CH 14 Semiconductor

CLASS XII
Detailed Notes As Per BOARD Examination
PHYSICS
CHAPTER-14
SEMICONDUCTOR
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SEMICONDUCTOR
SEMICONDUCTOR
Energy Bands
In isolated atom the valence electrons can exist only in one of the allowed orbitals each of a sharply defined
energy called energy levels. But when two atoms are brought nearer to each other, there are alterations in
energy levels and they spread in the form of bands.
Energy bands are of following types
Valence band
The energy band formed by a series of energy levels containing valence electrons is known as valence
band. At 0 K, the electrons fills the energy levels in valence band starting from lowest one.
(i) This band is always fulfill by electron.
(ii) This is the band of maximum energy.
(iii) Electrons are not capable of gaining energy from external electric field.
(iv) No flow of current due to such electrons.
(v) The highest energy level which can be occupied by an electron in valence band at 0 K is called fermi
level.
Conduction band
The higher energy level band is called the conduction band.
(i) It is also called empty band of minimum energy.
(ii) This band is partially filled by the electrons.
(iii) In this band the electrons can gain energy from external electric field.
(iv) The electrons in the conduction band are called the free electrons. They are able to move any where
within the volume of the solid.
(v) Current flows due to such electrons. max.
C.B.
Forbidden energy gap (
Eg) min.
Energy gap between conduction band and valence band 
Eg (C.B.)min  (V.B.)max Eg
max.
V.B.
(i) No free electron present in forbidden energy gap. min.
(ii) Width of forbidden energy gap upon the nature of substance.

(iii) As temperature increases (), forbidden energy gap decreases () very slightly.
Holes in semiconductors
At absolute zero temperature (0 K) conduction band of semiconductor is completely empty and the
semiconductor behaves as an insulator.
When temperature increases the valence electrons acquires thermal energy to jump to the conduction band
(Due to the braking of covalent bond). If they jumps to C.B. they leaves behind the deficiency of electrons in
the valence band. This deficiency of electron is known as hole or cotter. A hole is considered as a seat of
positive charge, having magnitude of charge equal to that of an electron.
(1) Holes acts as virtual charge, although there is no physical charge on it.
(2) Effective mass of hole is more than electron.
(3) Mobility of hole is less than electron.
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SEMICONDUCTOR
S.No. Properties Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

2 8 –8 –5 0
(1) Electrical 10 to 10 Ʊ/m 10 Ʊ/m 10 to 10 Ʊ/m
conductivity The possess very low They have high They have resistivity or
resistivity (or high resistivity (or low conductivity intermediate
conductivity) conductivity) to metals and insulators
–2 –8 8 5 0
(2) Resistivity 10 to 10 -m (negligible) 10 -m 10 to 10 -m
(3) Band structure
C.B.
C.B. C.B.
V.B. Eg (less)
Eg (maximum)
V.B.
In metals, either the
V.B.
conduction band is partially In this case, a finite but
filled and the valence band is small band gap
In the case of
partially empty or the
insulators, alarge band E g 
 3eV exists.
conduction and valence band
gap Eg exists Because of the small
overlap. When there is
band gap, at room
overlap, electrons from E g 
 3eV . These are temperature some
valence band can easily electrons from valence
no electrons in the
move into the conduction conduction band and band can acquire enough
band making large number of the energy gap is so energy to cross the
electrons available for large that electrons energy gap and enter the
electrical conduction. cannot be excited from conduction band. These
When the valence band is the valence band to electrons (though small in
partially empty. electrons the conduction band number) can move in the
from its lower level can move thermal excitation. conduction band. Hence
to higher level making Therefore, no electrical the resistance of
conduction is possible. semiconductors is not as
conduction possible.
high as that of the
Therefore, the resistance of
insulators.
such materials is low or the
conductivity is high.
(4) Energy gap Zero or very small Very large; for For Ge Eg = 0.7 eV
diamond it is 6 eV for Si Eg = 1.1 eV
(5) Current carries Free electrons –– Free electrons and holes
(6) Condition of V.B. and C.B. are completely V.B. – completely filled V.B. – somewhat empty
V.B. and C.B. filled or C.B. is some what C.B. – completely C.B. – somewhat filled
at ordinary empty unfilled
temperature
(7) Temperature Positive Zero Negative
co-efficient of
resistance ()
(8) Effect of Decreases — Increases
temperature
on conductivity
(9) Effect of Increases — Decreases
temperature
on resistance
(11) Examples Cu, Ag, Au, Na, Pt, Hg etc. Wood, plastic, mica, Ge, Si, Ga, As etc.
diamond, glass etc.
29 3 19 3
(12) Electron 10 /m — Ge ~ 10 /m
16 3
density Si ~ 10 /m
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SEMICONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semiconductor
A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. It has thermally generated current carriers
(i) They have four electrons in the outermost orbit of atom and atoms are held together by covalent bond
(ii) Free electrons and holes both are charge carriers and ne (in C.B.)  nh (in V.B.)
(iii) The drift velocity of electrons (v e ) is greater than that of holes (v h )
(iv) For them fermi energy level lies at the centre of the C.B. and V.B.
(v) In pure semiconductor, impurity must be less than 1 in 10 8 parts of semiconductor.
Eg /2KT
(vi) In intrinsic semiconductor n(o) (o)
e  nh  n
i AT3/2 e ; where n(o)
e  Electron density in conduction
band, n(o)
h  Hole density in V.B.,
ni  Density of intrinsic carriers.
(vii) Because of less number of charge carriers at room temperature, intrinsic semiconductors have low
conductivity so they have no practical use.
(viii) Let us take the common case of Si and Ge. We know that Si and Ge have four valence electrons. In
its crystalline structure, every Si or Ge atom tends to share one of its four valence electrons with each
of its four nearest neighbor atoms, and also to take share of one electron from each such neighbor.
Such a situation arises at low temperature.
+4 +4 +4
Schematic two-dimensional +4 Si or Ge
representation of Si or Ge
structure showing covalent
bonds at low temperature
(all bonds intact). + 4 Covdent
symbol indicates inner +4 +4 +4 Bond
cores of Si or Ge
Bonding
Electron
+4 +4 +4
An Intrinsic semiconductor at
( A) at T = 0K (B ) at T > 0K
Ec Ec
Eg 
  e


Eg
Ev


 holes  Ev
(Thermally generated free electron)
+4 +4 +4
+4 +4 +4
Hole at site 1 Site 1

(electron vacancy)
+4 +4 +4
+4 +4 +4 Hole on
Site 2 ctr
E le
+4 +4 +4
+4 +4 +4
+4 Si or Ge
+4 Si or Ge
Simplified representation of possible thermal motion of a hole.
The electron from the lower left hand covalent bond
Schematic model of generation of hole at site 1 and conduction (site 2) goes to the earlier hole site 1, leaving a hole at its site
electron due to thermal energy at moderate temperatures. indicating an apparent movement of the hole from site 1 to site 2.
SEMICONDUCTOR
 As the temperature increases, more thermal energy becomes available to these and the electrons
may break-away (become free electrons contributing to conduction).
 The neighbourhood, from which the free electron (with charge –e) has come out leaves a vacancy with
an effective charge (+e). This vacancy with the effective positive electronic charge is called a hole.
The hole behaves as an apparent free particle with effective positive charge.
 Under the action of an electric field, the free electron moves completely independently as conduction
electron giving rise to an electron current (  e ) and the holes move towards negative potential giving
the hole current ( h ).
Thus, the total current (  ) is the sum of the electrons current (  e ) and the hole current ( h ) i.e.
   e  h
Note
 Apart from the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, a simultaneous process of
recombination occurs in which the electrons recombine with the holes.
 At equilibrium, the rate of generation is equal to the rate of recombination of charge carriers. The
recombination occurs due to an electron colliding with a hole.
Limitations of Intrinsic Semiconductor:

(i) The number of intrinsic charge carriers (holes and electrons) is very small. Hence, these are low
conducting materials.
(ii) Not enough flexibility is available in controlling the number of intrinsic charge carriers as they are
thermally generated.
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
(i) Extrinsic Semiconductor: When a small amount of a suitable impurity is added to the pure
semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased manifold. Such materials are known
as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity semiconductors.
OR
A semiconductor doped with a suitable impurity, so as to possess conductivity much higher than the
semiconductor in pure form is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
(ii) Doping: The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor to increase its
conductivity is called doping.
(iii) Dopants: The impurity atoms added to an intrinsic semiconductor to increase its conductivity are
called dopants.
Necessary Condition for Doping:
The dopant has to be such that it does not distort the original pure semiconductor lattice. In other words, the
sizes of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms should be nearly the same.
There are Two types of Dopants used in Doping the Tetravalent Si or Ge:
(i) Pentavalent (valency 5): Like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorus (P), etc.
(ii) Trivalent (valency 3): Like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al). etc.
SEMICONDUCTOR
n-Type Semiconductor
 When an atom of +5 valency element occupies the position of an atom in the crystal lattice of Si, four
of its electrons bond with the four silicon neighbours while the fifth remains very weakly bound to its
parent atom.
 This is because the four electrons participating in bonding are seen as part of the effective core of the
atom by the fifth electron. As a result, the ionization energy required to set this electron free is very
small and even at room temperature, it will be free to move in the lattice of the semiconductor.
 Thus, the pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and hence is known as
donor impurity.
 The number of electrons made available for conduction by dopant atoms depends strongly upon the
doping level and is independent of any increase in ambient temperature.
On the other hand, the number of free electrons (with an equal number of holes) generated by Si
atoms, increases weakly with temperature.
 In a doped semiconductor, the total number of conduction electrons (ne) is due to the electrons
contributed by donors and those generated intrinsically, while the total no. of holes (nh) is only due to
the holes from the intrinsic source. But the rate of recombination of holes would increase due to the
increase in the number of electrons. As a result, the number of holes would get reduced further.
 Hence, in an extrinsic semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurity, electrons are the majority
carriers and holes the minority carriers.
These semiconductors are, therefore, known as n-type semiconductors.
For n-type semiconductors, ne  nh
+4 +4 +4
Pentavalent donor atom Unbonded ‗free‘
electron donated
(As, Sb, P, etc). doped by pentavalent
for tetravalent Si or Ge (+5 valency) atom
+4 +5 +4
giving n-type
semiconductor
+4 +4 +4
(a)
p-Type Semiconductor: This is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity like Al, B, In, etc.
The dopant has one valence electron less than Si or Ge and, therefore, this atom can form covalent bonds
with neighboring three Si atoms but doesnot have any electron to offer to the fourth Si atom. So, the bond
between the fourth neighbour and the trivalent atom has a vacancy or hole.
 To hold the dopant atom tightly within Si or Ge, some of the outer bound electrons in the
neighbourhood may jump to fill this vacancy, leaving a vacancy or hold at its own site. Thus, the hole
is available for conduction.
 
SEMICONDUCTOR
 The trivalent foreign atom becomes effectively negatively charged when it shares fourth electron with
neighboring Si atom.
Therefore, the dopant atom of p-type material can be treated as core of one negative charge along
with its associated hole.
 The holes are both due to acceptor atoms as well as intrinsically generated while the source of
conduction electrons is only intrinsic generation. Thus, holes are the majority carriers and electrons
are minority carriers.
Here, nh  ne
Trivalent acceptor atom +4 +4 +4
(ln, Al, B etc.) doped in

tetravalent Si or Ge
lattice giving p-type +4 +3 +4
Ho
semiconductor.
le
Ele
c tr o
n
+4 +4 +4
Description on the Basis of Energy Bands:

n-Type Semiconductor:
 The donor energy level ED is slightly below the bottom EC of the conduction band and electrons from
this level move into the conduction band with very small supply of energy.
At room temp., most of the doner atoms get ionized but very few Si atoms get ionized. So, the
conduction band will have most electrons coming from the donor impurities.
p-Type Semiconductor:
 The acceptor energy level E A is slightly above the top E V of the valence band.
 With very small supply of energy, an electron from the valence band can jump to the level E A and
ionize the acceptor negatively. Or we can say that with very small supply of energy, hole from E A sinks
down into valence band.
 At room temperature, most of the acceptor atoms get ionized leaving holes in the valence bond. Thus,
at room temperature, the density of holes in the valence band is predominantly due to impurity in the
extrinsic semiconductor.
Note
 Even after doping, the crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality as the charge of additional
charge carriers is just equal and opposite to that of the ionized cores in the lattice.
 The and hole concentration in thermal equilibrium is always given by:
SEMICONDUCTOR
Energy bands of n-type semiconductor at T > 0 Energy bands of p-type semiconductor at T > 0 K
EC EC
ED
0.01 eV
Eg Eg
EV EA
EV
0.01–0.05 eV
T>0K T>0K
p-n Junction:
The device obtained by growing a p-type semiconductor over a n-type semiconductor or vice-versa is called
a p-n junction. It is also called a junction diode
OR
A p-n junction is an atomic layer of separation between a p-type and an n-type semiconductor.
p-n Junction Formation:
Two processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction:
(i) Diffusion (ii) Drift
Electron diffusion
Electron drift
– –  
– –  
p – –   n
– –  
– –  
Depletion region
Hole diffusion
Hole drift
p-n Junction formation process
Diffusion:
 In an n-type semiconductor,
(Concentration of electrons) > (Concentration of holes)
 Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor,
(Concentration of hole) > (Concentration of electrons)
 During the formation of p-n junction, and due to the concentration gradient across p – and n – sides,
holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p).
 This motion of charge carriers give rise to diffusion current across the junction.
When an electron diffuses from n → p, it leaves behind an ionized donor on n-side.
This ionized donor (positive charge) is immobile as it is bonded to the surrounding atoms.
As the electrons continue to diffuse from n → p, a layer of positive charge (or positive space-charge region)
on n-side of the junction is developed.
Similarly, when a hole diffuses from p → n due to the concentration gradient, it leaves behind an ionized
acceptor (negative charge) which is immobile.
SEMICONDUCTOR
As the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge (or negative space – charge region) on the p-
side of the junction is developed.
This space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion region as the
electrons and holes taking part in the initial movement across the junction depleted the region of its free
charges.
Drift:
 Due to the positive space-charge region on n-side of the junction and negative space-charge region
on p-side of the junction, an electric field directed from positive charge towards negative charge
develops.
 Due to this field, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-side of the
junction moves to p-side.
 The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift.
Thus, a drift current, which is opposite in direction to the diffusion current starts.
 Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small.
As the diffusion process continues, the space – charge regions on either side of the junction extend, thus
increasing the electric field strength and hence drift current.
This process continues until the diffusion current equals the drift current. Thus, a p-n junction is formed.
Note
 In a p-n junction under equilibrium, there is no net current.
Barrier Potential:
 The potential difference created across the P-N junction due to the diffusion of electron and holes is
called potential barrier.
 The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electrons by the p-region causes a difference
of potential across the junction of the two regions.
 The polarity of this potential is such as to oppose further flow of carriers so that a condition of
equilibrium exists.
 Since this potential tends to prevent the movement of electron from the n-region into the p-region, it is
often called a barrier potential.
For Ge VB  0.3V and for silicon VB  0.7V
–6
On the average the potential barrier in P-N junction is ~ 0.5 V and the width of depletion region ~ 10 .
V 0.5
So the barrier electric field E   5  105 V / m
d 106
Some important graphs

Potential Charge density
Electric
P N P N field
P N
+ve
–ve
Distance distance Distance
SEMICONDUCTOR
Semiconductor Diode:
A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the
application of an external voltage. It is a two-terminal device.
– –  
– –  
p – –   n
– –  
Metallic – –   Metallic
contact contact
Depletion layer
Semiconductor diode
Ideal Diode: One which allows current to pass completely in forward bias and no current to pass in reverse
bias.
 p-n Junction Diode under forward Bias:
The p-n junction diode is said to be forward bias if p-side of the junction is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative terminal i.e. the direction of the applied voltage (V)
is opposite to the built-in potential ( V0 ).
Consequences:
 The depletion layer width decreases.
 The barrier height is reduced. The effective barrier height under forward bias is ( V0  V )
– –  
– –  
p – –   n
– –  
– –  
Injected Injected
electrons holes
Forward bias minority carrier injection
 Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion region and reach p-side (where
they are minority carriers).
Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction and reach the n-side (where they are minority carriers).
This process under forward bias is known as minority carrier injection.
 At the junction boundary, on each side, the minority carrier concentration increases significantly
compared to the locations far from the junction.
 Due to this concentration gradient, the injected electrons on p-side diffuse from the junction edge of p-
side to the other end of p-side.
 Likewise, the injected holes on n-side diffuse from the junction edge of n-side to the other end of n-
side.
 This motion of charged carriers on either side gives rise to current.
The total diode forward current is sum of hole diffusion current and conventional current due to electron
diffusion.
The magnitude of this current is usually in mA.
 The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region & the voltage drop across n- side and p-
side is negligible (this is because resistance of depletion region ; a region where there are no charges;
is very high as compared to n & p sides.)
SEMICONDUCTOR
p-n junction diode under reverse bias:

A p-n junction diode is said to be reverse biased if n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
and p-side to the negative terminal i.e. the direction of the applied voltage is same as the direction of barrier
potential.
Here also applied voltage drops across depletion region.
Consequences:
 The depletion region widens.
 The barrier height increases. The effective barrier height under reverse bias is ( V0  V )
 This suppresses the flow of electrons from n → p and holes from p → n. Thus, diffusion current,
decreases enormously compared to the diode under forward bias.
 The electric field direction of the junction is such that if electrons on p-side in their random motion
come close to the junction, they will be swept to its majority zone.
This drift of carriers gives rise to current.
 The drift current is quite low (of the order of a few μA) because it is due to the motion of carriers from
their minority side to their majority side across the junction.
 The diode reverse current is not very much dependent on the applied voltage. Even a small voltage is
sufficient to sweep the minority carriers from one side of the junction to the other side of junction.
 The current is not limited by the magnitude of the applied voltage but is limited due to the
concentration of the minority carrier on either side of the junction.
V-I Characteristic of p-n Junction Diode:

Experimental circuit arrangement for studying V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode
(a) in forward bias (b) in reverse bias (c) Typical V-I characteristics of a silicon diode
I(mA)
Voltmeter (V) Voltmeter (V)

100
80
60
p n p n 40
Milliammeter 20
( A) Microammeter
100 80 60 40 20
(A) V(V)
Switch Switch 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Vb r 10
   
20
30
I(A)
Dynamic Resistance
V
It is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage ΔV to a small change in current ΔI. rd 

Forward Characteristics:
 In forward bias, the current increases very slowly, almost negligibly, till the voltage across the diode
crosses a certain value.
 After the characteristic voltage, the diode current increases significantly (exponentially), even for a
very small increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut-in
voltage.
SEMICONDUCTOR
Reverse Characteristics:
 For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~μA) and almost remains constant with change
in bias. It is called reverse saturation current.
 A very high reverse bias (break down voltage) i.e. when V  Vbr , the current increases sharply. Even a
slight increase in the bias voltage causes large change in the current. (At Breakdown voltage, Si – Si
bond starts breaking, thus large no. of free ‗n‘ & ‗h‘ such that  increase)
Note
 The p-n junction diode primarily allows the flow of current only in one direction (forward bias).
The forward bias resistance is low as compared to the reverse bias resistance.
Forward biasing Reverse biasing
(i) Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the (i) Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the
Forward current in mA
P-crystal and negative terminal of the battery is N-crystal and negative terminal of the battery is
connected to N-crystal
P N connected to P-crystal
Idf
E E
– + Idr – +
Eb Eb
Inet
Knee
voltage Forward voltage
P N P N
+ – – +
(ii) Width of depletion layer decreases (ii) Width of depletion layer increases
5
(iii) RForward  10 - 25 (iii) RReverse  10 
(iv) Forward bias opposes the potential barrier and (iv) Reverse bias supports the potential barrier and
for V > VB a forward current is set up across the no current flows across the junction due to the
junction. diffusion of the majority carriers.
(A very small reverse currents may exist in the circuit
due to the drifting of minority carriers across the
junction)
(v) Cut-in (Knee) voltage: The voltage at which the (v) Break down voltage: Reverse voltage at which
current starts to increase. For Ge it is 0.3 V and for Si break down of semiconductor occurs. For Ge it is 25
it is 0.7 V. V and for Si it is 35 V.
(vi) df – diffusion (vi)
dr – drift Reverse voltage
Break down Reverse current

voltage
Idf
Idr
Inet
SEMICONDUCTOR
Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier
D1
A A
output RL
Input RL
dc
ac P
O/P (dc)
B B
D2
Input Input
ac signal + + + +
ac signal
– – – –
Output Output
+ + D1 D2 D1 D2
dc signal dc signal
Fluctuating dc
During positive half cycle During positive half cycle
Diode 
 forward biased Diode: D1 
 forward biased
Output signal 
 obtained D2 
 reverse biased
During negative half cycle Output signal 

 obtained due to D1 only
Diode 
 reverse biased During negative half cycle
Output signal 
 not obtained Diode: D1 
 reverse biased
 When the voltage at A is positive, the diode is D2 

 forward biased
forward biased and it conducts.
 When A is negative, the diode is reverse-biased Output signal 
 obtained due to D2 only
and it does not conduct.
 Therefore, in the positive half-cycle of ac there is  Fluctuating dc  Filter  constant dc.
a current through the load resistor RL and we get  The p-side of the two diodes are connected to
an output voltage, whereas there is no current in the ends of the secondary of the transformer.
the negative half-cycle.  The n-side of the diodes are connected together
 In the next positive half-cycle, again we get the and the output is taken between this common
output voltage. point of diodes and the midpoint of the
 Thus, the output voltage, though still varying secondary of the transformer.
(pulsating), is restricted to only one direction and  So, for a full-wave rectifier, the secondary of the
is said to be rectified. transformer is provided with a centre tapping
 Since, the rectified output of this circuit is only for and so it is called centre-tap transformer.
half of the input ac wave, it is called as half-wave  The voltages at any instant at A (input of diode
rectifier. D1 ) and B (input of diode D 2 ) with respect to the
Note: The reverse breakdown voltage of the centre tap are out of phase with each other.
diode must be sufficiently higher than the peak (because at any instant, From A → B, voltage is
ac voltage at the secondary of the transformer either increaing or decreasing i.e. Let voltage at
to protect the diode from reverse breakdown. A > B i.e.
VA  VP  VB  VP : centre tap  s.t. VA  VP  0  D1
is Forward biased and VB  VP  0  D2 is
SEMICONDUCTOR
reverse biased. Similarly, when D 2 is forward

biased D1 will be reverse biased).
 Suppose the input voltage to A w.r.t. the centre
tap at any instant is positive, then at that instant,
voltage at B being out of phase will be negative.
 So, diode D1 gets forward biased and conducts
(while D 2 being reverse biased is not
conducting.)
 Hence, during this positive half cycle we get an
output current (and an output voltage across the
load resistor RL )
 In the course of the ac cycle when the voltage of
A becomes negative w.r.t. centre tap, voltage at
B would be positive.
 In this part of the cycle, diode D1 would not
conduct but diode D 2 would, giving an output
current and output voltage (across RL ) during
the negative half cycle of the input ac.
 Thus, we get output rectified voltage during both
the positive as well as the negative half of the
cycle and hence, it is known as full-wave
rectifier.
Capacitor Filters:
 To get steady dc output from the pulsating voltage, normally a capacitor is connected across the
output terminals (parallel to the load RL ). [One can also use an inductor in series with RL for the same
purpose].
 Since these additional circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage, so they are
called filters.
The Role of Capacitor in filtering:
 When the voltage across the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. If there is no external load, it remains
charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output.
 When there is a load, it gets discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins to fall.
 In the next half cycle of rectified output, it again gets charged to the peak value.
 The rate of fall of voltage across the capacitor depends upon the inverse product of capacitor C and
the effective resistance RL used in the circuit and is called the time constant.
(a) A full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter. (b) Input and output voltage of rectifier in (a).
1 1
Rate of fall of voltage across c  
r CRL
SEMICONDUCTOR
As  increases, It takes longer for ‗v‘ to fall (discharge) & by the time it starts falling, next cycle of current
comes and thus graph is approx const.
To make the time constant large, value of C should be large. So, capacitor input filters use large capacitors.
 The output voltage obtained by using capacitor input filter is nearer to the peak voltage of the rectified
voltage.
Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes:

Zener Diode:
 It is a special purpose semiconductor diode designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown
region and used as a voltage regulator.
I(mA)
Reverse bias
Vz Forward bias
V (V)
I(A)
I-V characteristics of zener diode
 Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both p– and n-side of the junction due to which, the
depletion region formed is very thin and the electric field in the junction is extremely high
 
5  106 Vm1 even for a small reverse bias voltage of about 5V.
 When the applied reverse bias voltage (V) reaches the breakdown voltage ( VZ ) of the Zener diode,
there is a large change in the current.
Let us understand how reverse current suddenly increases at the breakdown voltage.
 We know that reverse current is due to the flow of electrons (minority carriers) form p → n and holes
from n → p.
 As the reverse bias voltage is increased, the electric field at the junction becomes significant.
 When the reverse bias voltage V  VZ , then the electric field strength is high enough to pull valence
electrons from the host atom on the p -side which are accelerated to n – side. These electrons
account for high current observed at the breakdown.
 The emission of electrons from the host atoms due to the high electric field is known as internal field
emission or field ionization.
 After the breakdown voltage Vz, a large change in the current can be produced by almost insignificant
change in the reverse bias voltage.
In other words, Zener Voltage remain constant, even though current through the Zener diode varies
over a wide range.
This property of the Zener diode is used for regulating supply voltages so that they are constant.
SEMICONDUCTOR
Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator:

To get a constant dc voltage from the dc unregulated output of a rectifier, we use a zener diode.
Unregulated
voltage (V L) IL
Load Regulated
voltage
RL
(V Z)
Zener diode as DC voltage regulator
Note: In general, current through Zener diode (Iz) should be sufficiently larger than current through load (I L)
(e.g: IZ  5IL)
Working:
 The unregulated dc voltage (filtered output of a rectifier) is connected to the Zener diode through a
series resistance Rs such that the Zener diode is reverse biased.
 If the input voltage increases, the current through Rs and Zener diode also increases. This increases
the voltage drop across Rs without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode.
 This is because in the breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant even though the current
through the Zener diode changes.
 Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through Rs and Zener diode also decreases. The
voltage drop across Rs decreases without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode.
 Thus, any increase/decrease in the input voltage results in, increase/decrease of the voltage drop
across Rs without any change in voltage across the Zener diode.
Thus, the zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.
Optoelectronic Junction Devices:
(a) Photodiodes used for detecting optical signal (photo detectors)
(b) Light Emitting Diodes (LED) which convert electrical energy into light.
(c) Photovoltaic devices which convert optical radiation into electricity (solar cells).
(a) Photodiode:
(a) An illuminated photodiode under reverse bias,

(b) I-V characteristics of a photodiode of different intensity I 4 > I3 > I2 > I1
 A photodiode is a special purpose p-n junction diode operated under reverse bias and is fabricated
with a transparent window to allow light to fall on the diode.
 When the photodiode is illuminated with light (photons) with energy ( h ) greater than the energy gap
(Eg) of the semiconductor, then electron – hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons.
 The diode is fabricated such that the generation of e-h pair takes place in or near the depletion region
of the diode.
SEMICONDUCTOR
 Due to electric field of the junction, electrons and holes are separated before they recombine. The
direction of the electric field is such that electrons reach n-side and holes reach p-side.
 Electrons are collected on n-side and holes are collected on p-side giving rise to an emf. When an
external load is connected, current flows.
Note
 The magnitude of photocurrent depends on the intensity of incident light.
(Photocurrent is proportional to incident light intensity).
(b) Light Emitting Diode:

It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits spontaneous radiation. The diode is
encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n → p (where they are minority carriers) and holes
are sent from p → n (where they are minority carriers).
At the junction boundary, the concentration of minority carriers increases compared to the equilibrium
concentration (i.e., when there is no bias). Thus, at the junction boundary on either side of the junction,
excess minority carriers are there which recombine with majority carriers near the junction.
On recombination, the energy is released in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal to or slightly
less than the band gap are emitted.
When the forward current of the diode is small, the intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current
increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a maximum. Further increase in the forward current
results in decrease in light intensity. LEDs are biased such that the light emitting efficiency is maximum.
The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible LEDs must at least have a band gap of 1.8 eV (spectral
range of visible light is from about 0.4 μm to 0.7 μm, i.e. from about 3eV to 1.8 eV). GaAs (Eg ~ 1.4eV) used
for making infrared LED.
Uses: The LEDs find extensive use in remote controls, burglar alarm systems, optical communication, etc.
LEDs have the following advantages over conventional incandescent low power lamps:
Yellow Green Blue
I Red (Y)
(G)
(B)
(R)
V
(i) Low operational voltage and less power.
(ii) Fast action and no warm-up time required.
(iii) The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500 Å or in other words it is nearly (but not exactly)
monochromatic.
(iv) Long life and ruggedness.
(v) Fast on-off switching capability.
SEMICONDUCTOR
Solar Cell:
(i) A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the p-n
junction.
(ii) It works on the same principal (photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that no external bias is
applied and the junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation to be incident because we are
interested in more power.
Construction:
(a) Typical p - n junction solar cell

(b) Cross - sectional view
(a) A p – Si wafer of about 300 μm is taken over which a thin layer (~0.3 μm) of n-Si grown on one-side
by diffusion process. (‘n‘ is thin so that light can reach junction (depletion region) )
(b) The other side of p-Si is coated with a metal (back contact).
(c) On the top of n-Si layer, metal finger electrode (or metallic grid) is deposited. This acts as a front
contact.
(d) The metallic grid occupies only a very small fraction of the cell area (< 15%) so that light can be
incident on the cell from the top.
Working:
The generation of emf by a solar cell, when light falls on it, is due to the following three basic process:
(i) Generation: generation of e – h pairs due to light ( with h  Eg ) close to the junction ;
(ii) Separation: separation of electrons and holes due to electric field of the depletion region. Electrons
are swept to n-side and holes to p-side ;
(iii) Collection: the electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and holes reaching p-
side are collected by the back contact.
Thus, p-side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative giving rise to photovoltage.
Criteria for the selection of material for Solar Cell Fabrication:
I - V characteristics of a solar cell
 
SEMICONDUCTOR
 Band gap (~ 1.0 to 1.8 eV) (close to 1.5 eV are ideal for solar cell fabrication)
 High optical absorption  104 cm1 

 Electrical conductivity
 Availability of the raw material
 Cost
Note
 Sunlight is not always required for a solar cell. Any light with photon energies greater than the band
gap will do.
Uses: Solar cells are used to power electronic devices in satellites and space vehicles and also as power
supply to some calculators.
Junction Transistor:
Transistor - Structure and Action:
The transistor consists of two p-n junctions back to back and is obtained by sandwiching either p-type or
n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite type semiconductors.
There are two types of semiconductors:
(i) n-p-n transistor: Here two segments of n-type semiconductor (emitter and collector) are separated by
a segment of p-type semiconductor (base).
(ii) p-n-p transistor: Here two segments of p-type semiconductor (termed as emitter and collector) are
separated by a segment of n-type semiconductor (termed as base).
Emitter Base Collector Emitter Base Collector
E C E C
(a) (i) n p n (ii) p n p
B B
Schematic representation of n-p-n transistor Schematic representation of p-n-p transistor
Emitter Collector Emitter Collector

(b) (i) (ii)
Base Base
Symbols for n-p-n Symbols for p-n-p
Note
 All the three segments of a transistor have different thickness and their doping levels are also
different.
SEMICONDUCTOR
The three segments of a transistor are:

 Emitter: It is of moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies a large number of majority carriers for the
current flow through the transistor.
 Base: This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped.
 Collector: This segment collects of a major portion of the majority carriers supplied by the emitter. The
collector side is moderately doped and larger in size as compared to the emitter.
n-Base region n-Emitter p-Base region n-Collector
p-Emitter p-Collector
Bias Voltage applied on p-n-p transistor Bias Voltage applied on n-p-n transistor
The transistor works as an amplifier, with its emitter-base junction forward biased and the base-collector
junction reverse biased.
We represent the voltage between emitter and base as V EB and that between the collector and the base as
VCB.
If base is a common terminal for the two power supplies whose other terminals are connected to emitter and
collector, respectively, the two power supplies are represented as V EE and VCC respectively.
In circuits, where emitter is the common terminal, the power supply between the base and the emitter is
represented as VBB and that between collector and emitter as VCC.
The paths of current carriers in the transistor with emitter-base junction forward biased and base-collector
junction reverse biased:
 The heavily doped emitter has a high concentration of majority carriers, which will be holes in a p-n-p
transistor and electrons in an n-p-n transistor.
 These majority carriers enter the base region in large numbers. The base is thin and lightly doped. So
the majority carriers there would be few. In a p-n-p transistor the majority carriers in the base are
electrons since base is of ntype semiconductor. The large number of holes entering the base from the
emitter swamps the small number of electrons there.
 As the base-collector junction is reverse-biased, these holes, which appear as minority carriers at the
junction, can easily cross the junction and enter the collector. The holes in the base could move either
towards the base terminal to combine with the electrons entering from outside or cross the junction to
enter into the collector and reach the collector terminal.
The base is made thin so that most of the holes find themselves near the reverse-biased base-collector
junction and so cross the junction instead of moving to the base terminal.
 Due to forward bias a large current enters the emitter-base junction, but most of it is diverted to
adjacent reversebiased base-collector junction and the current coming out of the base becomes a very
small fraction of the current that entered the junction.
SEMICONDUCTOR
 The emitter current, IE = Ih + Ie (where Ih and Ie represent the hole and the electron current crossing the
forward biased diode) but the base current, IB << Ih + Ie, because a major part of IE goes to collector
instead of coming out of the base terminal. The base current is thus a small fraction of emitter current.
The current entering into the emitter form outside is equal to the emitter current I E.
Similarly, IB: the current emerging from the base terminal
IC: the current emerging from the collector terminal
By the application of Kirchoff‘s law, we have IE = IC + IB
i.e. the emitter current is the sum of collector current and base current.
Note
 In a p-n-p transistor, the current enters from emitter into base whereas in a n-p-n transistor it enters
from the base into the emitter.
 In the active state of the transistor, the emitter-base junction acts as a low resistance while the base-
collector junction acts as a high resistance.
Basic Transistor Circuit Configurations and Transistor Characteristics:

In a transistor, only three terminals are available, viz., Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C). Therefore, in
a circuit the input/output connections have to be such that one of these (E, B or C) is common to both the
input and the output. Accordingly, the transistor can be connected in either of the following three
configurations:
1. Common Emitter (CE):
2. Common Base (CB):
3. Common Collector (CC):
SEMICONDUCTOR
Common Emitter Transistor Characteristics:

When a transistor is used in CE configuration, the input is between the base and the emitter and the output
is between the collector and the emitter.
Input Characteristics:
 The variation of the base current IB with the base-emitter voltage VBE is called input characteristic.
 To study the input characteristics of the transistor in CE configuration, a curve is plotted between the
base current IB against the base-emitter voltage VBE at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE.
Circuit arrangement for

studying the input and
output characteristics of
n-p-n transistor in CE
configuration
Note We know, VCE = VCB + VBE

Since the increase in VCE appears as increase in VCB, its effect on IB is negligible. As a result,
input characteristics for various values of VCE will give almost identical curves. Hence, it is enough
to determine only one input characteristics.
Output Characteristics:
 The variation of the collector current IC with the collector-emitter voltage VCE at constant IB is called the
output characteristic.
 If VBE is increased by a small amount, both hole current from the emitter region and the electron
current from the base region will increase. As a consequence, both I B and IC will increase
proportionately. This shows that when IB increase, IC also increases.
 The plot of IC versus VCE for different fixed values of IB gives one output characteristic.
Some Important ac Parameters of Transistors:
1. Input resistance (ri):
This is defined as the ratio of change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the resulting change in base
current (ΔIB) at constant collector emitter voltage (VCE).
 VBE  Of the order of a few "k " though B is large with a small
 

ri    change in V because  is of the order of "A" 
 B  VCE 
 BE B 

Of the order of a few k through IB is large with a small change in VBE because is of the order of
A.
SEMICONDUCTOR
2. Output resistance (ro):

This is defined as the ratio of change in collector emitter voltage (ΔV CE) to the change in collector
current (ΔIC) at constant base current IB.
 V 
ro   CE  {Of the order of ―M‖ because IC  0  very less }
 C  B
Of the order of ―MΩ‖ because ∆IC  0 (very less)

3. Current amplification factor (β):
This is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current (output current) to the change in base
current at a constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) when the transistor is the active state.
  
  C 
 B  VCE
Thus is also known as Small Signal Current Gain.
Note
The output characteristics show that initially for very small values of V CE , IC increases almost linearly. This
happens because the base-collector junction is not reverse biased and the transistor is not in active state.
(i) The output resistance of the transistor is mainly controlled by the bias of the base collector junction.
(ii) βdc of transistor =
Since IC increases with IB almost linearly and IC = 0 when IB = O, the values of both βdc and βac are nearly
equal. So, for most calculations βdc can be used. (Since slope is same, considering origin as one
point. )
Comparison between CB, CE and CC amplifier
S. Characteristic Amplifier
No. CB CE CC
(i) Input resistance (Ri)  50 to 200  low  1 to 2 k medium  150 – 800 k high
(ii) Output resistance (Ro)  1 – 2 k high  50 k medium  k low
(iii) Current gain 0.8 – 0.9 low 20 – 200 high 20 – 200 high
(iv) Voltage gain Medium High Low
(v) Power gain Medium High Low
o
(vi) Phase difference between Zero 180 Zero
input and output voltages
(vii) Used as amplifier for current Power Voltage
SEMICONDUCTOR
Transistor as a Switch:
Base-biased transistor in CE configuration Transfer characteristic
Principle:
(i) Applying Kirchhoff‘s voltage rule to the input and output sides of this circuit, we get:
VBB  BRB  VBE and VCE  VCC  CRC .
We shall treat VBB as the dc input voltage Vi and VCE as the dc output voltage VO. So, we have
Vi  BRB  VBE and Vo  VCC  CRC .
(ii) In the case of Si transistor, as long as input Vi is less than 0.6 V, the transistor will be in cut off state
and current IC will be zero.
Hence VO = VCC
When Vi becomes greater than 0.6 V, the transistor is in active state with some current IC in the
output path and the output VO decrease as the term ICRC increases. With Vi, IC increases almost
linearly and so VO decreases linearly till its value becomes les than about 1.0 V.
Beyond this, the change becomes non linear and transistor goes into saturation state. With further
increase in Vi the output voltage is found to decrease further towards zero though it may never
become zero.
Working:
As long as Vi is low and unable to forward-bias the transistor, V0 is high (at VCC).
If Vi is high enough to drive the transistor into saturation, then VO is low, very near to zero.
When the transistor is not conducting it is said to be switched off and when it is driven into saturation it is
said to be switched on.
This shows that if we define low and high states as below and above certain voltage levels corresponding to
cutoff and saturation of the transistor, then we can say that a low input switches the transistor off and a high
input switches it on. Alternatively, we can say that a low input to the transistor gives a high output and a high
input gives a low output.
The switching circuits are designed in such a way that the transistor does not remain in active state.
SEMICONDUCTOR
Transistor as an Amplifier (CE-configuration):
A simple circuit of a CE - transistor amplifier
If a small sinusoidal voltage with amplitude s is superposed on the dc base bias by connecting the source of
that signal in series with the VBB supply, then the basecurrent will have sinusoidal variations superimposed
on the value of IB. As a consequence the collector current also will have sinusoidal variations superimposed
on the value of IC producing in turn corresponding change in the value of VO. We can measure the ac
variations across the input and output terminals by blocking the dc voltages by large capacitors.
Working:
Let us superimpose an ac input signal  i (to be amplified) on the bias VBB (dc).
The output is taken between the collector and the ground.

Let us assume that  i = O
Then, applying Kirchhoff‘s law to the output loop, we get

VCC – ICRL – VCE = 0 ⇒ VCC = IC RL + VCE . . . .(i)
Likewise, the input loop gives
VBB – IBRB – VBE = 0 ⇒ VBB = IBRB + VBE . . . .(ii)
When  i is not zero, we get:
VBB +  i = VBE + ΔBE + (IB + ΔIB) RB ⇒ VBB +  i = VBE + IBRB + ΔIB (RB + ri) . .(iii)
  V  
ri   BE   , where ri is the input resistance

  B  VCE 
Hence, vi = ΔIB (RB + ri) = ΔIB . r

The change in IB causes a change in IC.
VC iC
ac  . . . .(iv)
B iB
It is also know as the ac current gain Ai. Usually βac is close to βdc in the linear region of the output
characteristics. The change in IC due to a change in IB causes a change VCE and the voltage drop across the
resistor RL because VCC is fixed.
These changes can be give by ΔVCC = ΔVCE + RLΔIC [Using Equation (i)]
⇒ 0 = ΔVCE + RLΔIC ⇒ ΔVCE = – RLΔIC
The change in VCE is the output voltage v0.
So, v0 = ΔVCE = – RLΔIC ⇒ v0 = –βac RL ΔIB [Using Equation (iv)]
 V B RL
The voltage gain of the amplifier is A 0
 ac
CE  A  
i rB r
SEMICONDUCTOR
Note
The negative sign represents that output voltage is opposite in phase with the input voltage.
The power gain Ap can be expressed as the product of the current gain and voltage gain.
Mathematically, Ap = βac × A
Since βac and Av are greater than 1, we get ac power gain. However, it should be realized that transistor is
not a power generating device. The energy for the higher ac power at the output is supplied by the battery.
Transistor as an Oscillator:
In an oscillator, the output is self sustained which is accomplished by returning a portion of the output power
to theinput in phase with the starting power (This is called positive feedback).
Consider the circuit in which feedback is obtained by inductive coupling.
Tuned collector oscillator Rise and fall (or built up) Principle of a transistor amplifier with
of current I c and Ie due to positive feedback working as an oscillator
the inductive coupling
Note:
 When first time S1 is closed, reverse is provided ad current tries to shoot but because of inductor,
current doesn't shoot rapidly and increse slowly. As a result flux increase through T 2 and
corresponding EMF is induced in T 1 which provides forward biasing (increases forward biasing) and
thus emitter current increases till Y' (saturation point). At saturation, collector current becomes const.
and extra biasing provided bt T 1 vanishes and thus emitter current decreases as a result collector
current. Now, due to the decreases in collector current, emf is induced in T 1 but this time in opposite
direction, as a result Forward biasing and emitter current further decreases till z'. This process
continuous.
Working:
1. When the switch S1is put on to apply proper bias for the first time, a surge of collector current flows in
the transistor. This current flows through the coil T 2 where terminals are numbered 3 and 4.
2. The current increases from X to Y (shown in Figure). The inductive coupling between coil T 2 and coil
T1 now causes a current to flow in the emitter circuit (this is the actual feedback).
3. As a result the current in T1 (emitter current) also increases from X‘ to Y‘.
SEMICONDUCTOR
4. The current in T2 (collector current) connected in the collector circuit acquires the value Y when
transistor becomes saturated i.e. maximum collector current is flowing and can increase no further.
5. Since there is no further change in collector current, the magnetic field around T 2 ceases to grow. As
soon as the field becomes static, there will be no further feedback from T2 to T1. Without continued
feedback, emitter current begins to fall. Consequently, collector current decreases from Y towards Z.
6. However, a decrease of collector current causes the magnetic field to decay around coil T2. Thus, T1 is
now seeing a decaying field in T 2. This causes a further decrease in the emitter current till it reaches
Z when transistor is cut-off. The whole process repeats itself.
1
7. The frequency at which the oscillator oscillates is given by f 
2 LC
In this current, the tank or tuned circuit is connected in the collector side and it is known as tuned
collector circuit.
SEMICONDUCTOR
Digital Electronics
Voltage Signal and Binary System.
Voltage signal
Analogue voltage signal Digital voltage signal
The signal which represents the continuous The signal which has only two values. i.e. either a
variation of voltage with time is known as analogue constant high value of voltage or zero value is
voltage signal called digital voltage signal
+V
+ V0
O
Time Time
– V0
Binary system
(i) A number system which has only two digits i.e. 0 (Low value) and 1 (High value) is known as binary
system
(ii) The electrical circuit which operates only in these two state i.e. 1 (On or High) and 0 (i.e. Off or Low)
are known as digital circuits.
(iii) Different names for the two states of digital signals:
State Code Name for the State
1 On Up Closed Excited True Pulse High Yes
0 Off Down Open Unexcited False No pulse Low No
Boolean Algebra.
(1) In Boolean algebra only two states of variables (0 and 1) are allowed.
(2) The variables (A, B, C ….) of Boolean Algebra are subjected to three operations.
OR Operation AND Operation NOT Operation
(i) Represented by (+) sign Represented by (·) sign Represented by bar over the
variables
(ii) Boolean expression Boolean expression Boolean expression
Y=A+B Y=A·B YA
A
A B A
+ T
A OFF  Lamp ON
A ON  Contact at T is broken
 Lamp OFF
SEMICONDUCTOR
Basic Boolean postulates and laws
(i) Boolean Postulates: 0 + A = A, 1 · A = A, 1 + A = 1, 0 · A = 0, AA 

1
(ii) Identity law: A + A = A, A·A=A
(iii) Negation law: AA

(iv) Commutative law: A + B = B + A, A·B=B·A
(v) Associative law: (A+B) + C = A + (B+C), (A · B) · C = A · (B · C)
(vi) Distributive law: A · (B+C) = A · B + A · C
(vii) De Morgan‘s laws: A  B  A  B and A  B  A  B also A  AB A  B and A(A  B) 

AB
Logic Gates and Truth Table.

(1) Logic gate:
• A logic gate is a digital circuit which is based on certain logical relationship between the input and the
output voltages of the circuit.
• The logic gates are built using the semiconductor P-N junction diodes and transistors.
• Each logic gate is represented by its characteristic symbol.
• The operation of a logic gate is indicated in a table, known as truth table. This table contains all
possible combinations of inputs and the corresponding outputs.
• A logic gate is also represented by a Boolean algbraic expression. Boolean algebra is a method of
writing logical equations showing how an output depends upon the combination of inputs. Boolean
algebra was invented by George Boole.
(2) Truth table: The operation of a logic gate or circuit can be represented in a table which contains all
possible inputs and their corresponding outputs is called the truth table. To write the truth table we use
binary digits 1 and 0.
Basic Logic Gates

There are three basic logic gates. They are
(1) OR gate (2) AND gate, and (3) NOT gate
The ‘OR’ gate

(i) It has two inputs (A and B) and only one output (Y)
(ii) Boolean expression is Y = A + B
(iii) logic symbol
A
Y
B
(iv) Truth Table

A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
SEMICONDUCTOR
The ‘AND’ gate

(i) It has two inputs and one output.
(ii) Boolean expression is Y = A · B
(iii) logic symbol:
A
Y
B
(iv) Truth Table

A B Y=A·B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
The ‘NOT’ gate
(i) It has only one input and only one output
(ii) Boolean expression is Y  A

(iii) logic symbol:
A Y
(iv) Truth Table

A YA
0 1
1 0
Combination of Logic Gates.

(1) The ‘NAND’ gate: From ‗AND‘ and ‗NOT‘ gate
(i) Boolean expression and truth table : Y A  B

(ii) Logic Symbol
A Y = A ·B A
AND NOT  Y
B B
(iii) Truth Table
A B Y = A  B Y
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
SEMICONDUCTOR
(2) The ‘NOR’ gate: From ‗OR‘ and ‗NOT‘ gate
(i) Boolean expression and truth table: Y A  B

(ii) Logic Symbol
A Y = A + B A
OR NOT  Y
B B
(iii) Truth Table
A B Y = A + B Y
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
(3) The ‘XOR’ gate: From ‗NOT‘, ‗AND‘ and ‗OR‘ gate. Known as exclusive OR gate.
or
The logic gate which gives high output (i.e., 1) if either input A or input B but not both are high (i.e. 1)
is called exclusive OR gate or the XOR gate.
It may be noted that if both the inputs of the XOR gate are high, then the output is low (i.e., 0).
(i) Boolean expression and truth table: Y = A  B = A B  AB

(ii) Logic Symbol
B
A
Y  Y
B
A
(iii) Truth Table

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
SEMICONDUCTOR
(4) The exclusive nor (XNOR) gate: XOR + NOT 

 XNOR
(i) Boolean expression: Y = A  B = A B  AB
(ii) Logic Symbol
A A
Y Y

B B
(iii) Truth Table
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Logic Gates Using ‘NAND’ Gate.
The NAND gate is the building block of the digital electronics. All the logic gates like the OR, the AND and
the NOT can be constructed from the NAND gates.
(1) Construction of the ‘ NOT’ gate from the ‘ NAND’ gate
(i) When both the inputs (A and B) of the NAND gate are joined together then it works as the NOT gate.
(ii) Logic symbol
A Y
(iii) Truth Table
Input Output
A=B Y
0 1
1 0
(2) Construction of the ‘AND’ gate from the ‘ NAND’ gate.

(i) When the output of the NAND gate is given to the input of the NOT gate (made from the NAND gate),
then the resultant logic gate works as the AND gate
(ii) Logic symbol
Y Y
A
B
SEMICONDUCTOR
(iii) Truth Table
A B Y Y
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
(3) Construction of the ‘ OR’ gate by the ‘NAND’ gate

(i) When the outputs of two NOT gates (obtained from the NAND gate) is given to the inputs of the NAND
gate, the resultant logic gate works as the OR gate
(ii) Logic symbol
(iii) Truth Table
A B A B Y
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
Integrated Circuits (IC):

An IC is the fabrication of an entire circuit consisting of passive components like R and C on a small single
block of a semi conductor. The chip dimensions are as small as 1mm × 1mm or it could be even smaller.
Depending on nature of input signals, IC‘s can be grouped in two categories:
(a) Linear or Analogue IC’s: The linear IC‘s process analogue signals, which change smoothly and
continuously over a range of values between a maximum and a minimum. The output is more or less
directly proportional to the input, i.e., it varies linearly with the input.
One of the most useful linear IC‘s is the operational amplifier.
(b) Digital IC’s: The digital IC‘s process signals that have only two values. They contain circuits such as
logic gates.
Depending upon the level of integration (i.e., the number of circuit components or logical gates), the
ICs are termed as Small Scale Integration, SSI (logic gates ≤ 10) ; Medium Scale Integration, MSI
(logic gates ≤ 100) ; Large Scale Integration, LSI (logic gates ≤ 1000) ; and Very Large Scale
Integration, VLSI (logic gates > 1000).
SEMICONDUCTOR
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CLASS XII

Detailed Notes As Per BOARD Examination

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(ii) Width of forbidden energy gap upon the nature of substance.

S.No. Properties Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

(Thermally generated free electron)

Hole at site 1 Site 1

Limitations of Intrinsic Semiconductor:

Trivalent acceptor atom +4 +4 +4

(ln, Al, B etc.) doped in

Description on the Basis of Energy Bands:

down into valence band.

When an electron diffuses from n → p, it leaves behind an ionized donor on n-side.

Some important graphs

Forward bias minority carrier injection

p-n junction diode under reverse bias:

V-I Characteristic of p-n Junction Diode:

Voltmeter (V) Voltmeter (V)

Forward biasing Reverse biasing

Break down Reverse current

Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier

During positive half cycle During positive half cycle

During negative half cycle Output signal 

 When the voltage at A is positive, the diode is D2 

reverse biased. Similarly, when D 2 is forward

Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes:

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator:

Zener diode as DC voltage regulator

(a) An illuminated photodiode under reverse bias,

(b) Light Emitting Diode:

(a) Typical p - n junction solar cell

I - V characteristics of a solar cell

 High optical absorption  104 cm1 

Emitter Collector Emitter Collector

Symbols for n-p-n Symbols for p-n-p

The three segments of a transistor are:

Basic Transistor Circuit Configurations and Transistor Characteristics:

2. Common Base (CB):

3. Common Collector (CC):

Common Emitter Transistor Characteristics:

Circuit arrangement for

Note We know, VCE = VCB + VBE

2. Output resistance (ro):

Of the order of ―MΩ‖ because ∆IC  0 (very less)

Thus is also known as Small Signal Current Gain.

Comparison between CB, CE and CC amplifier

Base-biased transistor in CE configuration Transfer characteristic

VBB  BRB  VBE and VCE  VCC  CRC .

Vi  BRB  VBE and Vo  VCC  CRC .

Transistor as an Amplifier (CE-configuration):

A simple circuit of a CE - transistor amplifier

The output is taken between the collector and the ground.

Then, applying Kirchhoff‘s law to the output loop, we get

Hence, vi = ΔIB (RB + ri) = ΔIB . r

Consider the circuit in which feedback is obtained by inductive coupling.

3. As a result the current in T1 (emitter current) also increases from X‘ to Y‘.

Analogue voltage signal Digital voltage signal

State Code Name for the State