1.

0 Introduction

Figure 1.1: Hydrological cycle

Basic hydrology refers to the fundamental processes of the hydrological cycle, also
known as the "water cycle," which involve the flow of water across and through near-surface
environments in order to create a continuous circular flow of water in the Earth-Atmosphere
system. The water cycle is defined by the movement of water from the ground to the
atmosphere and back. Evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff are
some of the processes involved. This cycle represents the exchange of energy that influences
climate. Water condenses, releasing energy and warming the surrounding environment.
Temperatures fall due to the energy removed from the environment when water vaporises.

Water evaporates due to solar radiation, most commonly from the ocean and lakes.
Water evaporates from plant leaves as a result of transpiration. As the steam cools, it condenses
and falls back to the land and sea as precipitation as it rises in the atmosphere. Rainfall forms
the planet's surface as surface earth, forming water streams that eventually become lakes and
rivers. Groundwater is formed when some of the precipitating water seeps into the earth and
flows downward through surface cracks. Some surface and underground water eventually
flows into the sea. During this journey, water goes through all three phases of transformation:
gas, liquid, and solid. As previously stated, water constantly transitions between the states of
liquid, vapour and ice. These transitions can take place in a split second or over the course of
millions of years.

There is a constant movement of water above, on, and below the surface of the earth.
That movement is known as the hydrological cycle. Efforts to transport water are made at all
scales, from the global to the smallest stream catchment, through evapotranspiration,

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precipitation, surface runoff, subsurface flow, and groundwater pathways. In essence, water is
evaporated from the land, oceans and vegetation to the atmosphere, using the radiant energy
from the sun and is recycled back in the form of rain or snow. When moisture from the
atmosphere falls to the earth’s surface it becomes subdivided into different interconnected
pathways.

In addition to wetting vegetation, precipitation (excluding snow and hail) enters surface
water bodies or penetrates the ground to replenish soil moisture. Groundwater is formed by
excess water percolating to the zone of saturation, from which it moves downwards and latitude
to discharge sites. The rate of infiltration varies with land use, oil characteristics and the
intensity of the rainfall event. If the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate of infiltration this
leads to overland flow. Water reaching streams, both by surface runoff and groundwater
discharge eventually moves to the sea where it is again evaporated to perpetuate the
hydrological cycle.

1.1 Rainfall characteristics

It's typically convective cloud mechanisms that produce precipitation in arid and semi-
arid zones, which are composed of short-duration, high-intensity storms that cover limited
areas. It is also common in the winter season to experience frontal-type rains of low intensity.
As in Jordan and the Negev, where most precipitation occurs during winter, relatively low-
intensity rainfall may constitute the majority of the annual rainfall. Rainfall intensity is defined
as the ratio of the total amount of rain (rainfall depth) falling during a given period to the
duration of the period it is expressed in the depth units per unit time, usually as mm per hour
(mm/h).

1.2 The surface runoff process

Vegetation intercepts the first drops of rain when it falls. It is usually called interception
storage. Water that reaches the ground surface infiltrates into the soil as it continues to rain
until the infiltration capacity of the soil is exceeded by the amount of rainfall (intensity).
Thereafter, surface puddles, ditches, and other depressions are filled (depression storage), after
which runoff is generated. The infiltration capacity of the soil depends on its texture and
structure, as well as on the antecedent soil moisture content (previous rainfall or dry season).
The initial capacity (of a dry soil) is high but, as the storm continues, it decreases until it reaches
a steady value termed as final infiltration rate.

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 The runoff generation process continues as long as the intensity of the rainfall exceeds
the infiltration capacity of the soil, but it comes to an end once it drops below this capacity.
Several studies have been conducted on rainfall runoff. A variety of papers have been published
on the topic, as well as many computer simulation models. All these models, however, require
detailed knowledge of a number of factors and initial boundary conditions in a catchment area
which in most cases are not readily available. For a better understanding of the difficulties of
accurately predicting the amount of runoff resulting from a rainfall event, the major factors
which influence the rainfall-runoff process are described below.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

To identify the relationship between rainfall and runoff.

3.0 METHODOLOGY

Rainstorms generate runoff, and the amount and occurrence of runoff depends on the
characteristics of the rainfall event, intensity, duration, and distribution. Rainfall-runoff
processes are extremely complex, so a precise model is difficult to develop. Runoff is also
influenced by other factors such as natural surface detention, soil infiltration characteristics,
and natural flow paths. The soil type, vegetative cover and topography play important roles.
Water resources are directly impacted by rainfall and runoff thanks to their direct correlation
with floods, stream flows, and dam and hydraulic structure design.

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3.1 Apparatus

No Descriptions Images

1. Rain Gauge

2. Switch Box

3. Supply Tank

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4. Stop Watch

5. Measurement weir

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 3.2 Procedure

• Case 1 : flat and sandy soil surface profile ( without slope).

• Case 2 : flat and sandy soil surface with 1:0.0111 slope profile.

No Description Image

1. The rail at the side of the catchment area was adjusted to 0. The length
of the sand slot is 1.8m, water level is 0 and the water bubble is
centered.

2. The pump had been switched on.

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3. The reading of the discharge and rain gauge was recorded for 30
seconds using a stopwatch.

4. Record the water level for 30 seconds. Take the reading shown at the
water level constantly up to 6 times (peak discharge).

5. Turn off the switch pump.

6. The discharge has been recorded for each 30 seconds until the reading
reaches 0.

7. Step 1 to step 6 was repeated by the rail at the side of the catchment
area and was adjusted to 2 mm.

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4.0 RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Data

I. Case 1
Case 1

Water Water
Time, t (s) Discharge Discharge Rain Gauge
Level Level
(litre/min) (m3/s) Reading (mm)
(cm) (mm)

30 0 0 0 0 58780

60 0 0 0 0 58785

90 0 0 0 0 58788

120 1 10 0.36 0.00036 58792

150 2.5 25 0.90 0.0009 58795

180 3.4 34 1.224 0.001224 58798

210 3.7 37 1.332 0.001332 58802

240 4.0 40 1.440 0.00144 58805

270 3.8 38 1.368 0.001368 58808

300 3.8 38 1.368 0.001368 58812

330 3.8 38 1.368 0.001368 58815

360 3.8 38 1.368 0.001368 58818

390 3.8 38 1.368 0.001368 58822

420 3.8 38 1.368 0.001368 58825

450 3.0 30 1.080 0.00108

480 2.8 28 1.008 0.001008

510 2.6 26 0.936 0.000936

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 540 2.2 22 0.792 0.000792

570 2.1 21 0.756 0.000756

600 2.0 20 0.720 0.00072

630 2.0 20 0.720 0.00072

660 2.0 20 0.720 0.00072

II. Case 2
Case 2

Time, t (s) Water

Water Level Discharge Discharge Rain Gauge
Level
(cm) (litre/min) (m3/s) Reading (mm)
(mm)

30 0 0 0 0 58829

60 0.4 4 0.144 0.000144 58833

90 1.5 15 0.54 0.00054 58836

120 2.4 24 0.864 0.000864 58840

150 3.3 33 1.188 0.001188 58844

180 3.6 36 1.296 0.001296 58847

210 4.0 40 1.44 0.00144 58851

240 3.6 36 1.296 0.001296 58855

270 3.6 36 1.296 0.001296 58858

300 3.6 36 1.296 0.001296 58862

330 3.6 36 1.296 0.001296 58865

360 3.6 36 1.296 0.001296 58872

390 3.6 36 1.296 0.0012960

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 420 2.8 28 1.008 0.001008

450 2.5 25 0.9 0.0009

480 2.4 24 0.864 0.000864

510 2.2 22 0.792 0.000792

540 2.2 22 0.792 0.000792

570 2.0 20 0.72 0.00072

600 1.8 18 0.648 0.000648

630 1.8 18 0.648 0.000648

660 1.6 16 0.576 0.000576

690 1.5 15 0.54 0.00054

720 1.5 15 0.54 0.00054

750 1.5 15 0.54 0.00054

4.0 Result and Analysis

4.1 Calculation

water level × catchment area

At t = 30s, Discharge (𝑚3 /𝑠) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

0.004× (1.80 × 0.6)

=
30

=0.00036 (𝑚3 /𝑠)

𝑚3 1 liter 60s
Discharge, Q = 0.00036 × × = 21.6 liter/min
𝑠 0.001 m3 1 min

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4.2 Graph

4.2.1 Graph discharge (m³/s) vs time (s) in case 1

Discharge (m³/s) vs Time (s)

0.0016

0.0014

0.0012
Discharge (m³/s)

0.001

0.0008

0.0006

0.0004

0.0002

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
-0.0002
Time (s)

Graph 1 : Discharge (m³/s) Vs Time (S) in case 1

4.2.2 Graph discharge (m³/s) vs time (s) in case 2

Discharge (m³/s) vs Time (s)

0.0016

0.0014

0.0012
Discharge (m³/s)

0.001

0.0008

0.0006

0.0004

0.0002

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Times (s)

Graph 2: Discharge (m³/s) vs Time (s) in case 2

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4.3 Question

4.3.1 From the graph plotted, determine :

a) Time concentration,

Case 1 : 280s < 𝑡𝑐 < 390s

Case 2 : 240s < 𝑡𝑐 < 390s

b) Rainfall duration,

Case 1 : rainfall duration is 390s.

Case 2 : rainfall duration is 390s.

c) Peak discharge,

Case 1 : when 390s, the discharge will be 0.001376 𝑚3 /𝑠.

Case 2 : when 390s, the discharge will be 0.001289 𝑚3 /𝑠.

d) Runoff volume,

Runoff volume = Area under the graph

Case 1 : runoff volume = 0.79956m3

Case 2 : runoff volume = 0.69647𝑚3

e) Rainfall intensity,

Case 1 :

Rainfall intensity = rain gauge maximum / rain duration

= 58825 mm / 390s

=150.8333 mm/s

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 Case 2 :

Rainfall intensity = rain gauge maximum / rain duration

= 58872 mm / 390s

=150.9538 mm/s

f) Storage volume,

Storage volume =Total rainfall - Total runoff

= (Total rain gauge reading × Catchment Area) − Total runoff

Case 1 : [ 705.598 m × (1.8m × 0.6 m )] −0.79956m3

=761.33628 𝑚3

Case 2 : [ 706.192 m × (1.8m × 0.6 m )] −0.69647𝑚3

=761.990 𝑚3

4.4 Provide the table for all the results obtained from (8.1) and make comparisons with case1
and case 2.

CASE 1 CASE 2
Time concentration 280s < 𝑡𝑐 < 390s 240s < 𝑡𝑐 < 390s
Rainfall duration 390s 390s
Peak discharge 0.001376 𝑚3 /𝑠 0.001289𝑚3 /𝑠.
Runoff volume 0.70956m3 0.0.69647𝑚3
Rainfall intensity 150.8333mm/s 150.9538 mm/s
Storage volume 761.33628 𝑚3 761.990 𝑚3

Table 1 : Comparison between Case 1 and Case 2

5.0 Discussion

The relationship between rainfall and runoff in each case was determined based on this
experiment. To identify the relationship, the experiment was conducted with two different
cases which is Case 1 and Case 2. To differentiate each case, the slope was applied. For Case
1, the slope was not applied while Case 2 was applied with slope 1:0.0111 to identify the
relationship between rainfall and runoff.
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 Next, the graph was plotted based on discharge (𝑚3 /𝑠) versus time (s) from the values
for each case. From summarize the comparison between the Case 1 and Case 2, Case 1 have
greater values than Case 2 in runoff volume and storage. The rainfall intensity in Case 2 is
150.8333 mm/s was increased than Case 1 is 150.9538 mm/s while runoff volume in Case 2 is
0.69647𝑚3 was decreased than Case 1 is 0.70956m3 and storage volume in Case 2 was
decreased (761.990 m3 ) than Case 1 (761.33628 m3 ). Our experiment is not a complete
success.

6.0 Conclusion
As a result of this experiment, we fully understand how to correctly identify the
relationship between rainfall and runoff and the process of this experiment. We can also
confirm that as rainfall increased, runoff increased until it reached the time of maximum
discharge, but we were unable to archive the goal of this experiment due to a variety of factors.
Rainfall intensity, surface type, and rainfall duration are all factors that influence the outcome
of this experiment. Last but not least, we can use this concept to control floods by utilising the
basic hydrology system.

7.0 Reference

Basic Hydrology. ScienceDirect, www.sciencedirect.com:5070/book/9780408013635/basic-

hydrology . Accessed 2 Nov. 2022

Basic Hydrology and Infiltration Test | PDF | Surface Runoff | Rain. Scribd,
www.scribd.com/doc/174047240/BASIC-HYDROLOGY-INFILTRATION-TEST. Accessed
2 Nov. 2022.

Hydrology | National Geographic Society. Hydrology | National Geographic Society,

education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/hydrology. Accessed 2 Nov. 2022.

Rainfall-runoff Analysis. Rainfall-runoff Analysis,

www.fao.org/3/u3160e/u3160e05.htm#:~:text=As%20the%20rain%20continues%2C%20wat
er,after%20which%20runoff%20is%20generated . Accessed 2 Nov.

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8.0 Appendix

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