunnel junction behaves [6]. from several circuits fabricated on a single chip. This
like a resistor of a constant value which depends on the By exciting electrons over an electrically induced energy development is very encouraging, but since all this work is
barrier thickness. Since, the tunnel junction is composed of barrier, both the range of detectable wavelengths and the recent, some time is needed to see whether these new devices
two conductors and an insulating layer in between these two sensitivity of the device can be controlled. The sensor works will be able to compete with (or even replace) the established
conductors. Therefore, tunnel junction is described by the when an infrared signal excites conduction band electrons in temperature standards.
tunnel resistance R and tunnel capacitance C. In this case, a 25nm deep electron reservoir. A silicon insulator channel
tunnel junction acts as a capacitor and the insulating layer Figure 6(a): I-Vcharacteristics of SET for symmetric measuring 40 × 400 nm is placed next to the reservoir to
works as a dielectric medium for tunnel capacitor C. The junction. increase the number of excited electrons. A poly-silicon
current flowing through a tunnel junction is a series of events lower gate then turns off the transistor and electrically forms
in which only one electron passes through the tunnel junction an energy barrier, creating a storage node on the other side. 5.7. Programmable Single Electron Transistor Logic
because of discrete nature of charge. As electron tunnels the Electrons with energy greater than the height of the barrier An SET having non volatile memory function is a key for
junction, tunnel capacitance is charged with an elementary are injected into the storage node, where they are read as the programmable SET logic. The half period phase shift
charge building up a voltage which is represented by V = changes in current flowing through the transistor. makes the function of SET complimentary to the
e/C. If the capacitance of the tunnel junction is very small, conventional SETs. As a result SETs having non-volatile
the voltage developed in the tunnel junction may be 5.3. Ultrasensitive Microwave Detector memory function have the functionality of both the
sufficient to prevent another electron to tunnel. Now, in this Single Electron Transistor can work an Ultrasensitive conventional (n-MOS like) SETs and the complementary (p-
situation, the electric current is suppressed if the bias voltage Microwave Detector island is weakly coupled to a bias MOS like) SETs. By utilising this fact the function of SET
is lower than the voltage developed in the tunnel junction. Figure 6(b): I-V Characteristics of the SET for asymmetric circuit through two small capacitance tunnel junctions and a circuit can be programmed on the basis of function stored by
Thus the increment of the tunnel junction resistance around junction representing „coulomb Staircase‟ state. capacitive gate. At low bias voltages and temperatures, a the memory function. The charged around the QD of the
zero bias is considered as the coulomb blockade. Therefore, single quasi-particle may only be introduced to the island SET namely an SET island shift the phase of coulomb
coulomb blockade may be defined as the increased tunnel Fig. 6(b) represent the I-V Characteristics for a highly through photon-assisted tunneling. Once this occurs, the oscillation, the writing/erasing operation of memory function
junction resistance at very low bias voltages of an electronic asymmetric junction circuit for R1<<R2. In this case, the quasi particle is trapped on the island because it takes a which inject/eject charge to/from the memory node near the
device which consists of at least one low capacitance tunnel charge carriers i.e. electrons enter through one junction and relatively long time for this specific quasi particle to tunnel SET Island, makes it possible to tune the phase of coulomb
junction. then escape to second junction due to the presence of high off. While it is trapped, charge is transported through the oscillation. If the injected charge is adequate the phase shift
resistance. Now, electrons moves from one junction to system two electrons at a time. Since the photon-assisted is half period of the coulomb oscillation.

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Paper ID: NOV152704 476 Paper ID: NOV152704 477
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 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064 ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2014): 5.611 Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2014): 5.611
6. Comparison between SET and MOSFET approaches that mimic the CMOS design style do not use the unabated, the quantum properties of electrons will become Author Profile
SET technology to its full potential. crucial in determining the design of electronic devices before
However, the structure of Single electron transistors [SETs] the end of the next decade. It is also one of the key building Monika Gupta received M.Tech Degree in VLSI
is almost same as that of MOSFETs but still there are some Table 1: The theoretical comparisons between SET and blocks needed to make quantum computers which promise Design (Gold Medalist) from MNIT Jaipur, PGDBM
differences between the SETs and MOSFETs such as SETs CMOS exponential increases in processing speed over today‟s in Finance from Symbiosis Pune and B.E honors in
have tunnel junction in place of p-n junction of the Parameters
CMOS
SET circuit
computers through their use of the „spin‟, or magnetic E&C Engineering with total rich work experience of
MOSFETs and a small conducting island [quantum dot] in Circuit orientation, of individual electrons to represent data in their 7.5 yrs as an Academician. Currently working as an
place of channel region of the MOSFETs. Maximal switching speed 10-Oct 15-Oct calculations. SETs have shown promising applications in Assistant Prof. (Dept. of ECE) in New Horizon College of
Supply voltage range 100m 100μV metrology, tera hertz radiation diction and imaging. Because Engineering, Bangalore.
Current range nA Few electron of natural small dimension, SET is a potential solution for
RBC sensitivity None γ continue silicon scaling. In addition, low power dissipation
Maximum voltage gain High High can be achieved in circuits composed of single-electron
Maximum operation temperature >300° Difficult at 300K devices. Metallic structures can be fabricated with vertical
and lateral islands and tunnel barrier structures at
8. Advantages of SET temperature up to 77K. GaAs and silicon based SETs have
been already demonstrated. However, fabrication is still the
Following are the advantages of Single electron transistors most difficult challenge of SET application. Electron beam
Figure 7: Electron tunneling through the channel (a) one-by- (SETs): lithography and scanning probe techniques offer the best
one in SET (b) Transfer of many electrons simultaneously prospects for the future. Besides, some more esoteric
 Low energy consumption
through the channel in MOSFET. techniques based on atomic particle deposition and colloid
 High sensitivity
 Compact size chemistry may also provide some benefits [5].
In SET the tunneling electrons are transferred one-by-one
through the island from source to drain due to the effect of  High operating speed
 Simplified circuit The future of research on SETs looks very bright. It now
Coulomb blockade whereas in MOSFET the number of seems that electronics based on individual molecules and
electrons is transferred through the channel at a time. Thus  Feature of reproducibility
 Simple principle of operation single-electron effects will replace conventional circuits
many electrons simultaneously participate to the drain based on scaled-down versions of field-effect transistors.
current. Due to the Coulomb blockade effect, an electron  Straight forward co-integration with traditional CMOS
approaching a small negative charged region experiences the circuits.[6]
electrostatic repulsion by the previous electron in that region. References
This regulates the number of electrons one-by-one in the 9. Disadvantages of SET
channel and hence the drain current varies accordingly. In [1] Vinay Pratap Singh, Arun Agrawal, Shyam Babu Singh,
case of SETs, the drain current (I ) does not depend on the “Analytical Discussion of Single Electron Transistor
Following are the disadvantage of Single-electron transistors
d (SET),” International Journal of Soft Computing and
number of electrons transferring through the channel or on  Integration of SETs in a large scale: To operate SETS at
Engineering (IJSCE), ISSN: 2231-2307, Volume-2,
the Fermi velocity. The I -V characteristic of SET is periodic room temperature, large quantities of mono dispersed
d Issue-3, July 2012
Nano particles less than 10nm in diameter must be
which shows a finite drain current only for the specific gate [2] Shagun Pal, S. R. P. Sinha, Rahul Verma, “Performance
synthesized. But, it is very hard to fabricate large
voltages where the energies for N and N+1 electron in the Evaluation of Single Electron Transistor with CMOS
quantities of SETs by traditional optical lithography and
channel are degenerated. In case of FETs, the drain current Technology”,International Journal of Emerging
semiconducting process.
(Id) depends on the number of electrons passes through the Technology and Advanced Engineering, (ISSN 2250-
channel. i.e. more electrons in the channel, larger the drain  It is difficult to link SETs with the outside environment. 2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3,
current.  Practically difficult to fabricate Single electron transistors Issue 12, December 2013)
(SETs ) [6]. [3] Shilpa Goyal, Anu Tonk, “A Review towards Single
The common phenomenon in both of these two devices is the Electron Transistor (SET)”, International Journal of
electrostatic effect that rules on both of them (i.e. SETs & Advanced Research in Computer and Communication
10. Conclusions
MOSFETs). But in case of SETs, electrons are not free to Engineering Vol. 4, Issue 5, May 2015
move from source to drain due to the presence of tunnel [4] Varun Mittal, “Basic introduction to Single Electron
Single electron devices have already proved their value as
junctions. Unlike ideal FETs, the source and drain of the Transistor,” IJRASET, ISSN: 2321-9653 Vol. 1 Issue I,
tools in scientific research. There are strong efforts around
SETs are separated from the channel by sufficiently large August 2013
the world to make the artificial atoms in SETs smaller, in
resistances which are acting as tunnel barriers. [5] Radha Krishnan, “Single Electron Transistors”,
order to raise the temperature at which charge quantization
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering
can be observed. These involve self assembly techniques and
Research, ISSN 2229-5518, Volume 5, Issue 9,
7. Comparison between SET and CMOS novel lithographic and oxidation methods whereby artificial
Sep2014
atoms can be made nearly as small as natural ones. This is, of
The most studies carried out on SET based logic circuits [6] Om Kumar and Manjit Kaur, “Single electron
course, driven by an interest in using SETs for practical
works upon the tunnel junction using it to implement the Transistor: Applications & Problems ”, International
applications. However, as SETs get smaller, all of their
SET as a switch equivalent of the MOS transistor [2]. This Journal of VLSI Design and Communication Systems,
energy scales can be larger, so it is very likely that new
has the advantage that existing CMOS transistor based (VLSICS) Vol.1, No.4, December 2010
phenomena will emerge.
designs can easily be ported to SET technology. The [7] A. Venkataratnam and A. K. Goel, “Design and
drawbacks includes that the current transport though an open simulation of Logic Circuits with Hybrid
Many in the semiconductor field think that the industry is
transistor still amounts for a large number of individual Archietectures of Single Electron Transistors and
fast approaching the physical limits of transistor
electrons dripping through the tunnel island junction. This is Conventional Devices”, U.S. Army Research
miniaturization. The major problem in modern transistors is
hence a far slower process than the transport of just one Laboratories, 2006 IEEE.
power leakage leading to the generation of excessive heat
single electron through the same and consequently from billions of transistors in close proximity. Only one
thing is certain: if the pace of miniaturization continues

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