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ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 3

ELECTROSTATICS
1 . I N T RODU CT I ON
When we comb our hair on a dry day and bring the comb close to tiny pieces of paper, we note
that they are swiftly attracted by the comb. Similar phenomena occur if we rub a glass rod or an amber
rod with a cloth or with a piece of fur. Why does this happens? What really happens in an electric
circuit? How do electric motors and generators work?
The answers to all these questions come from a branch of physics known as electromagnetism,
the study of electric and magnetic interactions. These interactions involve particles that have a property
called electric charge, an inherent property of matter that is as fundamental as mass.
We begin our study of electromagnetism in this chapter by the electric charge. We will see that
it is quantized and obey a conservation principle. Then we will study the interactions of electric charges
that are at rest, called electrostatic interactions. These interactions are governed by a simple relationship
known as CoulombÊs law. This law is more conveniently described by using the concept of electric
field.

2 . EL ECT RI C CH A RGE
+ +
Two positively charged ions repel each other
+
A positively charged ion and electron repel each other

Atoms are composed of three particles with an electric charge : electrons, protons and uncharged
neutrons. Electrons have a negative charge, and protons have a positive charge. The negative charge
of the electron has the same magnitude, or amount of charge, as the positive charge of the proton.
Electrical charge is quantized, with the smallest unit of electrical charge found in a single electron
or proton. If we double the number of electrons or protons, we double the amount of negative or positive
electric charge. If we triple the electrons or protons, we triple the electric charge. By increasing the
amount of single unit electric charges, we have a net charge. A net charge is the summed value of
single electrical charges.
We donÊt typically refer to single units of charge. We typically refer to net charges. Atoms are
composed of protons and electrons and generally have a net neutral electrical charge. The magnitude
of total positive and total negative charges inside the neutral atom is equal. If we were to remove an
electron (called a Valence electron) from the atom, the net charge of the atom would be positive. There
is now more positive charge in the atom. This atom is called a positive ion, and is quantized with a net
positive charge.
What happens when we keep removing Valence electrons from a group of neutral atoms? We end
up with a group of positive ions and a group of free Valence electrons. Each group has a net positive
or net negative electrical charge. We can call each charged group a body of charge.

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We canÊt really say what an electrical charge is, but only describe its behavour. Simply started two
single protons or two single electrons repel each other. A single proton and a single electron attract each
other. The same can be said for net charges - a net negative charge will attract a net positive charge.
Points to Remember
there are two kinds of charge, positive and negative.
like charges repel, unlike charges attract
positive charge comes from having more protons than electrons; negative charge comes from
having more electrons than protons
charge is quantized, meaning that charge comes in integer multiples of the elementary charge e
charge is conserved
Probably everyone is familiar with the first three concepts, but what does it mean for charge to
be quantized? Charge comes in multiples of an indivisible unit of charge, represented by the letter e.
In other words, charge comes in multiples of the charge on the electron or the proton. These things
have the same size charge, but the sign is different. A proton has a charge of + e, while an electron
has a charge of e.
Electrons and protons are not the only things that carry charge. Other particles (positrons, for
example) also carry charge in multiples of the electronic charge. Those are not going to be discussed,
for the most part, in this course, however.
Putting „charge is quantized‰ in terms of an equation, we say :
q = n e
q is the symbol used to represent charge, while n is a positive or negative integer, and e is the
electronic charge, 1.60 10 19 Coulombs.

2 .1 T h e L a w o f Co n s e r va t i o n o f Ch a r g e
The Law of conservation of charges states that the net charge of an isolated system remains
constant.
If a system starts out with an equal number of positive and negative charges, thereÊs nothing we
can do to create an excess of one kind of charge in that system unless we bring in charge from outside
the system (or remove some charge from the system). Likewise, if something starts out with a certain
net charge, say + 100 e, it will always have + 100 e unless it is allowed to interact with something
external to it.
Charge can be created and destroyed, but only in positive-negative pairs.
Table of elementary particle masses and charges :
Particle mass charge
31 10
electron 9.11 10 kg 1.60 10 C ( e)
27 10
proton 1.672 10 kg + 1.60 10 C (+ e)
27
neutron 1.674 10 kg 0

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3 . CON DU CT ORS A N D I N SU L A T ORS

For the purpose of electrostatic theory all substances can be divided into two main groups
conductors and insulators. In conductors electric charges are free to move from one place to another,
whereas in insulators they are tightly bound to their respective atoms. In an uncharged body there are
equal number of positive and negative charges.
The examples of conductors of electricity are the metals, human body and the earth and that of
insulators are glass, hard rubber and plastics. In metals, the free charges are free electrons known as
cnduction electrons.
Semiconductors are a third class of materials, and their electrical properties are somewhere
between those of insulators and conductors. Silicon and germanium are well known example of
semiconductors.

4 . CH A RGI N G OF A B ODY
Mainly there are following there methods of charging a body :
(i) Charging by rubbing
The simplest way to experience electric charges is to rub certain bodies against each other. When
a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth the glass rod acquires some positive charge and the silk cloth
acquires negative charge by the same amount. The explanation of appearance of electric charge on
rubbing is simple. All material bodies contain large number of electrons and equal number of protons
in their normal state. When rubbed against each other, some electrons from one body pass onto the
other body. The body that donates the electron becomes positively charged while that which receives
the electrons becomes negatively charged. For example when glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth, glass
rod becomes positvely charged because it donate the electrons while the silk cloth becomes negatively
charged because it receives electrons. Electricity so obtained by rubbing two objects is also known as
frictional electricity. The other places where the frictional electricity can be observed are when
amber is rubbed with wool or a comb is passed through a dry hair. Clouds also become charged by
friction.

(ii) Charging by induction

It is also possible to charge a conductor in a way that does not involve contact.

Ebonite rod
++
+ ++ ++ + ++
+

+ + +
+

Grounding +
++ + +

+ Metal +
++ +

+ + wire
+ sphere +
+ +
+
+

++
++
++
+

Insulated Earth
stand

(a) (b) (c)

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In figure (a) a negatively charged rod brought close to (but does not
+
touch) a metal sphere. In the sphere, the free electrons close to the rod move Ebonite rod
+
to the other side (by repulsion). As a result, the part of the sphere nearer + Plastic

to the rod becomes positively charged and the part farthest from the rod +
+

negatively charged. This phenomenon is called induction. Now if the rod

is removed, the free electrons return to their original places and the charged regions disappear. Under
most conditions the earth is a good electric conductor. So when a metal wire is attached between the
sphere and the ground as in figure (b) some of the free electrons leave the sphere and distribute
themselves on the much larger earth. If the grounding wire is then removed, followed by the ebonite
rod, the sphere is left with a net positive charge. The process of giving one object a net electric charge
without touching the object to a second charged object is called charging by induction. The process
could also be used to give the sphere a net negative charge, if a positively charged rod were used. Then,
electrons would be drawn up from the ground through the grounding wire and onto the sphere.
If the sphere were made from an insulating material like plastic, instead of metal, the method of
producing a net charge by induction would not work, because very little charge would flow through
the insulating material and down the grounding wire. However, the electric force of the charged rod
would have some effect as shown in figure. The electric force would cause the positive and negative
charges in the molecules of the insulating material to separate slightly, with the negative charges being
pushed away from the negative rod. The surface of the plastic sphere does acquire a slight induced
positive charge, although no net charge is created.

(iii) Charging by contact

When a negatively charged ebonite rod is rubbed
on a metal object, such as a sphere, some of the excess
Ebonite rod
electrons from the rod are transferred to the sphere. Once
the electrons are on the metal sphere, where they can
move readily, they repel one another and spread out
over the sphereÊs surface. The insulated stand prevents Metal
them from flowing to the earth. When the rod is removed sphere
the sphere is left with a negative charge distributed over Insulated
its surface. In a similar manner the sphere will be left stand
with a positive charge after being rubbed with a positively
charged rod. In this case, electrons from the sphere would
be transferred to the rod. The process of giving one object a net electric charge by placing it in contact
with another object that is already charged is known as charging by contact.

Ex a m p l e 1
How many electrons are there in one coulomb of negative charge?
Solution :
The negative charge is due to the presence of excess electrons, since they carry negative charge.
Because an electron has a charge whose magnitude is e = 1.6 10 19 C, the number of electrons is
equal to the charge q divided by the charge e on each electron. Therefore, the number n of electrons
is

ELECTROSTATICS
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q 1.0
n 
e 1.6  1019

= 6.25 1018 Ans.

Ex m p l e 2
If we comb our hair on a dry day and bring the comb near small pieces of paper, the comb
attracts the pieces, why?
Solution :
This is an example of frictional electricity and induction. When we comb our hair it gets positively
charged by rubbing. When the comb is brought near the pieces of paper some of the electrons accumulate
at the edge of the paper piece which is closer to the comb. At the farther end of the piece there is
deficiency of electrons and hence, positive charge appears there. Such a redistribution of charge in a
material, due to presence of a nearby charged body is called induction. The comb exerts larger attraction
on the negative charges on the paper piece as compared to the repulsion on the positive charge. This
is because the negative charges are closer to the comb. Hence, there is a net attraction between the
comb and the paper piece.

Ex a m p l e 3
Does the attraction between the comb and the piece of papers last for longer period of time?
Solution :
No, because the comb loses its net charge after some time. The excess charge of the comb transfers to
earth through our body after some time.

Ex a m p l e 4
Can two similarly charged bodies attract each other?
Solution :
Yes, when the charge on one body (q1) is much greater than that on the other (q2) and they are
close enough to each other so that force of attraction between q1 and induced charge on the other
exceeds the force of repulsion between q1 and q2. However two similar point charges can never attract
each other because no induction will take place here.

Ex a m p l e 5
Does the mass of a body change during charging ?
Solution :
Yes, as charging a body means addition or removal of electrons and electron has a mass.

ELECTROSTATICS
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Ex a m p l e 6
Why a third hole in a socket provided for grounding?
Solution :
All electric appliances may end with some charge due to faulty connections. In such a situation charge
will be accumulated on the appliance. When the user touches the appliance he may get a shock. By
providing the third hole for grounding all accumulated charge is discharged to the ground and the
appliance is safe.

5. COU L OM B ’S L A W
The interaction between charged objects is a non-contact force which acts over some distance of
separation. Every electrical interaction involves a force which highlights the importance of these three
variables. Whether it is a plastic golf tube attracting paper bits, two like-charged balloons repelling or
a charged Styrofoam plate interacting with electrons in a piece of aluminium, there is always two
charges and a distance between them as the three critical variables which influence the strength of the
interaction.

5 .1 Fo r c e a s a V e c t o r Qu a n t it y
The electrical force, like all forces, is typically expressed in units of Newtons. Being a force, the
strength of the electrical interaction is a vector quantity which has both magnitude and direction. The
direction of the electrical force is dependent upon whether the charged objects are charged with like
charge or positive charge and upon their spatial orientation. By knowing the type of charge on the two
objects, the direction of the force on either one of them can be determined with a little reasoning. In
the diagram below, objects A and B have like charge causing them to repel each other. Thus, the force
on object A is directed leftward (away from B) and the force on object B is directed rightward (away
from A). On the other hand, objects C and D have opposite charge causing them to attract each other.
Thus, the force on object C is directed rightward (toward object D) and the force on object D is directed
leftward (toward object C). When it comes to the electrical force vector, perhaps the best way to
determine the direction of it is to apply the fundamental rules of charge interaction (opposites attract
and likes repel) using a little reasoning.

Determining the Direction of the Electrical Force Vector

Force of Force of Force of Force of

B on A A on B D on C C on D
+
Object A Object B Object C Object D

Electrical force also has a magnitude or strength. Like most types of forces, there are a variety of
factors which influence the magnitude of the electrical force. Two like-charged balloons will repel each
other and the strength of their repulsive force can be altered by changing three variables. First, the

ELECTROSTATICS
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quantity of charge on one of the balloons will effect the strength of the repulsive force. The more
charged a balloon is, the greater the repulsive force. Second, the quantity of charge on the second
balloon will affect the strength of the repulsive force. Gently rub two balloons with animal fur and they
repel a little. Rub the two balloons vigorously to impart more charge to both of them, and they repel
a lot. Finally, the distance between the two balloons will have a significant and noticeable affect upon
the repulsive force. The electrical force is strongest when the balloons are closest together. Decreasing
the separation distance increases the force. The magnitude of the force and the distance between the
two balloons is said to be inversely related.

5 .2 Co u l o m b ’s L a w Eq u a t io n
The quantitative expression for the affect of these three variables on electric force is known as
CoulombÊs law. CoulombÊs laws states that the electrical force between two charged objects is directly
prportional to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects and inversely proportional to the
square of the separation distance between the two objects. In equation form, CoulombÊs law can be
stated as

K Q1 Q2
F
d2

where Q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs), Q2 represents the quantity
of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and d represents the distance of separation between the two objects
(in meters). The symbol k is a proportionality constant known as the CoulombÊs law constant. The value
of this constant is dependent upon the medium that the charged objects are immersed in. In the case
of air, the value is approximately 9 109 Nm2/C2.

1
This constant k is often written as , where  („epsilon-nought‰) is another constant. This
4 0 0

appears to complicate matters, but it actually simplifies many formulae that we will encounter in later
chapters. Thus, eq. can be written as,

1 q1 q2
Fe 
4 0 r 2

Here,
1
 9  109 N  m2 / C2
4  0

Since CoulombÊs law applies to point charges, the distance d in the equation is the
distance between the centers of charge for both objects (not the distance between their nearest
surfaces).
The symbols Q1 and Q2 in the CoulombÊs law equation represent the quantities of charge on the
two interacting objects. Since an object can be charged positively or negatively, these quantities are

ELECTROSTATICS
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often expressed as „+‰ or „ ‰ values. The sign on the charge is simply representative of whether the
object has an excess of electrons (a negatively charged object) or a shortage of electrons (a positively
charged object). When using the „+‰ and „ ‰ signs in the calculation of force, the result will be that a
„ ‰ value for force is a sign of an attractive force and a „+‰ value for force signifies a repulsive force.
Mathematically, the force value would be found to be positive when Q1 and Q2 are like charge-either
both „+‰ or both „ ‰. And the force value would be found to be negative when Q1 and Q2 are of opposite
charge - one is „+‰ and the other is „ ‰. This is consistent with the concept that oppositely charged
objects have an attractive interactions and like charged objects have a repulsive interaction. In the end,
if youÊre thinking conceputally (and not merely mathematically), you would be very able to determine
the nature of the force-attractive or repulsive-without the use of „+‰ and „ ‰ signs in the equation.
Regarding CoulombÊs law following points are worth noting :
(1) CoulombÊs law stated above describes the interaction of two point charges. When two charges
exert forces simultaneously on a third charge, the total force acting on that charge is the
vector sum of the forces that the two charges would exert individually. This important
property, called the principle of superposition of forces, holds for any number of charges.
Thus,
   
Fnet  F1  F 2  ...  F n

(2) The electric force is an action reaction pair, i.e., the two charges exert equal and opposite
forces on each other.
(3) The electric force is conservative in nature.
(4) CoulombÊs law as we have stated above can be used for point charges in vacuum. If some
dielectric (insulator) is present in the space between the charges, the net force acting on each
charge is altered because charges are induced in the
q q Fe
molecules of the intervening medium. We will describe this Fe 1
r
2

effect later. Here at this moment it is enough to say that In vacuum

the force decreases K times if the medium extends till
infinity. Here K is a dimensionless constant which depends on the medium and called dielectric
constant of the medium. Thus,

1 qq
Fe  . 1 2 (in vacuum)
4  0 r2

Fe 1 qq 1 q1 q2
Fe'   . 1 22  . (in medium)
K 4  0 K r 4  r 2

Here,  = 0K is called permitivity of the medium.

Points to Remember
1. In few problems of electrostatics LamiÊs theorem is very useful.

ELECTROSTATICS
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   F2
According to this theorem, „if three concurrent forces F1 F and F3
2

   F1
shown in figure are in equilibrium or if F1  F  F3  0 , then
2

F1 F F
 2  3
sin  sin  sin 
F3
2. Suppose two charges q1 and q2 are placed in vacuum at a distance
r0 and the electric force between them is
1 qq
F0  . 1 22
4  0 r0

Now the same charges are placed in a dielectric constant K at a distance r (< r0) such that
the electric force between them
1 qq
F . 1 2
4  0 K r 2
remains the same of F = F0
1 qq 1 qq
Then . 1 22  . 1 22
4  0 r 4  0 r0

or r0  K r

Thus, we see that, for the electric force between two charges a distance r in a dielectric medium

is equivalent to a distance r0  K r in vacuum.

Ex a m p l e 7
Suppose that two point charges, each with a charge of + 1.00 Coulomb are separated by a
distance of 1.00 meter. Determine the magnitude of the electrical force of repulsion between
them.
Solution : Given : Find :
Q1 = 1.00 C Felect = ???
Q2 = 1.00 C
d = 1.00 m

k  Q1  Q2
Felect 
d2
Felect = (9.0 109 N m2/C2) (1.00 C) (1.00 C) / (1.00 m)2
Felect = 9.0 109 N
The force of repulsion of two + 1.00 Coulomb charges held 1.00 meter apart is 9 billion Newtons.

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This problem was chosen primarily for its conceptual message. Objects simply do not acquire
charges of the order of 1.00 Coulomb. In fact, more likely Q values are on the order of 109 or possibly
10 6 Coulombs. For this reason, a Greek prefix is often used in front of the Coulomb as a unit of charge.
Charge is often expressed in units of micro Coulomb (øC) and nano Coulomb (nC). If a problem states
the charge in these units, it is advisable to first convert to Coulombs prior to substitution into the
CoulombÊs law equation. The following unit equialencies will assist in such conversions.
1 Coulomb = 106 micro Coulomb
1 Coulomb = 109 nano Coulomb

Ex a m p l e 8
Two balloons with charges of + 3.37 øC and 8.21 øC attract each other with a force of 0.626
Newtons. Determine the separation distance between the two balloons.
Given Find :
6
Q1 = + 3.37 øC = + 3.37 10 C d = ???
6
Q2 = 8.21 øC = 8.21 10 C
Felect = 0.0626 N (use a - force value since it is repulsive)

k Q1  Q2
Felect 
d2
k Q1  Q2
 d2 
Felect

kQ1 Q2
d
Felect

d 
 
 9.0  109 Nm2 / C2   8.21  10 6 C   3.37  106 C 
   
  0.062 N 
d = + 1.99 m

Ex a m p l e 9
What is the smallest electric force between two charges placed at a distance of 1.0 m.
Solution :
1 qq
Fe  . 12 2
4  0 r

For Fe to be minimum q1q2 should be minimum. We know that

19
(q1)min = (q2)min = e = 1.6 10 C

 9.0  10  9

we have  Fe min 
1.0  2 1.6  10  19

28
= 2.304 10 N Ans.
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Ex a m p l e 1 0
Three charges q 1 = 1øC, q 2 = 2øC and q 3 = 3øC are placed on the vertices of an equilateral
triangle of side 1.0 m. Find the net electric force acting on charge q 1.
How to Proceed : Charge q will attract charge q (along the line joining q3
2 1
them) and charge q3 will repel charge q1. Therefore, two forces will act on q1, one
due to q2 and another due to q3. Since, the force is a vector quantity both of these
   
q1 q2
forces  say F1 and F 2  will be added by vector method. Following are two methods
 
of their addition.
Solution :
Method 1 : In the figure,
 1 qq
F1  F1  . 1 22
4  0 r
= magnitude of force between q1 and q2

 9.0  10  1.0  10   2.0  10 

9 6 6

=
1.02
2
= 1.8 10 N
 1 qq
Similarly, F 2  F2  . 1 3
4  0 r 2
= magnitude of force between q1 and q3 q3

 9.0  10  1.0  10   3.0  10 

9 6 6

=
1.0 2 q1 F1
q2
2
= 2.7 10 N 120
F2
Now, Fnet  F12  F22  2F1F2 cos120 Fnet

  1
=  1.8 2   2.72  2 1.8  2.7       102 N
  2  
2
= 2.38 10 N
F2 sin 120
and tan  
F1  F2 cos120

 2.7  10   0.87 2

=
1.8  10    2.7  10    12 
2 2

or        = 79.2 .

ELECTROSTATICS
 14 QUIZRR
2
Thus, the net force on charge q1 is 2.38 10 N at an angle  = 79.2 with a line joining q1 and
q2 as shown in the figure. Ans.
Method 2 : In this method let us assume a co-ordinate axes with q1 at origin as shown in
figure.The co-ordinates of q1, q2 and q3 in this co-ordinate system are (0, 0, 0), (1 m, 0, 0) and (0.5
m, 0.87 m, 0) respectively. Now

F1  force on q1 due to charge q2 y q3

1 q1 q2   
= .  r1  r 2 
4  0   3  
r1  r 2
q1 q2

=
 9.0  10  1.0  10    2.0  10   0  1 i→  0  0  →j   0  0  k→ 
9 6 6

 
1.03
 2
= 1.8  10 i→ N 

and F 2 = force on q1 due to charge q3

1 q1 q3   
= .  r1  r3 
4  0   3  
r1  r3

=
 9.0  10  1.0  10   3.0  10   0  0.5 i→   0  0.87 →j   0  0 k→ 
9 6 6

 
1.0 3
 2
=  1.35 i→  2.349 →j  10 N 
  
Therefore, net force on q1 is F  F1  F 2

=  0.45 i→  2.349 →j   102 N Ans.

Note : Once you write a vector in terms of i→, →j and k→ , there is no need of writing the magnitude

and direction of vector separately.

Ex a m p l e 1 1
Two identical balls each having a density  are suspended from a common point by two
insulating strings of equal length. Both the balls have equal mass and charge. In equilibrium
each string makes an angle  with vertical. Now, both the balls are immersed in a liquid.
As a result the angle  does not change. The density of the liquid is . Find the dielectric
constant of the liquid.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 15

Solution :
Each ball is in equilibrium under the following three forces :
(i) tension, (ii) electric force and (iii) weight
So, LamiÊs theorem can be applied

T'
T
Fe'
Fe

W'
W In liquid
In vacuum

' Fe
In the liquid, Fe 
K

where, K = dielectric constant of liquid and W´ = W upthrust

W Fe
Applying LamiÊs theorem in vacuum sin 90    sin 180  
   
W F
or  e ...(i)
cos  sin 

W´ F'
Similarly in liquid,  e ... (ii)
cos  sin 
Dividing Eq. (i) by (ii), we get
W Fe

W ' Fe'

W  F 
or K  as e'  K 
W  upthrust  Fe 
 

Vg
= (V = volume of ball)
Vg  Vg


or K Ans.
 

Note : In the liquid Fe and W have been changed. Therefore, T will also change.

6 . COM PA RI N G EL ECT RI CA L A N D GRA V I T A T ION A L FORCES

Electrical force and gravitational force are the two non-contact forces. CoulombÊs law equation for
electrical force bears a strong resemblance to NewtonÊs equation for universal gravitation.

ELECTROSTATICS
 16 QUIZRR

k Q1 Q 2 G m1 m2
Felect  Fgrav 
d2 d2
( k  9  10 9 Nm2 / C2 ) G  6.67  10 11
Nm2 / kg 2 
The two equations have a very similar form. Both equations show an inverse square relationship
between force and separation distance. And both equations show that the force is proportional to the
product of the quantity that causes the force-charge in the case of electrical force and mass in the case
of gravitational force. Yet there are some striking differences between these two forces. First, a comparison
of the proportionality constants - k versus G - reveals that the CoulombÊs law constant (k) is significantly
greater than NewtonÊs universal gravitation constant (G). Subsequently a unit of charge will attract
a unit of charge with significantly more force than a unit of mass will attract a unit of mass. Second,
gravitational forces are only attractive; electrical forces can be either attractive or repulsive.
The inverse square relationship between force and distance which is woven into the equation is
common to both non-contact forces. This relationship highlights the importance of separation distance
when it comes to the electrical force between charged objects.

7 . EL ECT RI C FIEL D
A charged particle cannot directly interact with another particle kept at a distance. A charge
produces something called an electric field in the space found it and this electric field exerts a force on
any other charge (except the source charge itself) placed in it.
Thus, the region surrounding a charge or distribution of charge in which its electrical effects can
be observed is called the electric field of the charge or distribution of charge. Electric field at a point

can be defined that all these are functions of positions r  x, y, z  . The field propagates through space
with the speed of light, c. Thus, if a charge is suddenly moved, the force it exerts on another charge
a distance r away does not change until a time r/c later.

 
7 .1 Ele c t ri c Fi e l d St r e n g t h  E 
 
Like its gravitational counterpart, the electric field strength (often called electric field) at a point

in an electric field is defined as the electrostatic force Fe per unit positive charge. Thus, if the

electrostatic force experienced by a small test charge q0 is Fe , then field strength at that point is
defined as,


 Fe
E  lim
q0 0 q0

The electric field is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as the direction of the force Fe on
a positive test charge. The SI unit of electric field is N/C. Here it should be noted that the test charge

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 17

q0 does not disturb other charges which produces E . With the concept of electric field, our description
of electric interactions has two parts. First, a given charge distribution acts as a source of electric field.
Second, the electric field exerts a force on any charge that is present in this field.

7 .2 A n Ele c t ri c Fi e l d l e a d s t o a Fo r c e

Suppose there is an electric field strength E at some point in an electric field, then the electrostatic

force acting on a charge + q is qE in the direction of E , while on the charge q it is qE in the opposite

direction of E .

7 .3 Ele c t ri c Fi e l d i n t e n s i t y d u e t o a Po i n t Ch a r g e
The force experienced by a unit positive charge at a distance r due to point charge ÂqÊ is
called electric field intensity at that point due to the charge q.

+1

q r P

 Kq q 
F   12 2  where K = 9 109 Nm2/C2
 r 

 1 
and K    where 0 = 8.85 10 12
C2/Nm2
 4  0 
We define electric field at a point as

 KQ.1   KQ 
E 2  2 
 r   r 

KQ Q
 E or E
r 2 4  0 r 2
In vector form
P (x2, y2, z2)

E  E. n→ r
r
 KQ   KQ  
=  2  . n→ r   3  r
 r   r  Q (x1, y1, z1)

 KQ   
 E 3 r r   x2  x1  i   y2  y1  j   z2  z1  k
 r 

  Q 
E r
 4  r3 
 0 
l Net field intensity in the space due to a number of point charges at a point is given by principle
of superposition.

ELECTROSTATICS
 18 QUIZRR

    
E  E1  E 2  E3  .....  E n

[Principle of superposition is applicable only when the effect remains unchanged, due to presence
of others (charges in this case).]
l Net force experienced by a point charge in the electric field

 
F  qE

Ex a m p l e 1 2 +q a +q
Four identical charges are placed at the corners of a square of side a . Find
the net field at a point lying on the perpendicular drawn to the plane of a a
a
square and passing through its centre at a height .
2 +q a +q
Solution :
Observe that the net field lie in the vertical direction as the opposite charges cancel out each others
horizontal component of the electric field.
Esin
 E
Enet  4E sin 
Ecos

 Kq   1  +q 45 a/ 2
+q
= 4 2  
a  2
a/ 90
2
  2 2 Kq 
E   2  (away from centre)
 a 

Note : for any symmetric polygon, the field at a perpendicular height +q +q

on the centre will be vertically directed away from centre.

8 . EL ECT RI C POT EN T I A L
„Potential is the potential energy per unit charge.‰ Electric potential at any point in an electric
field is defined as the potential energy per unit charge, same as field strength is defined as the
force per unit charge.

U
Thus V  or U = q0V
q0

The SI unit of potential is Volt (V) which is Joule per Coloumb. So 1 Volt = 1 J/C

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 19

If we want a picture of a field, we usually think of many lines lines of „flux‰ emanating radially
away from the charge :

For negative charges, the lines point inward. These flux lines indicate the direction of a positively
charged test particle would move due to the electric force between it and the configuration charge. Note
that the „density per unit area‰ of the flux decreases as the distance from the center increases. That
is, the lines are much closer together when nearer to their origin. Since we live in three spatial
dimensions, and the surface area of a sphere centered on the charge increases with the square of the
distance, we have a model for the inverse square force law : the magnitude of the force is proportional
to the density of the field lines („flux density‰), which decreases with the square of the distance. We
can also see why spherical source is equivalent to a point source at its center : the flux lines emanating
from the surface can be extrapolated inwards to the center with no change in the physical forces felt
outside the surface.
The electric field can be thought of as the gradient of the electrical potential field. But since the
electric field is a force per unit charge, the electric potential must be an energy per unit charge. It is
a scalar field, having a magnitude (but no direction) at every point in space.

q
V r 
4  0 r

also U = q0 V
As with the cases of the electric field and force, the electrical potential field superposes lineraly,
so that the field at a point due to a collection of configuration charges is equal to the sum of the fields
due to the individual charges, at that point. For example, if in a vacuum two protons (q c1 ) lie in the
xy plane at (x1, y1) = ( 2, 1) Angstroms and an electron (q c2 ) lies at the origin (x 2, y 2) = (0, 0), the
energy of an electron (qt) at (xt, yt) = (1, 1) Angstroms would be
U =U tc1
+ U tc2
= qt (V c1
+ V ))
c2

( e) (2e) ( e) (e)
=
10

4  0  3  10 4  0 2 10 10
20
= 9.33 10 J,

ELECTROSTATICS
 20 QUIZRR
where the distances between charges are

r  xt  x i 2   y t  y i 2
and „i‰ denotes either of the configuration charges.

8 .1 Re l a t io n b e t w e e n Ele c t ri c Po t e n t i a l a n d Ele c t ri c Fi e l d
In order to compute the direction of the force felt by a test charge in a potential field, one can take

the gradient of the potential

V
Ex  
x

If we were to plot the electrical potential field due to a pair of configuration charges, we would
see that there are lines, called „equipotentials‰, on which the electrical potential has the same value
everywhere :

+2

The direction of the gradient (and hence the electric field) is perpendicular to the equipotential
lines since its component along (tangent to) the equipotentials is zero (V is a constant). We can
therefore immediately trace the path of any test particle in the field, since charges move in the
direction of least energy.

8 .1 A b s o l u t e Po t e n t i a l a t So m e Po i n t
Suppose we take the point b at infinity and as a reference point assign the value Vb = 0, the
equations can be written as

 Wab electric force  Wb  a external force

Va  Vb  
q0 q0

 Wa electric force  W  a external force

or Va  Vb  
q0 q0

Thus, the absolute electric potential at point a in an electric field can be defined as the work done

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 21

in displacing a unit positive charge from infinity to a by the external force or the work done per unit
positive charge in displacing it from a to infinity.
Note : Following three formulae are very useful in the problems related to work done in electric
field.
(Wa )
b electric force
= q0 (Va Vb)
(Wa )
b external force
= q0 (Vb Va ) = (Wa )
b electric force
(W )
a external force
= q0Va
Here, q0, and Vb are to be substituted with sign.

Ex a m p l e 1 3
The electric potential at point A is 20 V and at B is 40 V. Find the work done by an
external force and electrostatic force in moving an electron slowly from B to A.
Solution :
Here, the test charge is an electron, i.e.
19
q0 = 1.6 10 C
VA = 20 volt
and VB = 40 volt
Work done by external force
(WB )
A external force
= q0 (VA VB)
19
= ( 1.6 10 ) [(20) ( 40)]
18
= 9.6 10 J Ans.
Work done by electric force
(WB )
A electric force
= (WB )
A external force
18
= (9.6 10 J)
18
= 9.6 10 J Ans.
Note : Here we can see that the electron (a negative charge) moves from B (lower potential) to
A (higher potential) and the work done by electric force is positive. Therefore, we may conclude that
whenever a negative charge moves from a lower potential to higher potential work done by the electric
force is positive or when a positive charge moves from lower potential to higher potential the work done
by the electric force is negative.

Ex a m p l e 1 4
Find the work done by some external force in moving a charge q = 2 øC from infinity to a
point where electric potential is 104 V.
Solution :
Using the relation,
(W )
a external force
= q0Va
We have, (W )
a external force
= (2 10 6) (104)
= 2 10 2 J Ans.
ELECTROSTATICS
 22 QUIZRR
8 .4 Ele c t ri c Po t e n t i a l Du e t o a Po i n t Ch a r g e q
Work done against the field in slow moving a unit positive charge from infinity to the point in the
field is called electric potential at that point.

1 qq
. 0
4  0 r
From the definition of potential, V  U 
q0 q0

1 q
V .
4  0 r

Here, r is the distance from the point charge q to the point at which the potential is evaluated.
If q is positive, the potential that it produces is positive at all points; if q is negative, it produces a
potential that is negative everywhere. In either case, V is equal to zero at r = .

8 .5 Ele c t ri c Po t e n t i a l Du e t o a Sy s t e m o f Ch a r g e s
Just as the electric field due to a collection of point charges is the vector sum of the fields produced
by each charge, the electric potential due to a collection of point charge is the sclar sum of the potentials
due to each charge.

1 qi
V 
4  0 i ri

In this expression, ri is the distance from the ith charge, qi, to the point at which V is evaluated.
For a continuous distribution of charge along a line, over a surface, or through a volume, we divide
the charge into elements dq and the sum in the above equation becomes an integral,

1 dq
4  0  r
V

1 q 1 dq
Note : In the equation V  4    ri or V  4    r if the whole charge is at equal distance
0 i i 0

r0 from the point where V is to be evaluated, then we can write

1 q
V . net
4  0 r0

Where qnet is the algebraic sum of all the charges of which the system is made.

9 . EQU I POT EN T I A L SU RFA CES

The equipotential surfaces in an electric field have the same basic idea as topographic maps used
by civil engineers or mountain climbers. On a topographic map, contour lines are drawn passing
through the points having the same elevation. The potential energy of a mass m does not change along
a contour line as the elevation is same everywhere.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 23

An equipotential surface is a three dimensional surface on which the electrical potential V is

the same at every point on it. An equipotential surface has the following characteristics.
1. Potential difference between any two points in an equipotential surface is zero.
2. If a test charge q0 is moved from one point to the other on such a surface, the electric potential
energy q0V remains constant.
3. No work is done by the electric force when the test charge is moved along this surface.
4. Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect each other because otherwise the point of
intersection will have two potentials which is of course not acceptable.
5. As the work done by electric force is zero when a test charge is moved along the equipotential

surface, it follows that E must be perpendicular to the surface at every point so that the

electric force q0 E will always be perpendicular to the displacement of a charge moving on the
surface.
Thus, field lines and equipotential surfaces are always mutually perpendicular. Some
equipotential surfaces are shown below :

10V 40V
20V 30
30V 20 V
V E
40V 10V

40V 30V 20V

Equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular to field lines.

(i) When field lines are parallel, equipotential surface are planar sheets (V1 > V2 > V3)
V1 V2 V2

(ii) For a point charge, equipotential surface are concentric spherical surfaces centred at q.
(V1 > V2 > V3 when q < 0) V1
V2
V3
2

Note : Equipotential surface is locus of points where potential remain constant.

ELECTROSTATICS
 24 QUIZRR
T o f i n d t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y w h e n Eq u i p o t e n t ia l Su r f a c e a r e g i v e n

Ex a m p l e 1 5
The figure shows parallel equipotential surfaces which are parallel planes. Find the
magnitude and direction of field intensity.
Y
40V 30V 20V 10V

30
30
c X (cm)
5 10 15 20

Solution :
Since the equipotential surface are equidistant and parallel, hence electric field intensity is
magnitude an perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces

40V 30V 20V 10V

30

(Direction of E will be perpendicular to the shown line)

the rate of fall of potential with distance is uniform.

 dV  V    d V  
 Ex       dx  is uniform 
dx  x     

  40  30 
E cos60 = V/m
 5  10   102

E  10 
  102  V / m  2 102 V/m
2  5 

 E = 4 102 V/m

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 25

Ex a m p l e 1 6
The given figure represents part of concentric spheres which are equipotential surfaces.
Find the magnitude of the field.

15V
20V
30V

60V

r=0

r = 10 cm
0 cm
r=2 30 c
m m
r3 = 40c
r4 =

Solution : From the given diagram, we conclude that,

(Vr) = const. = C (say)
1
 V = (C/r) where C = 60 10 = 6 (V/m)
E
 dV    c 
  dr    2 
  r  E

 dV 
Er =   
  C / r2
 dr 

E

6 E
E= 2
r

Ex a m p l e 1 7
Find the relation between the field intensity at A, B and C.
50V 40V 30V 20V
Solution : (VC > VB > VA)

 dV 
Reason : E    
 dr 
A B C
Since V is same between two equipotential surface.

1
and E   where r is small E will be large.
r

In general rule : To find the field due any type of charge distribution.

ELECTROSTATICS
 26 QUIZRR


use dE  dEx

 dEy Integrate separately

 dEz

9 . Ele c t ri c Po t e n t i a l A n d f i e l d i n t e n s i t y d u e t o V a r io u s Ch a r g e Di s t r ib u t io n

I. U n i f o r m l y c ha r g ed c i r c u l a r r i n g
(i) Elec tric a l potential
dq

O x P

Consider an infinitesmal element of charge dq on the circumference of the ring, then the electric
potential due to this charge is

dq
dV 
4 0 x2  R 2
Integrating,
1
V   dq
4  0 x2  R 2

Q
V
 4  0 x2  R2

This result for potential remains same even if the charge distribution is non-uniform.
(ii) Electric field intensity at an axial point
dq

Esin
E
R Ecos
+
x p Ecos Consider small elements of charge
E dq on the circumference
Esin

dq

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 27

Note that the net field will be in the axial direction, since the vertical components will cancel out.

 d E x   dE cos 

dq x  
d Ex    x 
 4  0   R  R cos  
1


2 2
x 2
/2
 x2  2 2
R  x 

x Qx
 E  dq 
 4  0   R 2 
2 3/ 2
 
3/2
 x 4  0 R 2  x2

Qx
E
 
3/2
4  0 R 2  x2

2nd Method : Differentiate the result for the field intensity.

Potential at P due to ring

1 Q
V
4  0 R  x2
2

 
 dV Q   2x  Qx
and Er    3/2 

dx 4  0 
   
3/ 2
2 R2  x2  4  0 x2  R 2
 

(1)

V
KQ
R

R 2 O R 2 r
(shape change from
Convex to Concave)

ELECTROSTATICS
 28 QUIZRR
E

R O
2
R 2 R 3 r
2
(shape change from
Convex to Concave)

Note : Maximum fied exists at R / 2   from the ring.

Ex a m p l e 1 8
A uniformly charged ring of charge density  and radius R is located in y-z plane with its
centre at origin. Now a point charge q is projected with velocity v0 from a point P as
shown. Find the minimum value of v0 so that the particle will not return to point P.
Solution :
Let us consider that the ring is placed in the Y-Z plane centred at origin. The point P is then

 
taken to be at P R 3, 0, 0 on the X-axis. The point charge is projected towards the centre of the ring
along the X-axis.
Y

O P (R 3, 0 , 0)
X
v0 q,m

Concept : v0 must be sufficient so that the particle just reaches the centre for minimum required
velocity.
So, we take VP = V0 {Given}
and vfinal = 0
Now, applying energy conservation

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 29

K + U = 0
1 1 2
m v P  m v final  q  V0  VP 
2

2 2

Q Q
also, V0  
4 0 R 2 4 0 R

Q =  (2R)

(2R)
 V0 
4  0 R

  2R    2R 
VP  
4  0  2R 

 
2
4 0 R2  R 3

1 2   2R  1 1 
 m v0  q  R  2R 
2 4 0  

1 2 q
 m v0 
2 40

q
 v0 
2m0

Ex a m p l e 1 9
Two uniformly charged ring are separated by a distance R / 3 . A point charge q of mass
m is projected with initial velocity v0 from A to B. Find the velocity when it reaches the
centre of negetively charged ring.

+ ,R  ,R

q
O1 R O2
3
Solution :
Let the two rings be centred at O1 and O2 having charge densities +  and  rspectively.
A charge q is projected with a velocity v0 from O1 toward O2.
Let v be the velocity when it reaches O2. Now, potential at centre O1

 R R
VO  
20 R 2
 
1
2 0  R 2  R 3 
 

ELECTROSTATICS
 30 QUIZRR

R R
= 2 R 4 R
0 0


VO 
1 40
also, potential at O2
 R R
VO  
20 R
 
2 2
2 0 R 2  R 3

 
=  2  4
0 0


VO  
2 40

Now, applying energy conservation between O1 and O2

K + U = 0

 
1

2 1 2
 2 mv  2 mv0   q VO1  VO 2

 


1
2
 2
m v2  v0 
q
20

2 q
 v  v0 
m0

Ex a m p l e 2 0
If a negative charge is slightly displaced from the centre of a uniformly charged ring. Show
that it will execute SHM, and find its time period.
Solution :
When the charge is slightly displaced, it experiences a force towards the centre of the ring as the
electric field due to the ring is directed away from it, hence a negatively charged particle will experience
a force towards its centre.
Hence, Net force = ma

d2 x Q
or  qE  m
dt2
P
Qx
E x –q
 
3/2
and 40 R 2  x2

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 31

d2 x qQx
m 

x 
2 3/2
dt 4 0 2
 R2

Now, since x << R

d2 x  qQx 
 m  
dt  4  R 3  {equation for S.H.M.}
2
 0 

4  0 m R 3
 T  2
Qq

Ex a m p l e 2 1
A small charged particle of mass m and charge q is suspended vertically at one end of ideal
spring, and initially lying at the centre of ring in of charge Q in equilibrium. When it is
slightly displaced, find its
(a) time period of oscillation
(b) required condition to execute SHM
Solution :
Similar to the example above, the particle experiences a force qE after being displaced. Hence the
force balance in this condition is

 d2x  qQx
m  2    kx 
 dt 
 
3/2
  4  0 x2  R 2
K
 qQ 
= k  x
 40 R3  q Q1R

kx
4  0 R 3
T  2
 4  
(a) qE
0 R 3 k  qQ

(b) Necessary condition, 40 R3k qQ > 0

qQ
K
4 0 R 3

Ex a m p l e 2 2
Find the field intensity at the centre due to a uniformly charged circular arc having an
angle 0 subtended at the centre.

ELECTROSTATICS
 32 QUIZRR
Solution : Y
Consider an element of thickness Rd making an angle  with Rd

 
the Y-axis. The electric field  d E  due to this element at the centre
  
 d
R
is directed at angle  from the negative Y-axis. The component of this
field along the X-axis will cancel out with the compound of electric
field from the corresponding element making an angle  from the X
Y-axis. Thus we will have a net electric field in the Y-axis direction.


0
dEcos

2
 R d cos dE
Enet   d E cos   
 0 4 0 R 2

2

0
   0 
= sin  2 0   2sin 2 
4  0 R 4  0 R  
2

  
 Enet  sin  0 
2 0 R  2 

Point to Remember

  
sin 0
 0 Q  2

Electric field intensity due to a uniformly charged arc = sin   
2 0 R 2 4  0  0 
 
 2 
subtending an ange 0 at centre

9 .1 Fi e l d i n t e n s i t y a t t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h e r in g
 = 2 (d = 2d) { is the exterior angle}
Also, r = 2R cos  (triangle in semi-circle) dq=Rd
Rd =(2Rd)
 dq = (2R d)
Net field at point P will be along x-axis because of r
d
symmetric cancellation of y components. 
dEcos P 
 O
E   d Ecos 
dE
 K dq 
=   2  cos 
 r 

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 33

/2
k  2R d  
=  cos 
/2  2R cos 2

s
co
k  2R d  

2R
/2

 cos 

r=
=
 / 2  2R cos  
2


/2 2R
 k 
=  2R 
 
 sec  d
/2

E = indeterminate
But note when  will be some function of  E will may become determinate.
Potential energy at any point due to a point charge associated with a charge

 
F  qE

U = qV

Kq1 q2
 U
r0

Ele c t ri c p o t e n t ia l a t t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h e r in g

 kdq  k  2 R d    k d 
dV    
 r   2R cos    cos  
/2

 V  k  sec d  = (indeterminate)
/2

(Note again that though this limit is indeterminate you may calculate it when  varies with )

Ex a m p l e 2 3
A point charge q is brought to the centre from the circumference of a non-uniformly
charged ring of charge density  =  0 cos . Find the work required by the external agent
in doing so.
Solution : Now in this question potential is not indeterminate
/2
V  K0  sec  cos  d    K0  
/2
Now, calculate the potential at the centre

ELECTROSTATICS
 34 QUIZRR

2
K  0 cos   R d 
 dV   R
0

2
V  K0    sin  0 0
 Work required by external agent
Wex = U
= q (V0 Vp) = q (0 k0)
= kq0

Ex a m p l e 2 4
A point charge q is placed at the centre of a uniformly charged () circular ring. Find the
increase in the radius of ring if Y = YoungÊs modulus and area of cross-section = S
Solution :
Consider the force on a small element of the ring of charge dQ due to point charge q.

K q dQ
F
R2
As can be seen from the figure, the net force of tension on the
d d
element AB comes towards the centre which is Tcos Tcos
2 A B 2

d T
2T sin  T d T
2
Hence, d d
2 2
F = Td
K q dQ
  Td 
R2
Now, dQ =  (Rd)
K R q K q
 T  2

R R
also, using YoungÊs modulus

T
 
Y=  
S

 l
 
 l 

T  R 
 Y  { l = 2R}
S  R 

Kq  R  K q
 R      
 R   YS  YS

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 35

II. U N I FORM L Y CH A RGED DI SC

(i ) El e c t ri c Po t e n t i a l
The disc has a charge density  (charge per unit area)

dx

P(r,0,0)
R

For analyzing a charged disc, consider a ring of thickness dx at a distance x from the centre;
dq =  (2x) dx {charge on the ring of thickness dx}
Now, Potential at P due to the ring

K dq
dV 
x2  r 2

On integrating, we get the potential for entire disc.

R
K   2x  dx
 V 
0 x2  r 2

R
x dx
= K   2  
0 x2  r 2

V = K  2 R 2
 r2  r 
(ii) Electric Field Intensity
Now, we know that

 dV   2r 
E   1
dr 2 0  2 R 2  r 2 
 

  r 

E 1
2 0  R 2  r 2 


ELECTROSTATICS
36 QUIZRR
V
E
R
2 0
  
 
 2 O 

r
r

Plot of potential v/s distance from the disc Plot of field intensity v/s distance from the disc

If r  0, E 
2 0

Thus, near a uniformly charged surface, E can be taken =
2 0

III. U N I FORM L Y CH A RGED SH EL L

(i) Electric Potential
For analyzing a charged shell, we consider a ring of thickness Rd at an angle of  from the
horizontal.

Q
The shell has a charged density  and radius R,  
4R2
So, charge on a ring of thickness Rd
dq =  (2R sin ) R d
R l
dq d
 dV 
4  0 l p
 r

dV 

 2R 2 sin  d 
4  0 l

KQ
 2R   sin l d   KQ
2  sin  d 
 
 
=
4 R 2 2  l 

r2  R2  l2
cos  
2rR

2rR cos  = r2 + R2 l2
2r R sin  d = 2l dl

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 37

 sin d  
dl = rR  
 l 

rR
dl
 r  R  r  R    
KQ KQ KQ
V   dV   
2 rR 2rR  r 
r R

 KQ 
 V  when r > R
 r 

for r < R

R r 
 KQ  dl  KQ 
V   dV    , r  R
2rR  R 
Rr 

Su m m a r i zi n g (U n i f o r m l y c h a r g e d s h e l l)
(i) For any external part (r > R)
(a) Electric potential
Q
=
4  0 r

 dV Q
(b) Electric field = 
dr 4  0 r 2

Note : For an external point a shell has similar formulae as a point charge hence this point
can be very useful for some objective questions.

(ii) For any internal point (r < R)

Q
(a) Electric potential = 4   R
0

dV
(b) Electric field = 0
dr
V
E

O R r R r
Plot of potential v/s distance Plot of electric field intensity V/s
from the centre of shell. distance from the centre of shell.

ELECTROSTATICS
 38 QUIZRR
Ex a m p l e 2 5

A uniformly charged circular ring is placed at R / 3 from a uniformly charged shell. Find
the force of interaction between the sphere and the ring.
Solution :

Electric field due to the ring at a distance R 3 from A A R

Qx
E R
 
3
2 2
4  0 x R 3

  2R  x
E
 
3/2
 4  0 x2  R 2
B Q, R
Rx   3 
E
 
 2
2 x R 2 3/2
 0  ER
3

 16 R 0 
 Since a shell can be treated as a point charge outside its surface.

 Q 3 
 F  QE   
 16 O R 

I V . U n i f o r m ly Ch a r g e d Sp h e r e
(A) Electric Potential
To calculate electric potential at a point inside the sphere, we divide the entire spherical volume into
two spherical parts I and II i.e. the region containing charge outside the point and the region inside
the point.

I
II
r

The sphere has a charge density

 (charge per unit volume)

Q

4 3
R
3

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 39

Now, consider region II

 dq 
d V1  K  
 r  x
{Using the formula for potential of external point for concentric shell} r
r r
dq 4 3
 V1   K ,  dq    3 r 
0
r 0 

K   4 
 V1      r 3 
 r  3 

Q

4 3
R
3

K Q r2
 V1 
R3
Consider Region I
dq
dV2 = K , dq =  (4 x2) dx
x

R
 4x  dx 
2

 V2   K
x
r

dx
R x r
 V2 = K  (4)  xdx
r

R
 R2  r2 
= 4  K  
 2
 

4 Q K  R 2  r2 
 
= 4 R3  2 
3

V2 
3 KQ
2 R3
R 2
 r2 
Hence, net potential (Vnet)

K Qr 2
Vnet  V1  V2 
R 3

3K Q
2R 3 R 2

 r2 
KQ
2R 3  3R 2
 r2 

ELECTROSTATICS
 40 QUIZRR
Su m m a r i zi n g f o r a u n i f o r m ly c h a r g e d s p h e r e :
(i) For an internal point (r < R)

Net potential inside the sphere =


Q 3R 2  r 2 

4  0 2R3 
Net field inside the sphere
dV 2Qr r
E  
dr 4  O (2R )
3 3 O
This formula is of importance and can be noted in a vector form as well i.e.

 r
E
3 O

(ii) r > R
Net potential outside the sphere

K  KQ   Q 
=
r  dq     
r   4  O r 

 dV  Q
Net field =   dr  
  4  O r 2

Note : A uniformly charged sphere also behave as a point charge for any external point.

E
V
3KQ
KQ
2R
R2
KQ
R

O r=R r
O r=R

1 0 . EL ECT RI C FIEL D I N T EN SI TY I N A CA V I T Y

Ex a m p l e 2 6
Find the field intensity in the region of intersection of two uniformly charged sphere with
volume charge density + and . The distance between centres is l.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 41

Solution :

+ –
P

r1 r2

O l O'

At the point P, electric field due to sphere O and O´ can be calculated and added vectorially

 
  r1  ( ) r2
EO  , E O' 
3 O 3 O

   
Enet  E  E O  E O '

        
 r1   r2 
        l 
 E    3    3   r1  r2   3  OO' =  3  
3 
 O  O O  O  O
     

Remark :
(i) Thus, it can be easily seen that the field intensity comes out to be consistent inside the
common area and is directed from positive to negative centres of the sphere.
(ii) Here,  and  must be same.

Ex a m p l e 2 7
CAVITY (it is a special case of previous question).
A sphere with centre O is filled with a charge density + . There exists a cavity inside this sphere

which is also a spherical cavity with centre O´ at a distance l from the centre O. Find the electric field
strength at a point P inside the cavity ?
+

P
r1 r2

O'

O l

ELECTROSTATICS
 42 QUIZRR
Solution :
Concept : Fill the cavity with charge densities +  and  so that the cavity is filled.
This makes it a special case of previous example where the common volume between the 2 spheres
is same as one of the sphere.



Hence, E0 
r1 
, E0 ' 
  r 2
3 0 3 0

  
  r1  r2 
  
E  E0  E0 '   
3 0


   
l
=  r1  r2  l 
3 0  

Ex a m p l e 2 8
Find the field intensity at the centre of a charged spherical shell whose surface charge

   
density varies as    a . r  where a is a constant vector and r is the radius vector.
 
Solution :

For convenience, take the direction of the a vector along the diametric line, and the angle  is

measured from the a vector direction.

dq =   2Rsin  Rd {charge of ring at an angle }

= (a R cos ) (2R2 sin  d)
dq
= 2  a R3 sin  cos  d
R
Now, electric field for a ring is given by
)

 dq R cos 
(d

dqx  
 dE  3
 3 a
4 O R 4 O R O

2 a R 3 sin  cos  d  R cos 

 E=
4  O R 3

aR
 cos
2
= 2  sin  d
O 0

  aR 
E  
  and directed opposite to constant vector a
3
 O

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 43

Ex a m p l e 2 9
Three point charges q 1 = 1øC, q 2 = 2øC and q 3 = 3 øC are placed at (1 m, 0, 0), (0, 2m, 0)
and (0, 0, 3m) respectively. Find the electric potential at origin.
Solution :
The net electric potential at origin is,

1  q1 q2 q3 
V    
4 0  r1 r2 r3 
Substituting the values, we have

  1
V  9.0  109  2

3 
  10
 1.0 2.0 3.0 
6

= 9.0 103 volt. Ans.

Ex a m p l e 3 0
A charge q = 10 øC is distributed uniformly over the circumference of a ring of radius 3 m
placed on x-y plane with its centre at origin. Find the electric potential at a point P
(0, 0, 4 m).
z
Solution : p

The electric potential at point P would be, r0 4m

+ + + +
+
1 q +
3m +
V . + x
4 0 r0 +
+
+ q
+ + +
+ +
Here, r0 = distance of point P from the circumference of ring

=  32   4 2  5m

5
and q = 10 øC = 10 C
Substituting the values, we have

V
 9.0  10  10   1.8  10
9 5
4
volt Ans.
 5.0 

Ex a m p l e 3 1
Find out the points on the line joining two charges + q and 3q (kept at a distance of 1.0
m) where electric potential is zero.
Solution :
Let P be the point on the axis either to the left or to the right of charge + q at a distance r where
potential is zero. Hence,

ELECTROSTATICS
 44 QUIZRR

p +q p 3q
+q 1.0m 3q
or
r 1.0 r
r
(a) (b)

q 3q
VP   0
For case (a) 4  O r 4  O 1  r 

Solving this, we get r = 0.5 m

q 3q
Further, for case (b) VP  4  r  4   1 r  0
O O 
which gives r = 0.25 m
Thus, the potential will be zero at point P on the axis which is either 0.5 m to the left or 0.25 m
to the right of charge + q.

Ex a m p l e 3 2
Four point charges + 8 øC, 1 øC, 1 øC and + 8 øC are fixed at the points

 27 / 2 m ,  3 / 2 m,  3 / 2 m a nd  27 / 2 m respectively on the Y-axis. A particle of mass

6 × 10 4 kg and charge + 0.1 øC moves along the X direction. Its speed at x = +  is v0. Find
the least value of v0 for which the particle will cross the origin. Find also the kinetic energy
of the particle at the origin. Assume that space is gravity free. (JEE 2000)
Solution : In the figure,
6
q = 1 øC = 10 C
7
y
q0 = + 0.1 øC = 10 C
m = 6 10 4
kg 27/2 m B +Q
6
and Q = 8 øC = 8 10 C 3/2 m A q
Let P be any point at a distance x from x v0 m
O p x
origin O. Then q0
3/2 m C q
3
AP = CP =  x2
2 27/2 m D +Q

27
BP = DP =  x2
2
Electric potential at point P will be
2KQ 2Kq
V 
BP AP
1
where K  9  109 Nm2 / C2
4 0

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 45

 
 8  10 6 106 
V  2  9  109   
  27 2 3 2 
 2 x x 
 2 

 
 8 1 
V  1.8  104   
 27 2 3 2  ... (i)
 2 x x 
 2 
 Electric field at P is

  1  27 3 / 2 3 / 2 
dV   1  3 
E   1.8  104  8      x2   1     x2    2x
dx   2  2   2  2  
E = 0 on X-axis where
8 1
3/ 2
 3/2
 27 2 3 2
 2 x  2  x 
   

 4 3 / 2 
1
3/ 2 3/2
  27  3 2
  x2   x 
 2  2 

 27 2 3 2
  2  x   4 2  x 
   

5
This equation gives x m .... (i)
2

The least value of kinetic energy of the particle at infinity should be enough to take the particle
5
upto x   m because
2
5
at x m, E = 0  Electrostatic force on charge q0 is zero or Fe = 0
2

5
for x  m, E is repulsive (towards positive X-axis)
2

5
and for x  m, E is attractive (towards negative X-axis)
2

5
Now, from Eq. (i), potential at x 
2

ELECTROSTATICS
 46 QUIZRR

 
 8 1 
  
V = 1.8 104  27 5 3 5
   
 2 2 2 3

V = 2.7 104 volt

5
Applying energy conservation at x =  and x =
2
1
mv02  q0 V ... (ii)
2

2 q0 V
 v0 
m

2  10 7  2.7  104
Substituting the values v0 
6  10 4
v0 = 3 m/s Ans.
 Minimum value of v0 is 3 m/s
potential at origin (x = 0) is
 
 8  1 
V0  1.8  104  27 3   2.4  10 V
4
 
 2 2
 
Let T be the kinetic energy of the particle at origin.
Applying energy conservation at x = 0 and at x = 

1
T + q0V0 = mv02
2

1
But mv02  q0 V
2
 T = q0 (V V0)
7
T = (10 ) (2.7 104 2.4 104)
4
T = 3 10 J Ans.

5
Note : E = 0 or Fe on q0 is zero at x = 0 and x   m. Of these x = 0 is stable equilibrium
2
5
position and x   m is unstable equilibrium position.
2

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 47

Ex a m p l e 3 3
A non-conducting disc of radius a and uniform positive surface charge density  is placed
on the ground with its axis vertical. A particle of mass m and positive charge q is dropped,
along the axis of the disc from a height H with zero initial velocity. The particle
has q/m = 40 g/.
(a) Find the value of H if the particle just reaches the disc.
(b) Sketch the potential energy of the partical as a function of its height and find its
equilibrium position. (JEE 1999)
Solution : As we have derived in the theory
p q,m
  2
VP  a  H2  H 
20   H

Potential at centre, (O) will be

a O

a
V0  (H = 0)
20

(a) Particle is released from P and it just reaches point O. Therefore, from conservation of
mechanical energy.
Decrease in gravitational potential energy = increase in electrostatic potential energy
(KE = 0 because Ki = Kf = 0)
 mgH = q [V0 VP]

 q    
or gH =     a a2  H 2  H  ... (i)
 m   20   

q 40 g q
   2g
m  20 m
Substituting in Eq. (i), we get

gH  2 g  a  H  a2  H2 
 

H
or  a  H  a 2  H2
2

H H2
or a 2  H2  a  or a 2  H2  a2   aH
2 4

3 2 4
or H  aH or H a and H = 0
4 3
 H = (4/3) a Ans.

ELECTROSTATICS
48 QUIZRR
(b) Potential energy of the particle at height H = Electrostatic potential energy + gravitational
potential energy
 U = qV + mgH
Here V = Potential at height H
q  2
 U a  H2  H   mgH ... (ii)
20  

 dU
At equilibrium position, F 0
dH
Differentiating Eq. (ii) w.r.t. H

q  1  1 
 q 
mg   2H   1  0  2mg 
or 20  2  a 2  H2  
 20 
 

 H 
 mg  2mg   1  0
 a2  H2 
 
2H
1 2  0
or
a 2  H2

2H
1
a  H2
2

H2 1
 2 2
or 2
a H 2 4 or 3H = a

a
or H Ans.
3
From Eq. (ii), we can see that,
U = 2mga at H = 0 and

a
H
U = Umin = 3 mga at 3 U
Therefore, U-H graph will be as shown.

a 2mga
Note that at H  , U is minimum.
3

3mga
a
Therefore, H  is stable equilibrium position.
3

O a
H
3

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 49

1 1 . EL ECT RI C DI POL E
A pair of equal and opposite point charges q, that are separated by a fixed distance is known
as electric dipole. Electric dipole occurs in nature in a variety of situations The hydrogen fluoride
molecule (HF) is typical. When a hydrogen atom combines with a fluorine atom, the single electron of
the former is strongly attracted to the latter and spends most of its time near the fluorine atom. As
a result, the molecule consists of a strongly negative fluorine ion some (small) distance away from a
strongly positive ion, though the molecule is electrically neutral overall.


Every electric dipole is characterized by its electric dipole moment which is a vector P directed
from the negative to the positive charge.
The magnitude of dipole moment is,
p
P = (2a) q –q – +q
+
2a
Here, 2a is the distance between the two charges.

1 1 .1 Ele c t r i c Di p o l e Po t e n t ia l
The potential of an electric dipole can be found by superposing the point charge potentials of the
two charges.

1 1  r  r1 
V  Kq     Kq  2 
 r1 r2   r1 r2 

For cases where r >> d, this can be approximated by

kpcos 
V
r2

The potential of a dipole is of most

r2
r1 interest where r >> d. The standard
approximations are
r2 r1
r r2 r1  d cos 
r1r2  r2
+
+q –q
d

 
where p  q d is defined as the dipole moment.

ELECTROSTATICS
 50 QUIZRR
El e c t r ic Po t e n t i a l a t
d
(a) End on position (a point lying on the axis of the dipole)
p +q –q p
 = 0, or 

 Kp  p
V   2 
 r 

(b) Board side on position (a point lying on the perpendicular bisector

+q –q
   /2
p
V = 0

1 1 .2 Ele c t ri c f i e l d i n t e n s i t y d u e t o a n e l e c t ri c d i p o l e
(Note that the electric field intensity must be lying in the same plane containing the point, the
axis of the dipole
Find the field along the Er and E
Er

 V    Kp cos    Kp cos   p
Er    ^
r r  r 2   r 3 

E

 V    Kp cos    Kp sin  
E   
r   r 2   r3


–q +q

(Note that we put variable of differentiation as r in case of E)

 Enet  E2r  E2

Kp
= 3
4 cos2   sin2 
r

Kp 3cos2   1
E
r3
To find the direction
 E  tan 
tan      
 Er  2

1 
   tan 1  tan   where  is the angle with E .
 2  r

(a) Electric field at end on position (axial position)

        = 0 or ,
 
 2Kp 
Er   3   Enet  p 
 r   
At end on position, net electric field is parallel to dipole moment direction.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 51

(b) Electric field at board side on position (equatorial position)

  =  /2

 Kp  Kp
Er = 0, E =  3    Enet  E 
r  r3

 
 E  p 
 

Net electric field is anti-parallel at broad side on position.

1 1 .3 T o r q u e e x p e r ie n c e d b y a n e l e c t ri c d i p o l e p l a c e d i s a n u n i f o r m e l e c t ri c f i e l d

Fnet  0 [Equal and opposite forces]

These forces which are equal and opposite form couple.

+q
  = qE (d sin ) E
d
= P(sin )E

  
  PE –q

Re m a r k s a b o u t c o u p l e a n d c h a r a c t e ri s t i c s
(i) It remains same about whichever point you calculate the torque
(ii) Couple is said to be formed when equal and opposite forces are acting on the body separated
by same distance
(iii) Couple is a free vector

Ex a m p l e 3 4
An electric dipole having dipole moment  P is placed parallel to electric field. Now it is
slightly rotated and released. Find the time period of oscillation.
Solution :
When it is kept parallel to electric fied,  = 0 as sin  = 0
Now, when is is rotated by an angle , it experiences a torque
 = pE sin 
E
 d 2  +q
 = I = I  2  d
 dt 
{sin    as it is slightly displaced    0} –q

 d 2 
I  2   pE  

 dt 

ELECTROSTATICS
 52 QUIZRR

 d 2    pE 
 2    
 dt   I 

pE
 w
I

I
time period of oscillation = 2
pE

 md 2   md 2 
where I = 2     
 4   2 
In this question if the two charges are connected at the ends of a rod, then take the moment of
inertia of rod also into consideration.

1 1 .4 Po t e n t i a l En e r g y o f a n e l e c t ri c d i p o l e i n u n i f o r m f i e l d
Work done against the field in rotating slowly the dipole from  = 90 to .

Note : U = 0 (assumed) at an angle /2 from E

dU = |d|

U = + pE  sin  d
/ 2

E

= pE cos   / 2 p

U = pE cos 
U U/2 = pE cos 
U/2 = 0

 U = pE cos  = p.E

Ex a m p l e 3 5
Find the word required is rotating a dipole from  = 30 to  = 60
Solution : Wex = U
= U60 U30

 1 3 
= pE (cos 60 cos 30) = pE  2 
 

 3  1
Wex = pE  2 
 

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 53

Ex a m p l e 3 6
A point electric dipole is placed at a distance r from the centre of a uniformly charged ring

and has dipole moment equal to p . Find the force and torque experienced by the dipole
and the work required to rotate it by /3.
Solution :
–q +q

(E) (E+dE)
p
(point dipole)
r

Now calculate the force on this dipole

   
F   q E  q E  d E 
 

 
 F  qd E

Now since the dipole is placed along r, we can change the above vector equation into scalar
equation.
F = q dE

 dE 
 F  q  dr   
 dr 

 dE 
F = P   where p = q dr (length of dipole is very small)
 dr 

Important Note :
This above equation to be used directly to calculate the field when :


(i) dipole is directed along r

(ii) length of dipole is very small.

 
But F  qd E can be used in general

ELECTROSTATICS
54 QUIZRR

KQr
Now, E {Field due to Charged ring}
R 
3/2
2
 r2

 2
   
3/ 2 1/ 2 
2
 dE   R r  3r R 2  r 2 
   KQ  
 dr 
R  r 
3
 2 2 
 

 2
   
3/2 1/ 2 
2
 R r  3r 2 R 2  r 2 
KQ  
=
R 
3
 2
 r2 
 

 
   R 2  r 2  3r 2 
1/ 2
2 2
KQ R  r  3 
=

 R2  r2


 

KQ R 2  2r 2 
=
R 
3/2
2
 r2

F
pKQ R 2  2r 2 

R 
3/2
2
 r2

R
Net force will be towards ring if r  {attractive}
2

Net force will be away from the ring if r  R (repulsive)

2

    
(b)  =  P  E   0  P  E 
   

(c) Wex in rotating from  = 0, to  = /3

= U = U3 U0
= pE/3 ( pE0)

1  pE
= pE   1  
 2  2

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 55

Ex a m p l e 3 7
A point electric dipole is placed at a distance r from a uniformly charged long thread (+  ).
Find the force and the torque experienced by dipole if
(a) (i) dipole is placed along r
(ii) dipole is placed perpendicular to r and parallel to the thread

(iii) dipole is placed perpendicular to the plane containing the thread and 
r .

(b) Also find the work done required to rotate the dipole by /3, /2,  in each case.
Solution : (a) (i) Just use

 dE  +
F  P 
 dr 
(ii case)
p
 dE 
E ,  r
2 0 r dr 2 0 r 2 (i case)
p

  p 
 F 
 2  r 2 
 0 
Here force will be attractive between the dipole and the thread.
(ii) F = 0

 d E  0 [ field remain same at a same perpendicular distance]

(iii) Now there are two method to evaluate the force

Ist method : Just consider force on the two indivisual Charges.

Fnet obviously directed along the direction of the dipole length.
qE sin
Fnet = 2qE (sin )  2qE() {...   sin )
+q
Fnet = 2qE r
qE
(Now length of dipole = dr = (2r)
qE cos
E  pE  qE cos –q
 Fnet = q(2r) =  
r  r 
qE
 pE  
 Magnitude of the force =   , directed along p . qE sin
 r 

2nd method : (More effective)

For very small dipole length the field can be assumed to be constant in magnitude. Now use the
concept that when a vector is constant in magnitude then it changes direction.

ELECTROSTATICS
 56 QUIZRR

d E   Ed    u→   (where u→  is a unit vector parallel to the length of dipole).

 
 F  q (d E)
= q Ed   u→  
d
E  rd 
= q . u→ 
r

 pE  →
F  .u
 r 

 pE  
 Magnitude of force =   and directed along p
 r 
Now, torque in each case
  p
(i)   p  E  pE  [when dipole is placed perpendicular to length of thread]
2 0 r
(ii)  = 0
 
(iv)   p  E  pE

Tip : Use d method only when the potential energy function is not available.

Ex a m p l e 3 8
An electric dipole of length 2a is placed at a distance 4a from an infinitely long thread with
l i n ear ch ar ge den si t y . Find the work required to rotate the dipole by , /2, /3.
Solution :

In the question, you can calculate the torque and then apply d to find the work. But that
would be lengthy, so use the potential energy method.
(i) Wex = U [work done in rotation by ]
= (Uf Ui )
Uf = qVA qVB
Ui = qVA + qVB
 Wex = U = Uf Ui = 2q(VA V B) rA
a a
= 2q (VA V B) VA VB
4a
 r 
= 2q ln  B  rB
2 0  rA 

q  5a  q
 n    n  5 3 
 0  3a   0

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 57

(ii) Rotation by /2

       Wex = U
= Uf Ui = 0 Ui
= [ qVA + qVB] = q [VA V B]

q
= 2  ln (5 / 3)
0

(iii) In case of rotation by an general angle  (Here  is the made by dipole with positive
direction of r )
p
       Wex = U a
–q a +q
= (Uf Ui)
Q
Now, 4a

  4 a  a cos  

Uj = q V p  V  q   
2 0  4 a  a cos  

q  4  cos  
 u  ln  
2 0  4  cos  

 q  4  12 
  Uf  n  
Now, 3 2 0  4  1 2 

1 1 .5 N a t u re o f Eq u i p o t e n t ia l s u r f a c e s i s c a s e o f d i p o l e

–q +q

This area has higher field intensity due to overcrowding of curve

1 3 . L I N E OF FORCES
Line of forces are imaginary curves tangent to which at any point gives the direction of field
intensity at that point.
(The tangent direction must be
along the direction of field intensity)

ELECTROSTATICS
 58 QUIZRR
1 3 .1 Pro p e r t i e s o f l in e o f f o r c e s :
(1) The number of field lines passing per unit normal area at a point gives the field intensity
at that point (in magnitude). Hence crowder the field lines, more strong in the field intensity.
(2) Line of force are always emitted by a positive charge and terminates at a negative or
extends to infinity.

+2q –q

(3) Two lines of force never intersect each other, (otherwise there will be two directions of field
intensity at a single point which is absurd).
(4) Electric field lines never form a closed loop (except the non-conservative induced electric field
due to time varying magnetic fields).

 
 E. d l  0 (Property of a conservative field : work done in moving a positive charge

round a loop is zero).

A B A B

This is not possible (electric field line) This line of force is possible in electric field
(5) The number of lines of force emitted (or terminating) at a charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
n  q

 q 
 n 
 0 

(6) The line of forces have a tendency to contract longitudinally (just like a stretched elastic
string) to produce force of attraction between unlike charges and have a tendency to repel
laterally to produce the force of repulsion between like charges, and to produce EDGE
EFFECT.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 59

Bending of the line of forces near the edge of the conductor is termed as the edge effect.

+
+
+ + +
+
+

(7) Line of forces are always terminating or emitting normally to the surface of a conductor.

(+q)

(8) Line of forces are absent when the field intensity is zero. ThatÊs why no line of forces exist
inside the conductor as (E = 0).

Fe w i m p o r t a n t r e m a r k s :
(i) If a point charge free to move, is placed on a line of force curve, then it will follow the curve
if the curve is a straight line, otherwise it will not.
Reason : No normal acceleration component to change its direction.
(ii) Equidistant field lines show electric field is constant in both magnitude and direction.

 This pattern is only hypothetical

 
   
   E.dl  0 for this region 

(Uniform)
(Non uniform hypothetical)

(iii) EA

EB

EC (EB > Ec > EA)

ELECTROSTATICS
 60 QUIZRR
Ex a m p l e 3 9
Find the equation of the line of force in the region where

 

(i) E varies as E  a  xi→  yj→ , a 0

 dy   y 
Solution :    
 dx    x 

 dy   dx 
 
 y
   
  x 
 [direction of tangent line P(x,y)

is same as the direction of electric field]


ln y   ln x  ln c

 xy = + c which represents a rectangular hyperbola

xy =  c
Now, plot of the given curve xy =  c (which represents the line of force)


E  a x2  y2 magnitude of the 
E

increases as one moves away from the curve

while means crowder lines.

Note that how you decide the direction of the arrow, just use the logic, Ex = – ax, Ey = ay

1 3 .2 Fl u x o f A n Ele c t ri c Fi e l d (E ) :

Let us consider a plane surface of area S placed in an electric field E . Electric flux through an
     
elementary area d S is defined as the scalar product of ds and E i.e., dE = E . ds , where ds is the
area vector, whose magnitude is the area ds of the element and whose direction is along the outward
normal to the elementary area. Hence, the electric flux through the entire surface is given by

 
E   E. ds ....(i)

or E   E ds cos 

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 61

If the electric field is uniform, then E   E ds cos   Ecos   ds  EScos 

To show the integration over a closed surface, a circle is shouwn on the integration symbol :

E   E.ds .......(ii)

1 3 .4 I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s Re g a r d i n g Ele c t ri c Fl u x :
(i) It is a scalar physical quantity with units (volt m) or N/m2/c
(ii) It will be maximum when cos  = max = 1 i.e.
 = 0 , i.e., electric field is normal to the surface with (dE)max = EdS

E

ds

(iii) for  = 90 , cos  = 0 mens E is zero.


ds

E

1 4 . GA U SS’S L A W :
This law gives the relation between the electric flux through any closed hypothetical surface (called
E) through
a Gaussian surface) and the charge enclosed by the surface. It states „the electric flux (

1
any closed surface is equal to  times the ÂnetÊ charged enclosed‰.
0

That is,

  q
E   E. ds  0

ELECTROSTATICS
 62 QUIZRR
where q denotes the algebraic sum of all the charges enclosed by the surface. If there are several
charges + q1, + q2, + q3, q4, q5 inside the Gaussian surface then
q = q1 + q2 + q3 q4 q5
Remarks :
(1) Gaussian surface is an imaginary closed surface.
(2) Gaussian surface cannot be passed through a discrete charges but can be passed through
continuous charge distributions.
Note : The electric field is directed in radial direction for spherically symmetry charge distribution
hence the use of GaussÊs law simplifies the position.

1 4 .1 Ele c t ri c f i e l d i n t e n s i t y o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e Ga u s s ’s l a w
I. Uniformly charged non conducting sphere
(a) For an internal point
Consider a gaussion surface at a distance from the centre inside the surface
Note that the direction of the electric field will be directed radially outward
 

   E. d s  E  ds  E 4r 2  E

4 
  r 3 

E 4 r 2  
 3
0


 r 
 E  when r > R
 3 0 

(b) For an external point R Q

r

E 4 r 2
 Q
 
 0 

Q
 E when r > R
40 r 2

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 63

Illust rat io n
Find the field intensity inside a thick conducting shell of inner and outer radii, R and 2 R,
 0 r 
whose volume charge density varies as,    
 R 

Solution : Using gaussÊs law by making a gaussian surface at a distance r from the centre

2 0 4 r 3 dr
qinside = (4 r ) dr 
R

2R
Hence according to gaussÊs Law
R
r
 
r  
 0 r 4 r 2 dr 

E 4 r 2   
 R


R
 0 
 

E

0 r 4  R4 

Rr 2
 40 

II. UNIFORMLY CHARGED INFINITELY LONG THREAD

Assume a coaxial cylindrical gausian surface, at a distance r. dA
+
Charge enclosed by it (q) = (l), +
E
E
Hence, E  2rl  
 l  +
+ dA
+
0 +
+
+

 E
 E +
2 0 r + d

III. UNIFORMLY CHARGED INFINITE PLANE SHEET (NON-CONDUCTING)

C
Let us consider an infinite non-conducting charged plane sheet having a surface charge density 
m2

Now, assume a cylindrical gaussian surface through the plane sheet.

The area of each end is r2.

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 64 QUIZRR
By symmetry, the electric field intensity at all points on either side near the sheet will be perpendicular

to the sheet, directed outward (if the sheet is positively charged). Thus E is perpendicular to the plane
ends of the cylinder and parallel to the curved surface.
Therefore, flux through the two plane ends is

++
+
+ + + +
+
E
+ +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + +

E   E. r 2   E. r 2  2  E.r 2

qinside  r
2
 

0

0
 2 E. r 2  


 E
20

IV. INFINITELY UNIFORMLY CHARGED CYLINDER

(a) For an internal point

r
l
R

Since charge is uniformly distributed through out the volume of cylinder of radius R. For finding
the electric field at a distance (r < R) from the centre, we choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius
r, co-axial with the charge distribution.
The magnitude E of the electric field has the same value at every point on the Gaussian surface

and the direction of 

E is radial at every point on the lateral surface. Since, direction of electric field
on the circular ends is taken to be zero. So, applying GaussÊs law

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 65


 r 2 l 
 E.ds  E  2rl   0

r  
E r
 2 0
in vector E
2 0

(b) For an external point

Similarly, as done above consider a gaussian surface co-axial with

the uniformly charged cylinder at radius r (r > R)

Thus,

E.  2rl  

 R 2 l 
0
Y
 R 2 
E  R 
  2 0 r   
 
 2 0 

in vector form

  R 2  
E  r X
 2  r2  (r = R) r
 0 

Plot of electric field v/s distance from the axis

Illust rat io n
Find the field intensity inside long cylinder having inner and outer radii, R and 2R and

 r 
having charge density given by   0  1   for
 R

(i) r < R (ii) 2R  r > R (iii) r > 2R

Solution :
(i) for r < R

qinside = 0   0  E = 0

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66 QUIZRR
Consider a cylindrical gaussian surface
at a distance r

Now, qinside =  (2rl)dr

R

(ii) For 2R > r > R

Hence, from gaussÊs law

q 
   inside 
 0 
 
r
  2rl  dr
  E. d s   0
R

 r
r  1   2rl dr r
E  2rl    0  
R

 R 2R
R 0

r
   r2 r3
 Er    0  
 0  2 3R
R

    5r 2 5R 2 
 E 0    
 r 0   6 6 

    r2  R2 
= E 0   
 6 0   r 
(iii) For r > 2R :
Again consider a cylindrical gaussian surfare.
 From gaussÊs law

2R  r 2 r 3 
2R r
 r
qinside  0  

1 
R 
2 rl dr  0 2l   
R  2 3R  R
2R

 8R2  R 2 R 2  0 l(23R 2 )

 20 l 2R 2     
3  2 3  3
 

0 l(23R 2 )
 E. 2r l 
3 0

230 R 2
 E =
6 0 r

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 67

1 4 .2 Ca v i t y i n s i d e a c y l i n d r ic a l i n f i n i t e l y l o n g v o l u m e :

Ex a m p l e 4 0
Find the field intensity inside a long cylindrical cavity which is uniformly charged and
distance between the axis of cylinder and that of cavity is a .
Solution :


P
r 
r

O a O´

Fill the cavity with charge density +  and 

Now, find the field intensity at any point P inside the cavity.
 
Enet  E1  E 2


Where E1 is the field intensity due to uniformly Charged cylinder of density +  and E 2 is the
field due to uniformly charge cylinder of density  centred at 0´

 
     r ´ 
 r        r 
 
r´
=   
 2 0  2 0 2 0  
 

     
Now, r  r ´  00´ or r  r ´  a

  
  a 
00'   
  Enet = 2
0  2 0 
 

Thus, just like is the case of spherical cavity inside a sphere, a cavity in a cylinder also has
constant electric field inside it.

Ex a m p l e 4 1
A system consists of a uniformly charged sphere of Radius R and the surrounding has a

volume charge density     . Then find the charge on the sphere so that the field intensity
r
at any point outside the sphere becomes independent of r and also find its magnitude.

ELECTROSTATICS
68 QUIZRR
Solution :
Consider a guassian spherical surface centred at O at a distance r.
Let Charge on sphere be q and the charge surrounding it inside the gaussian surface is

 r  4r  dr
 2
Q
R

Hence, according to Gauss Law

q 
   inside 
 0 

  q
r
 2

  4 r dr
r
 
  = ( /r)
 E. ds  0   0 R q
R
O

4 r  2 r
q r  R2  
2  
 E  ds 
0


q  2r r 2  R 2  

E 4 r 2
 0

E 

q  2r r 2  R 2  
2
4 r 0

 1  q R 2 
=    
2 0 r 2  4  0 2 0 

For E to be independent of x,

q R 2
 0 
4  0 2 0

q = 2R2
and then, the constant electric field magnitude will be


E
2 0

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 69

Ex a m p l e 4 2
A sphere is charged with volume charge density = 0 (1 r /R). Then find the field intensity
at an internal and external point. Also find the maximum field intensity due to the given
charge distribution.
Solution :
(a) At an internal point
Using the GaussÊs Law

 r

0  1   4 r 2 dr
r
  R 
 E.d s   0
0


E 4r 2
 
 0
 0



4 
r3
3

r4
R(4)
0

0  4 r 3 R  3r 4 
 E  
r 2 0  12R 

=
0
12R 0

4 rR  3r 2 
(b) At an external point
Again by gaussÊs Law

 
R 0
 r
 2
 1   4 r dr
 R

 E.d s   0
0

 R3 
  

E 4r 2   0  4  
 0   12 
 

  R3 
 E 0 
 12  r 2 
 0 
Maximum field exists at a point inside the given sphere; for an internal point we have,

0 dE
E  4 R  3r   For Emax, 0
12 R 0 dr

 dE   2R 
  dr    4R  6r   0  r 
   3 

ELECTROSTATICS
 70 QUIZRR
Ex a m p l e 4 3

 px i→  q y 2 j→  zk→
The field intensity in a region is given by E  . Then find the net charge
px 3  qy3  z 2

enclosed by a sphere of radius R, centred at origin.

Solution :
To find the net charge enclosed by the sphere consider flux passing through the charged sphere.
Now, for a sphere centred at origin, we can take the area vector as


 xi→  yj→  zk→ 
ds  ds  
 R 
ds
R
    E.ds

 px i→  qy
2 2
 .  xi→  yj→  zk→  ds
j→  zk→
=  px  qy
 3 3
 z y
2 R

3 3

 ds  px  qy  z
=   
2


 R  px3  qy2  z2 

 4 R 2 
=  R    4 R 
 

 Net charge enclosed can be obtained from GaussÊs law.

q 
   4 R    inside 
 0 

                                        qnet   4 0 R 

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 71

Ex a m p l e 4 4



The field intensity in a region is given by E  2 xy  z 2 i→ 2 yz  x 2    j→   2 x  y  k→ .
2

Find the net charge enclosed by a sphere centred at origin.

Solution :

As done in the above example we take ds  ds

  xi→  y →j  z k→ 
R

 
Now,   E.ds


 xi→  yj→  zk→ 
=      
2 xy  z2 i→  2 y2  x2 →j  2 x  y2 k→ . 
 R
 ds


=
ds
R

2 x2 y  z2 x  2 y2 z  x2 y  2 xz2  y2 z 

=
ds
R

3 x2 y  y2 z  z2 x 
Now, eliminating x, y, z from the equation is not easy, hence we use another method (shortkut) to
solve it.
Note : Net charge enclosed = 0, if the following 2 conditions are satisfied :
(i) always when the electric field is symmetrical i.e. if you replace
x  x, y  y, z  z and no change in the function, then field intensity is a symmetrical
function.
(ii) Again the sphere must be centred at origin, for this to be applicable.
Reason :

ds
  
E The dot product of E. ds will cancel out for each oppositely

located infinitesimal area elements.

E
 

ELECTROSTATICS
 72 QUIZRR
1 4 .3 Ele c t ri c f l u x p a s s in g t h ro u g h d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e s

Ex a m p l e 4 5
(1) Calculate the flux through each face of a cube when a point charge of + q is placed
at the centre of the cube.
Solution : B C

The flux through each face remains same, since the charge q is D
A
symmetrically located with respect to all the faces of the cube. +q
q G
Hence, We have flux through the cube =  F
0
q
 flux through each face = H E
60

(2) Calculate the flux through each face of a cube when a point charge q is placed at one
of the vertex of the cube.
B C
Solution :
A D
Electric flux through the face ABCD, ABGH and ADEH are zero. +q
The reason the this statement lies in the fact that these faces contain the
G
Charge q, Hence electric field strength in these faces lie perpendicular to the F
 
area vector of these faces. Thus E. ds    0
H E

Remember : The electric flux through a surface containing the charge is zero.

Now, the flux through each of the remaining faces will be same since, they are symmetrically located.

Co n c e p t :
Complete the symmetry by placing seven more cube around given cube so that the change q lies
at the centre of the eight cubed volume.

q
Flux through each cube = 8 
0
q
 Flux through each of the 3 faces of the 8 cubes = 24 
0

(3) Calculate the flux in the given case through the curved hemispherical portion only,
when placed is uniform electric field as shown :

(a) E (b) E

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 73

Solution :
(a) Complete the hemisphere by enclosing it from the bottom

 curved + base (circular) =0 E

The above statement is stated because the charge enclosed by

the hermisphere is zero hence total flux through it is zero. ds

 curved  0
 
[ base = 0, as E is perpendicular to ds ]

(b) Again complete the hemisphere

curved + circular base = 0 [qenclosed]
2
curved + E ( 4r ) = 0

  
Here, circular base = E. ds  E (4 r 2 ), 
ds

  curved  E(4 r 2 )

Ex a m p l e 4 6
A point charge is placed at the centre of a cylinder of radius R and length l. Find the flux
through the curved surface.
Solution :
(1) First, close the cylinderÊs circular ends and apply gaussÊs law

0 R
L/2

L/2
q cos 0 
net  L2
0  R2
4
r 
(2) The flux through each of the flat base net circular ends = 2  E. ds
0


E

 
ds

r

L/2

ELECTROSTATICS
 74 QUIZRR

 L 
q 2r dr .
r  r  2 tan  
net (Circular ends) = 0 2  cos 
 
4 0  L 2
   dr  L sec 2  d 
2  2 
cos2 
0
q
=  0 cos2  tan  .sec 2  d .cos 
0

0
q q
=  0 sin  d   1  cos 0 
0
0

q q q
(curved)   1  cos 0   cos 0
0 0 0

q L/2 q L
  
0 L2 0 L  4R2
2
 R2
4

1 4 .4 Di f f e r e n t ia l f o r m o f Ga u s s ’s L a w
Derivation :
Consider the flux through an infinitesimal volume is space. Net flux through the cube
= [ EX (dy dz) + (EX + dEX) dydz]
Y Ey + dy
+ [ Ey ( dzdx) + (Ey + dEy) (dzdx] (Ez + dEz )
+ [ Ez (dx dy) + (Ez + dEz) (dxdy)] Ex

= (dEx dydz) + (dEy dzdx) + dEz (dxdy) Ey

Ez
Using Gauss law X

Z
(dEx dy dz) + (dEy dx dz) + (dEz dxdy) =

 d Ex   dEy   dEz  
   
 dx   dy   dz  0

 E   E   E  
     (Differential form of Gauss law)
  x   y    z  0

ELECTROSTATICS
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In terms of potential :

 2 V 2 V 2 V  
 2   2 

 x y 2
z  0

In other forms

   
     
    i→    →j    k→
 x   y   z 

 Differential form of GaussÊs law can also be stated as :

    
 .E  (Divergence of E  )
0 0

Ex a m p l e 4 7
Electric potential in origin is given by
V = ( x 3 + )
Then find the volume charge density in the region as function of space.
Solution :
 2V    
  2     [Using differential form of Gauss law]
 x   0 
 

   2   
  3x   

 x  0 

  6 x  
0

   60  x

ELECTROSTATICS
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1 5 .1 CON DU CT I ON
Flow of charge from one conductor to the other conductor is called conduction. (Charge on the
conductor does not remain constant.]

1 5 .2 I N DU CT I ON
Redistribution of charge over the surface of the conductor is called induction. In this case, the total
charge of conductor remains constant.

1 5 .3 PROPERT I ES OF A CON DU CT OR
(1) When an external charge is given to the conductor, the entire charge appears over the
surface of the conductor and the entire volume of the conductor is electrically neutral.
In the absence of an external field and charge around the conductor,
++
the surface charge density of the charge distribution over the conductor ++ +++ ++ ++
+ +
surface is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature. + +
+ +
++ +
1 + +
 + (E = O) +
(flater portion has lesser charge density than curved part.) + +
R + +
+ +
++ +
Note : This is applicable only when external field and charges + + ++ +
+
++ + ++
are absent
(2) The potential at any point inside (or on the surface) of the conductor is constant since the
conductor is an equipotential body.
(3) Electric field is zero inside the conductor
Hence, the volume of the conductor is electrically neutral


(4) The field intensity near the surface of the conductor is given by : E 
0

(normal to surface of the conductor)

De r iv a t io n :
Consider a Gaussin surface near the surface of the conductor as shown
dA
   ds  + + + +++ E
E  ds   ++ +
[ : surface density of the point] +
C0 +
+
+ +
+ (E = O) +
    + +
+
 E    ( E is perpendicular to the surface) + +
 0  +
+ +
B
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +

ELECTROSTATICS
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1 5 .4 Ele c t ri c f i e l d a n d f i e l d l in e s a r e n o r m a l t o t h e s u r f a c e o f a c o n d u c t o r
Net field inside a conductor is zero. It implies that no
field lines enter a conductor. On the surface of a conductor, + + ++
+ ++
++ 90
electric field and hence field lines are normal to the surface E=0 + +
+ +
of the conductor. + +
+
+ + + ++
If a conducting box is immersed in a uniform electric
field, the field lines near the box are somewhat distorted. Similarly if a conductor is positively charged,
the field lines originate from the surface and are normal at every point and if it is negatively charged
the field lines terminate on the surface normally at every point.

1 5 .5 Ca v i t y i n s i d e a c o n d u c t o r
Consider a charge + q suspended in a cavity in a conductor. Consider a Gaussian surface just

outside the cavity and inside the conductor E  0 on this Gaussian surface as it is inside the conductor.
  q
Hence from GaussÊs law,  E.d S  in0 gives qin = 0 as { E = 0 inside conductor}

+ + + + + +
+ Gaussian
+ + +
+ surface +
+ +
+ q + + +
q+ +
+ +
+ +
+q +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + +
+

(a) (b)

This concludes that a charge of q must reside on the metal surface of the cavity so that sum
of this induced charge q and the original charge + q within the Guassian surface is zero. In other
words, a charge q suspended inside a cavity in a conductor induces an equal and opposite charge
q on the surface of the cavity. Further as the conductor is electrically neutral a charge + q is induced
on the outer surface of the conductor. As field inside the conductor is zero the field lines coming from
q cannot penetrate into the conductor. The field lines will be as shown in figure (b).
The same line of approach can be used to show that the field inside the cavity of a conductor is
zero when no charge is suspended in it.

El e c t r o s t a t ic s h i e l d i n g
Suppose we have a very sensitive electronic instrument that we want to protect from external
electric fields that might cause wrong measurements. We surround the instrument with a conducting
box or we keep the instrument inside the cavity of a conductor. By doing this charge in the conductor
is so distributed that the net electric field inside the cavity becomes zero and the instrument is protected
from the external fields. This is called electrostatic shielding.

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 78 QUIZRR
1 5 .6 T h e p o t e n t ia l o f a c h a r g e c o n d u c t o r t h ro u g h o u t i t s v o l u m e i s s a m e

In any region in which E  0 at all points, such as the region vary far from all charges or the

interior of a charged conductor, the line integral of E is zero along any path. It means that the
potential difference between any two points in the conductor are at the same potential or the interior
of a charged conductor is an equipotential region.

1 6 . EL ECT ROST A T I C PRESSU RE

+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ dq = (ds)
 
+ ds E´ = 20
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ + + +

Let us consider a small elemental charge dq of area ds. Now let us calculate the net electric field

E due to rest of the charges on this elemental area.

E

ds

E=0

   qenclosed
  E. ds  E ds 
0

and qencl.  dq   ds

 
 E
2 0

Now, this electric fied is on the elemental charge dq, hence force experienced by it is,

   
F  dq E    ds  
 2 0 

ELECTROSTATICS
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 2 
F ds
  2 0 
 

2
 Electrostatic pressure = P  
2 0

Note : This eletrostatic pressure is bursting in nature i.e. directed outwards always.

Ex a m p l e 4 8
Find the maximum surface charge density that can be given to a conducting spherical shell
of radius R and thickness R (R << R). 0 is the bursting stress.
Solution :

By increasing the surface charge density, the electrostatic pressure also increses. Let us assume
the maximum surface charge density be  , then

 2 
Pressure =  2C 
 0 

Now bursting stress  pressure force {so that the shell do not burst}
When the shell bursts, the area available will be the area covered by shell in the middle i.e. 2R
and for electrostatic pressure area will be R2

Hence, 0 (2RR) 
2
2 0
R 2   
40 0 R
R

Ex a m p l e 4 9
Find the maximum surface charge density that can be given to a thin conducting cylinder
of thickness R, and radius R, length l. 0 is the bursting stress.
Solution :
The question is similar to the previous example. However it is important for the students to know
about the projected area concept used with the electrostatic pressure.

ELECTROSTATICS
 80 QUIZRR
Here it is a thin conducting cylinder.
Now
2R

Projected
area
Pressure force = (electrostatic pressure) (projected area)

 2 
=  2     2R l 
 0

Bursting force = 0 (2 Rl)

Now, bursting force  pressure force

2
 0 (2R l)   2R l 
2 0

20  R l0
 
R

V . CH A RGED SPH ERI CA L SH EL L

(A ) El e c t ri c Fi e l d

At all points inside the charged spherical conductor or hollow spherical shell, electric field E  O ,
as there is no charge inside such a sphere. In an isolated charged spherical conductor any excess charge
on it is distributed uniformly over its outer surface same as that of charged spherical shell or hollow
sphere. The field at external points has the same symmetry as that of a point charge. We can construct
a Gaussian surface (a sphere) of radius r > R. At all points of this sphere the magnitude of electric field
is the same and its direction is perpendicular to the surface. Thus, we can apply

qin
ES 
0
q
+ + ++
  q
+

E 4 r 2  +
+ +++

or
0 r
+ ++

E
+ R
q + +++
++

1
 E . 2 Gaussian
4  0 r
surface

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 81

Hence, the electric field at any external point is the same as if the total charge is concentrated
at centre.
At the surface of sphere r = R,

1 q
 E .
4  0 r 2

Thus, we can write, Einside = 0

1 q
Esurface  4   . 2
0 R

1 q
Eoutside  . 2
4  0 r

The variation of electric field (E) with the distance from the centre (r) is shown in Fig.
Note : (i) At the surface graph is discontinuous

E
1 q q / 4 R 2 
(ii) Esurface  . 2 = 
4  0 R 0 0
0 1
E
(B) POTENTIAL : As we have seen, r2

1 q
Eoutside  .
4  0 r 2 O R r

  dVoutside  1 q  dV 
    . 2  E   dr 
 dr  4  0 r  

V q r dr
 0 d Voutside 
4  0  r2
(V = 0)

1 q 1
 V . or V
4  0 r r

Thus, at external points the potential at any point is the same when the whole charge is assumed
to be concentrated at the centre. At the surface of the sphere, r = R

1 q
 V .
4  0 R

ELECTROSTATICS
 82 QUIZRR
At some internal point electric field is zero everywhere, therefore, the potential is same at all points
which is equal to the potential at surface. Thus, we can write,

1 q
Vinside = Vsurface = .
4  0 R

1 q
and Voutside = .
4  0 r

The potential (V) varies with the distance from the centre (r) as shown in Fig. below.
V

1 q R
=
4 2 0 1
0 R V
r

O R r

V I . A SOL I D SPH ERE

(A ) El e c t ri c Fi e l d
Positive charge q is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of a solid sphere of radius R. For
finding the electric field at a distance r (< R) from the centre let us choose as our Gaussian surface a
sphere of radius r, concentric with the charge distribution. From symmetry the magnitude E of electric

field has the same value at every point on the Gaussian surface, and the direction of 
E is radial at
every point on the surface. So, applying GaussÊs law,

qin
ES  ... (i)
0

4 3 + + + Gaussian
H er e, S = 4r2 and qin =     r  + + + + + + surface
3 
q + + + ++ + +
+ r+ +
4 + + +++ ++
here,    = charge per unit volume = R 3 + + ++
3 + + ++ + + + +
r ++
Substituting these values in Eq. (i) + + + + R+
+
+ + +
1 q
We have, E . .r
4 0 R 3

or E  r

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 83

At the centre r = 0, so E = 0

1 q
At surface r = R, So E . 2
4  0 R

To find the electric field outside the charged sphere, we use a spherical Gaussian surface of radius
r (> R). This surface encloses the entire charged sphere, so qin = q, and GaussÊs law gives

q 1 q
E (4r2) = or E .
0 4  0 r 2

1
or E
r2

Notice that if we set r = R in either of the two expressions for E (outside and inside the sphere),
we get the same result,

1 1
E . 2
4  0 R

this is because E is continuous function of r in this case. By contrast, for the charged conducting
spher e t he magnit ude of elect r ic field is discont inuous at r = R (it jumps from E = 0 to E = /0).
Thus, for a uniformly charged solid sphere we have the following formulae for magnitude of
electric field.

1 q
Einside = 4   . 3 . r
0 R

1 q
Esurface = 4   . 2
0 R

1 q
Eoutside = 4   . 2
0 r

The variation of electric field (E) with the distance fromthe centre of the sphere (r) is shown in
Fig. below.
E

1 q
4 2
0R 1
E
r2

O R r

ELECTROSTATICS
84 QUIZRR
(B) POTENTIAL : The field intensity outside the sphere is,
1 q
Eoutside = 4   . 2
0 r

dVoutside
  Eoutside
dr
 dVoutside = Eoutside dr
V r 1 q
or  dVoutside    4 0 . r 2 dr
1 q
 V . as V = 0
4  0 r 

1
or V
r
1 q
At r = R, V .
4  0 R

1 q
i.e., at the surface of the sphere potential is VS = .
4  0 R

The electric intensity inside the sphere,

1 q
Einside = . 3 .r
4  0 R

dVinside
  Einside
dr

dVinside = Einside dr

V 1 q r
 Vs dVinside   4 0 . R3 R r dr

r
1 q  r2 
 V  VS  . 3  
4  0 R  2 
R

1 q 1 q  3 1 r2 
Substituting VS  4   . R , we get V  4   R  2  2 2 
0 0  R 

3 1 q 3
At the centre r = 0 and Vc   .   VS i.e., potential at the centre is 1.5 times the
2  4  0 R  2

potential at surface.
ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 85

Thus, for a uniformly charged solid sphere we have the following formulae for potential.

1 q
Voutside = 4   . r
0

1 q
Vsurface = 4   . R
0

1 q  3 1 r2 
and Vinside = .   
4  0 R  2 2 R 2 

The variation of potential (V) with distance from the centre (r) is as shown in figure.

3 1 q
2 4 0R

1 q
4 0R

O R r

Po i n t s t o Re m e m b e r
1. To find the electric potential due to a conducting sphere (or shell) we should keep in mind the
following two points :
(i) Electric potential on the surface and at any point inside the sphere is
1 q
V = 4  . R
0
(R = radius of sphere)
(ii) Electric potential at any point outside the sphere is
1 q
V=. (r = distance of the point from the centre)
4  0 r
For example, in the figure shown, potential at A is
1  qA q q  C qC
VA =   B  C
4 0  rA rB rC  qB
B
Similarly, potential at B is qA
1  qA q q  A
VB = 4    B  C
r
0  B rB rC 
and potential C is,
1  qA q q 
VC =   B  C
4 0  rC rC rC 

ELECTROSTATICS
 86 QUIZRR
2. Principle of a generator : A generator is an instrument for B
producing high voltages in the million volt region. Its design is qC
based on the principle that if a charged conductor (say A) is brought A
into contact with a hollow conductor (say B), all of its charge
rA qA qB
transfers to the hollow conductor no matter how high the potential
of the latter may be. This can be shown as under.
In the figure, rB

1  qA qB 
VA =   
4 0  rA rB 

1  qA qB 
and VB = 4    
0  rB rB 

qA  1 1
 VA VB = 4     
0  rA rB 

From this expression following conclusions can be drawn :

(i) The potential difference (PD) depends on qA only. It does not qB
depend on qB. qA
(ii) If qA is positive, then VA VB is positive (as rA < rB), i.e., VA
> VB. So if the two spheres are connected by a conducting wire B
charge flows from inner sphere to outer sphere (positive charge
A
flows from higher potential to lower potential) till VA = VB or
VA VB = 0. And potential difference will become zero only
when qA = 0, i.e., all charge qA flows from inner sphere to
outer sphere.
(iii) If qA is negative, VA VB is negative, i.e. VA < VB. Hence, when the two spheres are
connected by a thin wire all charge qA will flow from inner sphere to the outer sphere.
Because negative charge flows from lower potential to higher potential. Thus, we see that
the whole charge qA flows from inner sphere to outer sphere, no matter how high qB is.
Charge always flows from A to B, whether qA > qB or qB > qA, VA > VB or VB > VA.
3. Earthing a conductor : Potential of earth is often taken to be zero. If a conductor is connected
to the earth, the potential of the conductor becomes equal to that of the earth, i.e., zero. If the
conductor was at some other potential, charges will flow from it to the earthor from the earth to
it to bring its potential to zero.
4. Charges appearing on different surfacesof concentric spherical shells : Figure shows
three concentric thin spherical shells A, B and C of radii a, b and c. The shells A and C are given
charges q1 and q2 and the shell B is earthed. We are interested in finding the charges on inner

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 87

and outer surfaces of A, B and C. To solve such type of problems following points should keep in
mind :
C
B
A
a q1 q2

b
c

(i) The whole charge q1 will come on the outer surface of A unless some charge is kept inside
A.
To understand it let us consider a Guassian surface (a sphere) through the material of A.
As the electric field in a conducting material is zero. The flux through this Gaussian surface
is zero. Using GaussÊs law, the total charge enclosed must be zero.

q1

Gaussian
surface

(ii) Similarly if we draw a Gaussian surface through the material of B we can see that
q3 + q1 = 0 or q3 = q1
and if we draw a Gaussian surface through the material of C, then
q5 + q4 + q3 + q1 = 0 or q5 = q4
(iii) q5 + q6 = q2. As q2 charge was given to shell C.
(iv) Potential of B should be zero, as it is earthed. Thus,

1  q1 q3  q4 q5  q6 
  0
4 0  b
or
b c 

So, using the above conditions we can find charges on different surfaces.
We can summarise the above points as under
(1) Net charge inside a closed Gaussian surface drawn in any shell is zero. (provided
the shell is conducting).
(2) Potential of the conductor which is earthed is zero.

ELECTROSTATICS
 88 QUIZRR
(3) If two conductors are connected, they are at same potential.
(4) Charge remains constant in all conductors except those which are earthed.
(5) Charge on the inner surface of the innermost shell is zero provided no charge is
kept inside it. In all other shells charge resides on both the surfaces.
(6) Equal and opposite charges appear on opposite faces.

Ex a m p l e 5 0
A charge q is distributed uniformly on the surface of a sphere of
radius R. It is covered by a concentric hollow conducting sphere of
R q
radius 2R. Find the charges on inner and outer surfaces of hollow
sphere if it is earthed.
2R
Solution :
The charge on the inner surface should be q, because if we draw a closed Gaussian surface
through the material of the hollow sphere the total charge enclosed by this Gaussian surface should
be zero. Let q´ be the charge on the outer surface of the hollow sphere.
q'
Since, the outer sphere is earthed, its potential should be zero. The potential –q
on it is due to the charges q, q and q´, Hence, q

1  q q q' 
V   0
4 0  2R 2R 2R 


 q´ = 0 Ans.
Therefore, there will be no charge on the outer surface of the hollow sphere.

q'
Ex a m p l e 5 1
q
Solve the above problem if thickness of the hollow sphere is –q
considerable. R
r
R2 R3 p

Solution :
In this case, we can set V = 0 at any point on the hollow sphere. Let us select a point P a distance r
from the centre. Where R2 < r < R3. So
VP = 0

1 q q q' 
    0
4 0  r r R 3 

 q´ = 0 Ans.
i.e., in this case also there will be no charge on the outer surface of the hollow sphere.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 89
+ + + +
1 8. SH I ELDI N G EFFECT +Q + +
2 Q3
+
+
(1) If an external charge(s)/field are present in the + +
+
surrounding of an electrical conductor then charge + +
distribution on the surface of the conductor occurs + +
E=O
in such a way that the net field intensity, due to + + E0
+ +
the surrounding charge/field and the charge
+ +
distributions (due to the surrounding charge) +
+
developed on the conductors surface; at any point + +
inside the conductor becomes zero. + +
+ +
(2) If the external charge in the surrounding is Q1
+ +
arbitarily displaced/or the field charged; then re- + + +
distributing of charge occurs on the surface of the conductor at once, so that net field
intensity at any point inside the conductor still remains zero. +
(3) If a cavity is created inside the electrical conductor, then electric
+ + +
+ +
field inside the cavity still remains zero (in the absence of external + +
+ +
charge in the cavity). + +
+ +
+ A +
B +
+ +
+ +
D C +
+ +
  
+
+ + ++
Reason : To satisfy  E. dl  0 , E must zero inside the cavity.
+ + + +
+ +
(4) Charge placed in the cavity in a conductor : +
+ +
+ +
When an external charge is placed inside the cavity of a conductor, + +
+ +
the equal and opposite charge distributian is induced on the surface +
+
of the cavity, so that the field intensity due to both the external q +
+
charge in the cavity and the induced charge at any point outside + +
+ +
the cavity is zero. + +
+
++ +
   + + +
E inside conductor = E inner  Eouter  0  0  0 + +

(5) If the external charge in the cavity is arbitarily displaced, then, re-distribution of induced
charge on the surface of cavity takes place so that field intensity outside the cavity still
remains zero.
(6) Outer charge distribution remain unchanged if the external charge in the cavity is arbitarily
displaced and the inner charge distribution remains unchanged if the outer charge distribution
charges (i.e. vice-versa).

ELECTROSTATICS
 90 QUIZRR
  
(7) Electric field at any point (inside the cavity) near its surface =   . As a general idea, field
 0 
is more strong at a point where, charge is closer to surface of the cavity.
(8) The electric potential, due to the external charge and the induced charge on the surface of
the cavity, at any point OUTSIDE THE CAVITY IS ZERO.
(Reason : No work done against field as E = due to both)

Remember : ELECTRIC POTENTIAL IS NOT ZERO due to the outer charge distribution
inside the cavity.

(9) The net force experienced by any external charge inside the cavity is zero.
Proof :

Assume a Gaussian surface near the charge

   qinside  .
 E. ds  0
+q

 Eext  0 [ q = 0 excluding the charge itself]



 
 F  0
 
(10) Hence, a conducting shell divide the entire regions into two parts, inner and outer which
are completely independent of each other, in terms of electrostatic field. This is called as the
shielding effect in the electrical conductors.

Ex a m p l e 5 2
A charge q is placed at a distance r from the centre of an uncharged conductor sphere of
radius R. Find the potential of the conducting sphere.
+ +
Solution : +
R +
Conductor has an equipotential space inside it. +q +
 find the potential at the centre O for convenience r +
+
+
 Kq  Kdq Kq K + +
V      dq
 r  R r R

Kq  Kq  {Where dq is the elemental charge

V 0 
r  r  on the surface of conductor}

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 91

Ex a m p l e 5 3
In the previous question, the conductor is grounded and the charge q starts moving with
constant velocity towards the sphere which is v. Then, find the current through the wire
connecting the sphere to the earth.
Q
Solution :

R i
V
q r

Let us assume that a charge Q is acquired by the conductor, so that its potential becomes zero.

 Kq  KQ
V   0 [ it is earthed]
 r  R

 q R  dQ qR
 Q  ,   2   v
 r  dt r

 qRv 
 i 2 
 r 

Now, since the charge on the conductor is decreasing, therefore the current flows from the conductor
to the earth.
[However, the magnitude of the current is increasing]

Ex a m p l e 5 4
A point charge q is kept inside a charged conducting shell at a distance charged ÂaÊ from
its centre. The shell has an initial charge Q and external radii ÂcÊ. Another charge Âq1Ê is
placed outside the shell at a distance ÂbÊ from the centre.
Find : (i) the net potential at O
(ii) the force experienced by q1 due to the induced charge in the cavity of shell.
(iii) Potential at the position of q1 due to the induced charge on the surface of
cavity. (Assume shell is thin).
(Q
Solution : +q
Q )

–q
O b a +q b q1
a +q q1

ELECTROSTATICS
92 QUIZRR
(i) Potential at 0 :

 Kq   KQ   Kq 
V0     
 a   c   b 

(Remember, when the shell is thin, write the potential together for the inner and the outer
surface)
(ii) To calculate the force expression, use the concept that the force exerted by both, the induced
charge as well as the external charge is zero. This can be easily seen by creating a gaussian
surface centred at O and passing through the charge q1,


So qenclosed = 0, hence E net  0

  
 F = 0 and F net  F cavity + F q  0

 K q q1   K q q1
 Fcavity   Fq , F q     F cavity 
 a  b 2
 a  b2

(iii) Potential due to the charge on the surface of the cavity

as done in the above part
Vcavity + Vext = 0

 Kq
 Vcavity = Vext =
 a  b

1 9 . PA RA L L EL PL A T ES
Two important concepts to be applied to all questions based on the parallel plates :
(1) The charges appearing on the faces opposite to each combination of pair of parallel plates
are always equal is magnitudes and opposite in nature.
(2) The outer faces of the extreme plates have equal charges is magnitude and nature and
equal to the (sum of charges on all plates divided by two) charge on the outer plates faces

(outer) =
 Qall
2

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 93

De r i v a t i o n
(1) Use GaussÊs law
A B
Draw a Guasssian surface ABCD

  q 
Now  E. d s   inside 
 C0 

       
 E. d s   E. d s   E. d s   E. ds   E. ds
ABCD AB BC CD OA

 0  0  0  0 0
E ds      
 E  0  E  ds  E  0 D C
     

 Net charge enclosed = 0

(2) To prove 2nd, use the concept that E = 0 inside the conductor which can happen only when
the outer faces of the extreme plate have equal charges is magnitude as well as in direction.

 Q1  q  Q2  q
 Q1 Q2
2 0 A 2 0 A
(Q1 –q) (Q 2 + q)

q
Q1  Q2 
2

 Q1  Q2   Q  Q2  q –q
 qouter on each plate = Q1   1 
2  2 

Ex a m p l e 5 5
Show the charge distribution, on each surface when a charge of Q, 5Q, 10 Q are given to
each of the parallel plates.
Q –5Q 10Q

A B C

Solution :
Charges on the outermost surfaces

Q  5Q  10Q
=  3Q
2

ELECTROSTATICS
 94 QUIZRR
So, charge on the inner surface of plate A
= Q 3Q = 2 Q
Plate B
Charge on surface opposite to plate A
= + 2Q
Now, charge on other surface
= 5Q (+ 2Q) = 7Q
Plate C
Charge on surface opposite to plate C = + 7Q

Q 5Q 10Q

+7Q 3Q

3Q 2Q

+2Q 7Q

Here, we can check also that on plate C

7Q (as obtained) + 3Q = + 10Q (given)

Ex a m p l e 5 6
In the question, find the charge flown through the switch if : Q 5Q 10Q
(i) S1 is grounded; S2, S3 open
(ii) S3 is closed, S1, S2 open. 2d d
(iii) S1, S2 are simultaneously closed; S3 open
(iv) S2, S3 simultaneously closed, S1 open
(v) S1, S3 simultaneously closed, but S2 remains open S1 S2 S3
(vi) S2 closed and outer plates are connected by wire
(vii) If all switches are open and outer plates connected by wire, then find the charge
distribution.
Solution :
(i) Concept : When any one of the outer plates is grounded then the charge on the outer
faces of extreme plates becomes zero.

Reason : Its potential is now zero, hence, no work has to be done in bringing any
charge from  to the plate.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 95

Start solving from the plate 3 which is not grounded. 5Q 10Q

Charge flown from earth to plate

= Qfinal Q 5Q O
initial O 10Q
= 5Q Q = ( 6Q) +5Q
10Q

S1 S2 S3 (i)

Q 5Q
(ii) Charge flown to plate from the earth
= Qfinal Qinitial
= 4Q 10Q = ( 6Q) O Q 4Q O
Q
4Q
(ii)
S1 S2 S3

(iii) S1, S2 simultaneously closed; S3 remains open. 10Q

10Q
Concept : In the question plate 1 and plate 2 which 10Q
are adjacently grounded have no charge on their facing O O O O
surface.

Reason : Their potential is same. S2

S1 S3
 Charge flown through S1 = Q Q = Q
Charge flown through S2 = 10Q ( 5Q) = 5Q

Q
(iv) S2, S3 simultaneously closed; S1 remains open
Charge flown through S2
Q Q
= Q ( 5Q) = 4Q O O O O
Charge flown through S3
= O (+ 10Q) = 10Q
S1 S2 S3

(v) S1, S3 are simultaneously closed but S2 remaining open 5Q

In this case, the plates 1 and 3 are equipotential.
2d d
Now, these are 2 methods to solve this question.

S1 S2 S3

ELECTROSTATICS
 96 QUIZRR
Method 1 :
{This is to be read after going through capacitors)
The charge on surface of the plate 2 facing 1, and 3 are distributed in the ratio of their capacitance.
This is be cause potential drop acroos plates 1 and 2 and the drop across 2 and 3 is same, Hence,
we can say that the capacitor formed by 1 and 2, and by 2 ad 3 are in paralle.
Where,

 A   A 
C1   0  , C2   0  5Q
 2d   d  q2 10Q
+5Q
3 q1 3
 C1   1 
   
 C2   2 
d
1   5Q  2  10Q  2d
 q1   (5Q)    , q2  3  5Q    3 
3  3   

5Q  2Q 
Charge flow through S1 = Q 
3  3 

10Q  7Q 
Charge flow through S3 = Q 
3  3 
Method 2 :
Potential drop across (plate 1 and plate 2) and (plate 2 and plate 3) must 5Q
be equal and opp. so that plate 1 and plate 3 remain at same potential. q q
( 5Q-q)
E1 d1  E2 d2  0

q  5Q  q d
 2d   0
0 A 0 A

2q + 5Q + q = 0  q    5Q / 3 

(vi) Sum of the charges on the two outer plates remain constant = 11Q 11Q 22Q
But this charge will be distributed in the ratio of the capacitance 3 3
11Q 22Q
O
1 O 3
3
 Charge on plate 1 =  11Q
3
2d d

1 22Q
Charge on plate 2 =  11Q = S1 S2 S3
3 3

Note : Here charges do not appear on the outer surface of the plate 1 and 3, since the entire
charge is accomodated on their inner surfaces as the plate 2 is connected to a charge
reservoir i.e. earth.
ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 97

(vii) When only outer plates are connected :

5Q
5Q 10Q
3 3
3Q 5Q 10Q 3Q
3 3
2d d

Charges on the surface of the plate 2 facing 1 and 3 will be divided in the ratio of their
capacitance.
Sum of the charges on the outer plates 1and 2 remain constant.

2 0. SPH ERI CA L CON DU CT I N G SH EL LS +Q

–Q
Q
Ex a m p l e 5 7
c Q
Find the charge distribution on the inner and outer surfaces of the a
given conducting shells. b

Solution :
Charge on the innermost surface can be found using the concept of 2Q
+Q Q
shielding effect, from which we derived that equal and opposite charge was 2Q
2Q
induced on the surface of the cavity. Q

Apply this conceptfor further surface. Q

Ex a m p l e 5 8
If the inner and outer shells are connected by wire and middle shell is grounded. Then, find
the charge distribution on each shell? Initially A and C had Charge Q each.
Solution :
Concept :
2 Q -[q 1 -Q -q 2 ]
(i) VB = 0 (grounded)
q2
C
(ii) VA = VC with (QA+C)initial = (QA+C) final
B
q2
–q 1 A
Assume the charge on the outer surface of A as q1 and that on Q
q1

outer surface of B as q2.

Q
 charge on the outermost surface of C
= 2Q [q1 Q q2] = (3Q q1 + q2)

ELECTROSTATICS
 98 QUIZRR
Now VB = 0

K(Q) K(q1  Q) K(q2  q1 ) K(3Q  q1  q2  q2 ) 3Q q1 + q2

0    q2 q
 b b 
 b
  c

 q1 q 2
Charge at centre Plate A Plate B Plate C 1
Q
Q a
Kq2 K 3Q  q1  A
  0
b c B c b
C
 q2   3Q  q1 
 b  c 0 ... (1)
   
also, VA = VC

Kq1 K  q2  q1  K  3Q  q1 
  K
3Q  q1  q2 
 ... (2)
a b c c

Solve (1) and (2)

The rest solving is left as practice for the students

Ex a m p l e 5 9
In the previous question, find the charge distribution if the middle and inner shell are
grounded.

(Q + q
Q q )
Q q
Q O O
Q
Q Q

Solution :

Co n c e p t t o l e a r n
There cannot be any charge on the surfaces which are equipotential and facing each other.
[Otherwise, field lines would exist.]
Let q be the charge on outer surface of plate B.
Now, put VB = 0

Kq  KQ   Qb 
  0  q c 
b  c   

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 99

II. When the inner and outer spherical shells are ground.

Q
C Q Qb
Qa
(a+b)
Q (a+b)

b
a

Concept : The charge appearing on the inner and outer surfaces of the middle shell is divided in
the ratio of the capacitances of the inner and outer shell which is of course the ratio of their radii.

2 1. CA PA CI T A N CE
In practice we cannot handle free point charges or hold them fixed at desired positions. A practical
way to handle a charge would be to put it on a conductor. Thus, one use of a conductor is to store
electric charge (or electric potential energy). But every conductor has, its maximum limit of storing the
electric charge or potential energy. Beyond that limitthe dielectric (or insulator) in which the conductor
is placed becomes ionized. A capacitor is a device which can store more electric charge or potential
energy compared to an isolated conductor.
Capacitors have a tremendous number of applications. In the flash light used by photographers
the energy and charge stored in a capacitor are recovered quickly. In other applications the energy is
released more slowly.

2 1 .1 Ca p a c i t a n c e o f a n I s o l a t e d Co n d u c t o r
When a charge q is given a conductor it spreads over the outer surface of the conductor. The whole
conductor comes to the same potential (say V). This potential V is directly proportional to the charge
q, i.e.
V  q +
+ +q
+ +
1 +
when the proportionality sign is removed a constant of proportionality comes v +
C + +
in picture. Hence, +
+ +
V
q + + +
C

q
or C
V

ELECTROSTATICS
100 QUIZRR
Here, C is called the capacitance of the conductor. The SI unit of capacitance is called one farad
(1 F). One farad is equal to coulomb per volt (1 C/V).
 1 F = 1 farad = 1 C/V = 1 coulomb/volt

2 1 .2 M e t h o d o f Fi n d i n g Ca p a c i t a n c e o f a Co n d u c t o r
Give a charge q to the conductor. Find potential on it due to charge q. This potential V will
obviously be a function of q and finally find q/V, which is the desired capacitance C.

2 1 .3 Ca p a c i t a n c e o f a s p h e r i c a l c o n d u c t o r
When a charge q is given to a spherical conductor of radius R, the potential on it is,

1 q
V . +
4  0 R + + q ++

+ + ++ +

+ + ++ +
q
From this expression we find that,  4  0 R  C
V R

+
+
+ + ++ +
Thus, capacitance of the spherical conductor is,
C = 40 R
From this expression we can draw the following conclusions.
(i) C  R or C depends on R only. Which we have already stated that C depends on the
dimensions of the conductor. Moreover if two conductors have radii R1 and R2 then,

C1 R1

C2 R 2
(ii) Earth is also a spherical conductor of radius R = 6.4 106 m. The capacity of earth is
therefore
 
C
1
 9  109 
 
 
6.4  106  711  106 F

or C = 711 øF
From here, we can see that farad is a large unit. As capacity of such a huge conductor is
only 711 øF.

2 1 .4 En e r g y s t o r e d i n a c h a r g e d c o n d u c t o r
Work has to be done in charging a conductor against the force of repulsion by the already existing
charges on it. The work is stored as a potential energy in the electric field of the conductor. Suppose
a conductor of capacity C is charged to a potential V0 and let q0 be the charge on the conductor at this

instant. The potential of the conductor when (during charging) the charge on it was q (< q0) is,

q
V
C

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 101

Now work done in bringing a small charge dq at this potential is,

q
d W  Vdq    dq
C

 total work done in charging it from 0 to q0 is,

q0 q0 q 1q2
W 0 dW  0 C
dq  0
2C

This work is stored as the potential energy,

1 q02
 U
2 C
Further by using q0 = CV0 we can write this expression also as,
1 1
U CV02  q0 V0
2 2
In general if a conductor of capacity C is charged to a potential V by giving it a charge q, then

1 1 q2 1
U CV 2   qV
2 2 C 2

2 1 .5 Re d i s t r ib u t io n o f Ch a r g e

+ + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + +
+ + +

+ +
+
+

+ +

+
v
+
+ +

+
+

v
R1 R2
+
+

+ +

+
+ +
+

+ + + +
+ + + +
q1
q2 q1' q2'

Suppose two conductors of capacities C1 and C2 have charges q1 and q2 respectively when they are
joined together by a conducting wire, charge redistributes in these conductors in the ratio of their
capacities. Charge redistributes till potential of both the conductors become equal. Thus, let q1´ and q2´
be the final charges on them, then
q´  C
q1' C1
or 
q2' C2

C1 R1
and if they are spherical conductors, then C  R
2 2

q1' C1 R1
  
q2' C2 R2

ELECTROSTATICS
102 QUIZRR
Since, the total charge is (q1 + q2). Therefore,

 C1   R1 
q1'   
 q1  q2    q1  q2  
 C1  C2   R1  R 2 

 C2   R2 
and q2'   
 q1  q2    q1  q2  
 C1  C2   R1  R 2 

Ex a m p e 6 0
Two isolated spherical conductors have radii 10 cm and 20 cm respectively. They have
charges of 10 ø and 5 øC. Find the charges after they are connected by a conducting wire.
Also find the common potential after redistribution.
Solution :
+ +
+ + + + +

+ + +
+ +

+ + +
+ + +

+
v

+
+

v
R1 R2

+
+

+ +

+
+ + + + + + +
10 C 5 C q1' q 2'

Net charge = (10 5) øC = 5 øC

charge is distributed in the ratio of their capacities (or radii in caseof spherical conductors), i.e.,

q1' R1 10 1
  
q2' R 2 20 2

 1  5
 q1'     5   C
1  2 3

 2  10
and q2'     5  C
1  2 3

common potential V
q1  q2

5  106  
C1  C2 4  0  R1  R 2 

5  10   9  10 
6 9

=
15  10  2

= 30 104 volt Ans.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 103

Ex a m p e 6 1
An insulated conductor initially free from charge is charged by repeated contacts with a
plate which after each contact is replenished to a charge Q. If q is the charge on the
conductor after first operation prove that the maximum charge which can be given to the
Qq
conducor in this way is
Qq
Solution :
Let C1, be the capacity of plane and C2 that of the conductor. After first contact charge on
conductor is q. Therefore, charge on plate will remain Q q. As the charge redistributes in the ratio
of capacities.
Q  q C1
 ... (i)
q C2
Let qm be the maximum charge which can be given to the conductor. Then flow of charge from
the plate to the conductor will stop when,
Vconductor = Vplate

qm Q
 
C2 C1

C 
 qm   2  Q
 C1 
C2
Substituting C from Eq. (i), we get
1
Qq
qm  Proved
Qq

Ex a m p l e 6 2
A conducting sphere S1 of radius r is attached to an insulating handle. Another conducting
sphere S2 of radius R is mounted on an insulating stand S2 is initially unchrged. S1 is given
a charge Q brought into contact with S2 and removed. S1 is recharged such that the
charged on it is again Q and it is again brought into contact with S2 and removed. This
procedure is repeated n times :
(a) Find the electrostatic energy of S2 after n such contacts with S1.
(b) What is the limiting value of this energy as n   ?
Solution :
Capacities of conducting sphere are in the ratio of their radii. Let C1 and C2 be the capacities of
S1 and S2, then

C2 R

C1 r

ELECTROSTATICS
104 QUIZRR
(a) Charges are distributed in the ratio of their capacities. Let in the first contact, charge acquired by
S2 is q1. Therefore, charge on S1 will be Q q1.
q1 C R
  2 
Q  q1 C1 r
It implies that Q charge is to be distributed in S2 and S1 in the ratio of R/r.

 R 
 q1  Q  
R  r
In the second contact, S1 again acquires the same charge Q.
Therefore, total charge in S1 and S2 will be

 R 
Q  q1  Q  1  
 R  r

This charge is again distributed in the same ratio. Therefore, charge on S2 in second contact,

 R  R   R  R 
2
q2  Q  1 +  Q    
 R+ r  R  r R + r  R  r 
 

 R  R 
2
 R  
3

Similarly, q3  Q     ...   
R + r  R  r   R  r  


 R  R 
2
 R  
n
qn  Q     ...   
and R + r  R  r  R  r 
  

R  R
qn  Q 1  

n


 S  
a 1  rn  
 n
or r
 R  r  ... (i)



1  r  


Therefore, electrostatic energy of S2 after n such contacts

qn2 qn2
Un  
2C2 2  4  0 R 

qn2
or Un  Ans.
8 0 R

where qn can be written from Eq. (i)

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 105

n 1 
QR  R  R 
qn  1   ...    
(b) Rr R r as n  
 R  r 


 1 
QR   QR  R  r  R
q  1  R   . Q  a 
Rr   S  
 Rr Rr  r  r ;
 1  r
 
 

q2 Q2 R 2 / r 2
 U  
2C2 8 0 R

Q2 R
or U  Ans.
8 0 r 2

2 2 . CA PA CI T OR
When two conductor are placed at a small separation (close to each other), then this combination
is called capacitor.
+Q
Q Q  V
Q = CV
(C = capacitance)

2 2 .1 Fa c t o r s o n w h i c h c a p a c i t a n c e o f t h e a r ra n g e m e n t d e p e n d
(i) Shape and size of the conductor
(ii) Relation orientation of the conductor
(iii) The medium in which they are placed

(1) PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

When two conducting plates are placed parallel to each other at a small separation, then this
combination is called parallel plate capacitor.
+Q Q V = (V+ V )
= (Ed) [ E is constant]

 d   Qd 
=   
 0   0 A 

 Q  Q 0 A   0 A 
C   
d V Qd  d 
 0 A 
 capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor =  
 d 

ELECTROSTATICS
106 QUIZRR
2 2 .2 Ge n e r a l m e t h o d t o f i n d t h e c a p a c i t a n c e
Give charge Q, Q to each surface and then find the potential difference V between the

Q
surface and use C =  
V

(2) SPHERICAL CAPACITOR

When a hollow (or solid) spherical conductor is surrounded by another concentric hollow spherical
conductor, placed at a separation, then this combination represents a spherical capacitor.

a  

Q
(Va Vb) =   E. d r
+Q b

a b
 KQ 
(Va Vb) =    . dr
r2 
a

b
b
1 1 1
= KQ  KQ   
r a  a b

Qb  a
=
4  0 ab

Q 4 0 ab
 C 
 V  b  a
Cases :
(i) When b   i.e. the inner conductor is an isolated sphere, then

C = (4 0 a)

(ii) When d = (b a) << a, b

[i.e. the two conductors are nearly touching]

 4  0 a 2 
C 
 
4 a2 0   A 
 0 
 d  d  d 
 

then, this combination for d = b a << a, b behaves as a parallel plate capacitor.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 107

(3) CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR

When a hollow (or solid) cylindrical capacitor is surrounded by another cylindrical capacitor placed
coaxially, then this combination is called cylindrical capacitor.
Here (l >> a, b)
a 
(Va Vb) =   E. d r +Q Q
b

b

(Va Vb) =   2 0  r dr b a
a

 b
= ln  
2 0 a

 Q  L
C 
  Vab     ln  b 
   
 2 0   a 

2 0 L
C
  b
l n 
a

2 2 .3 Fo r c e b e t w e e n t h e p l a t e s o f a c a p a c i t o r
+Q Q
  
Electric field due to a single plate =  
 2 0 

 Q.Q  Q2
 Force on each plate =   
 20 A  2 0 A

d
2 2 .4 Po t e n t i a l En e r g y s t o r e d i n t h e c a p a c i t o r
Electrostatic potential energy is stored in the capacitor is the form of the electric field
                                   Wex = F(d)
+Q Q
Q2  1 Q2 
= 2  A   d   
0 2 C 

1 Q2 1 1
 Potential energy stored in the capacitor =  CV 2  QV
2 C 2 2
d

ELECTROSTATICS
108 QUIZRR

1
l When the capaitor is connected with a cell use CV 2
2

 1 Q2 
l When the charge on the capacitor is constant, use  2 C 
 

1 Q2
l When distance between the plates is increased Wex   d2  d1 
2 0 A

2 2 .5 En e r g y d e n s i t y b e t w e e n t h e c a p a c i t o r p l a t e s
Energy density = potential energy stored per unit volume

 U  1 Q2 d 1 Q2

=  Ad  2  A Ad 2
   0  0 A 2

1
 Energy density = 0 E2
2

Although, we have derived the expression for energy density in the capacitor, but is general this
is valid for energy density is electric field, that is the energy stored per unit volume is the electric field.

1
U= 0 E2
2

Using this we can calculate the self potential energy of a uniformly charged conducting sphere.


1
 2 0 E
2
U0 = dV
R

 2
1 KQ
U0 =  2 0  2 
 r 
 4r  dr
2

Ui=O

1 2 1
= K 0 Q2  2   2 dr
Rr
2

  KQ2 
1 1
= Q2  2   
162 0 r R  2R 

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 109

(ii) For a non-conducting sphere

 KQ 2 
Ui  0, U0 =  2R 
 

R 2
Ui 
1
 2 0
 r 
 
 30 
 4r  dr
2

2  4   R

= 92   r 4 dr
0 0

 
 Q 
 
and  = 4
 R 
3
3 

9Q 2 (4 )  R 5  KQ 2
    
(4 )2 R 6 18 0  5  10R

 KQ 2   KQ 2   3KQ2 
 UT = U 0  U i    
 2R   10R   5R 
     

2 2 .6 Se r ie s a n d p a r a l le l c o m b i n a t io n o f c a p a c i t o rs
(A) Series Combination
C1 C2 C3
V = (V1 + V2 + V3)

Q Q Q Q
  
Ceq  C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1 1
     ..... (Series combination)
Ceq C1 C2 C3 Cn

(In series combination, charge on each capacitor is constant). C1

Q1

(B) Parallel Combination C2

Q2
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
C3
Ceq V = C1V + C2V C3V Q3
 Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3

(In parallel, the voltage across each capacitor is constant).

ELECTROSTATICS
110 QUIZRR
Ex a m p l e 6 3

Find the equivalent capacitance of the following networks :

Solution :
(i) C EC C
A

C C C

B
F

Since the Chain repeats itself, let us assume after one link i.e. capacitance between E and F to
be x, then
Equivalent circuit diagram,
c E Then, Ceq between A and B will also be x as,
A
it is an infinite loop Hence
c x
C C  x
x
B
F
 2C  x
 x (2C + x) = C (C + x)
 x2 + Cx C2 = 0

 C  C2  4C2  5  1
x  C
2  2 
 
(ii) C mC m2C m3C
A

C mC m2C m3C

Consider the equivalent circuit of the given infinite series

Assume the capacitance between E and F be mx, then
C E
C  mn  C  A
x
 2C  mn  C mx
2
x (2 C + mx) = mCx + C
B
F
mx2 + (2C mc)x C2 = 0
Ceq between E and F is written as mx because if we take m common from all the values of
capacitance, the new circuit between E & F is same as the original circuit between A & B.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 111

Ex a m p l e 6 4
Find the value of Cx so that equivalent capacitance between A and B becomes independent
of the number of repeative links.
2c 2c 2c 2c
2c P
A

c c c c Cx

Q
Q
Solution :
For the equivalent capacitance to be independent of the number of links, the value of equivalent
capacitance between P and Q should be same as Cx.
Ceq(PQ) = Cx

 2C.Cx   C  Cx

 2C  C x 
 (2C.Cx) + C (2C + Cx) = Cx (2C + Cx)

 C2x Cx C 2C2 = 0

1  9 
 Cx = C  
 2 
Cx = (2C)

Ex a m p l e 6 5
Find the equivalent capacitance of the given arrangement of spherical
capacitors,
(i) When inner is given a charge Q and outer is earthed,
(ii) When inner is earthed and the outer is given a charge Q. a
b

Solution :
(i) The outer surface of the outer sphere will have no charge (Vouter = 0) Q
+Q
Now this combination behaves as a singe spherical capacitor

4  0 ab
C
b  a

ELECTROSTATICS
112 QUIZRR
(ii) When inner is earthed
Vinner = 0
q (Q+q)
+q  Kq   KQ 
 a  b 0
   

 Qa 
q 
 b 
b   b
  Qa   1 
 Vab    E. d r    K     dr
a a  b r

b
 Qa  1  KQa   b  a 
=  K    
 b  ra  b   ab 

 Q  b2  4  0  4  0 b2
 C =   
 Vab  b  a b  a

2nd m et hod :
In the above arrangement, we have two capacitors in parallel arrangement, the inner shell and
inner surface of the outer capacitor and the outer surface of the outer sphere.

4  0  ab
 Ceq =  4  0 b
b  a
 ab  b  b  a  
= 4  0  
  b  a  

4  0 b2
=
b  a

3rd m et hod :
Write the individual potential of each surface
Vinner = 0

 Kq   KQ 
Vouter =   
 b   b 

 K  Qa  Qa 
=    Q q = 
b b  b 

KQ
=  b  a  
b2

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 113

KQ
             V = b  a
b2

2
 Q  4  0 b
 C =  
 V   b  a 

Ex a m p l e 6 6
Find the equivalent capacitance of the given arrangement.
+Q Q

a d b

O O´
d >>(b,a)

Solution :
Let V+ be the potential of sphere centred at 0 and V be the potential of shere centred at 0´.
 KQ   KQ 
 V+ =   
 a   d 

  KQ   KQ 
V =   
 b   d 
                            V = V+ V

 KQ KQ   2KQ 
=   
 a b   d 

1 1 2 
= KQ    
a b d 

 Q  4 C0
C  1 1 2
  V     
 a b d 

Ex a m p l e 6 7 a + – a

Two long cyindrical wires each of cross section radius

a are separated by distance b (>> d ). Find the r
capacitance per unit length of the system. b

b–r

ELECTROSTATICS
114 QUIZRR
Solution :
Consider +  and  charge density on each. Find the expression for electric field and then

Use V =   E.dr

Let us Calculate electric field at a distance r from centre of cylindrical wire of charge density +.
Then the net electric field is given by :
 
E 
2 0 r 2 0  b  r 

  1  1 
= 2    
0  r  b  r 

 b a 
 1 1 
 V =  2 0
 
 r b 
 dr
r
a

  b a   b a  
  1 1 
= 2    r dr   b  r
0
 a a 

   b a   a 
= 2   ln    ln  
0   a   ab  a 

   b  a 
ln  
 0   a 
=

 l   0 l 0 l
 C=     b  a 
 V  ln  b  a  ln  b 
   
 a  a

Ex a m p l e 6 8
A long cylindrical wire of radius a is placed at a distance b from an infinite large plane
sheet. Find the equivalent capacitance of the given arrangement.

+ –

a a

b b

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 115

Soution :
Whenever we en counter an infinite large place sheet along with another conductor, we assume
a similar distance placed conductor on the opposite side (just as a mirror image about the
sheet) with opposite charged. This is called image method.
Using the image method we obtain the image of the long wire in infinite plane sheet.

 
E 
2 0 r 2 0  2b  r  [Note the distance is 2b]

 1 1 

2 0  r 2br 
=

b
 1 1 
         V =  2 0  
 r 2b 
.dr [Note again the limits put as the real potential to be
r
a
calculated is upto the Large plane sheet.]

   b  b 
=
2 0  ln  a   ln  2b  a 
    

   b 2b  a 
=
2 0 ln  a  b 
  

2 0
C
  2b  a 
ln  
 a 

Ex a m p l e 6 9
Find the equivalent capacitance in the given arrangement.
(i) 2
P
1 A 1
2 A P 3 B
B
3  C   3C 
C eq  C      
2  2 

(ii)

A
A P B

B
 2C2   2C 
Ceq   
 3C   3 
 
ELECTROSTATICS
116 QUIZRR
1
A
P 2 2
(iii)
3 1
B A P 3 B
4
4

 2C   5C 
C eq    C 
 3   3 

1 P
A 1
(iv) P 2 4
3d Q 3
A B
4 Q 5
B 2
5
Q

C C
Ceq      C
2 2

{Please refer to the videoÊs for more explanation}

2 2 .7 Wh e a t st o n e ’s b r i d g e c i r c u i t s E
C1 C3
If  , bridge is said to be balanced and in that case C1 C2
C2 C4
VE = VD or VE VD or VED = 0 A B
C5
i.e., no charge is stored in C5. Hence, it
can be removed from the circuit. C3 C4
D

By dist ribut ing c harge

Sometimes the above methods is not applicable. So this method can be applied everywhere. Of
course this method is a little bit lengthy but is applicable everywhere, under all conditions. In this
method we assume a charge q. Distribute it in different capacitors as q1, q2, .... etc. Using KirchhoffÊs
laws we find through any path and equate it with q/Cnet. By doing so we can calculate Cnet. Following
example is in support of the thoery.

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 117

Ex a m p l e 7 0
Find the equivalent capacitance between A and B.
C 2C

A 2C B

2C C
Solution :
The given circuit forms a Wheatstone bridge. But the bridge is not balanced. Let us suppose point
A is connected to the positive terminal of a battery and B to the negative terminal of the same battery;
so that a total charge q is stored in the capacitors. Just by seeing input and output symmetry we can
say that charges will be distributed as shown below.
q
C 2

+ +
q1 2C
A 2C
B
q3
2C C
+
+
q q1
2

Applying kirchoffÊs second law, we have

q1 + q2 = q ... (i)

q1 q q
  3  2 0
C 2C 2C
or q2 q3 2q1 = 0 ... (ii)
Plates inside the dotted line form an isolated system. Hence,
q2 + q3 q1 = 0 ... (iii)
2 3 q
Solving these three equations, we have q1  q, q2  q and q3  
5 5 5
Now, let Ceq be the equivalent capacitance between A and B. Then,
q q q
VA  VB   1  2
Ceq C 2C

q 2q 3q 7q
   
Ceq 5C 10C 10C

10
 C eq  C
7

ELECTROSTATICS
118 QUIZRR
2 3. EFFECT OF DI ELECT RI C
Michel Faraday found that when certain non-conducting materials such as glass, paper or plastic
are introduced between the plates of a capacitor, its capacity increases. These materials are called
dielectrics and the ratio of capacity of a capacitor when completely filled with dielectric C to that
C
without dielectric C0 is called dielectric constant K, relative permitivity r = C
0
Note : Regarding dielectrics, it is worth nothing that :
(i) These are non-conductors upto a certain value of field depending on its nature. If the field
exceeds this limiting value called dielectric-strength, dielectric lose its insulating property
and begins to conduct.
(ii) These have either permanent dipole moment (polar-dielectrics, e.g., water) or acquire
induced dipole moment (non-polar dielectrics) when placed in an electric field.
(iii) The dielectric constant of polar dielectric depends on its temperature and due to thermal
agitation with rise in temperature decreases.
The effect of dielectric on other physical quantities such as charge, PD, field and energy associated
with a capacitor depends on the fact that whether the charged capacitor is isolated (i.e., charge is held
constant).
So if q0, C0, V0, E0 and U0 represent the charge, capacity, PD, electric field and energy associated
with charged air capacitor respectively, with introduction of a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K
between the plates.
qo q

K
C0, V0, E0, U0 C, V, E, U

(A) (B)

(a) If charge is held constant, i.e., battery disconnected

(1) Charge remains unchanged, i.e., q = q0, as in isolated system charge is conserved.
(2) Capacity increases, i.e., C = KC0, as by presence of a dielectric capacity becomes K times.

q q
(3) PD between the plates decreases, i.e., V = (V0/K) as V   0 [as q = q and C = KC ]
C KC0 0 0

(4) Field between the plates decreases, i.e. E = (E0/K), as

V V0 E0  V0 V0 
E   as V  K and E0  d 
d Kd K  

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 119

(5) Energy stored in the capacitor decreases, i.e., U = (U0/K), as

q2 q02 U
U   0 [as q = q0 and C = KC0 ]
2C 2KC0 K
qo q

C0, V0, E0, U0 K

C, V, E, U

(A) (B)

(b) If potential is held constant, i.e. battery remains attached

(1) PD remains constant, i.e., V = V0, as battery is a source of constant potential difference.
(2) Capacity increases, i.e., C = KC0, as by presence of a dielectric capacity becomes K times.

(3) Charge on capacitor increases, i.e. q = Kq0 as, q  CV = (KC0 )V  Kq0 {as q0  CV0 }

(4) Electric field remains unchanged, i.e., E = E0 as,

V V  V0 
E     0  E0 as V = V0 and  E0 
d d  d 

(5) Energy stored in the capacitor increases, i.e., U = KU0 as, U = 1 CV 2  1 (KC0 ) (V0 )2
2 2

1 1 2
 KU 0 [as C = KC0 and U 0  C0 V0 ]
2 2

Note : While solving problems of this type proceed in the following steps :
(i) If battery is disconnected q´ = q and if battery remains attached V´ = V
(ii) For a capacitor as C = (0 KA/d), find whether C´ is greater or lesser than C in accordance
with given problem (as C depends on K, A and d only)
(iii) Now using q´ = C´V´ and points (1) and (2), find q´ if V´ is given and V´ if q´ is given.
(iv) To calculate E´ use the formula :

V' q' '

E' = or [as E' = ] as the case may be
d' AK0 

(v) To calculate U´ use the formula : U'= 1 q ' V'= 1 C'(V') 2  (q ')2 / 2C' as the case may be
2 2
(vi) To calculate W apply conservation of energy i.e., WIF = (UF UI)

ELECTROSTATICS
120 QUIZRR

2 3 .1 Ca p a c i t o rs w it h m o r e t h a n o n e Di e l e c t ri c s l a b s :
(I) A parallel plate capacitor contains two dielectric slabs of thickness d 1, d 2 and dielectric constants
k1 & k2 respectively. The area of the capacitor plates and slabs is equal to A.
Considering the capacitor as a combination of two capacitors in series, the equivalent capacitance
C is given by :

1 1 1
 
C C1 C2

1 d1 d2
 
C k1 0 A k2 0 A
K1 d1

0 A K2 d2
C=
d1 d2

k1 k2

In general for more than one dielectric slab :

0 A
C= d
 kii
If V is the potential difference across the plates, the electric fields in the dielectrics are given as :

 
 
E1 
V1

Q

CV  use C1 = k1 0 A and C = A 0 
d1 C1 d1 C1 d1  d1 d1 d2 
  
 K1 K 2 
1 V 1 V
E1  E2 
d1 d2  k1  d1 d2  k2 
 
k1 k2 k1 k2
Note : k1 E1  k2 E2 and E1 d1  E2 d2  V

(II) If there exists a dielectric slab of thickness t inside a capacitor whose plates are separated by
distance d, the equivalent capacitor is given as :

0 A
C=
t dt (K = 1 for vacuum)

K 1
Vacuum
d
0 A K t
C=
t
dt
K

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 121

The equivalent capacitance is not affected by changing the distance of slab from the parallel
Plates.
If the slab is of metal the equivalent capacitance is :

0 A
C= (for a metal, K =  )
d-t

(III) Consider a capacitor with two dielectric slabs of same thickness d placed inside it as shown. The
slabs have dielectric constant k1 & k2 and areas A1 & A2 respectively. Treating the combination
as two capacitors in parallel,
C = C1 + C2

k1 0 A1 k2 0 A 2
C= 
d d d K1 K2
0
C= [ k1 A1  k2 A 2 ]
d

Ex a m p l e 7 1
The plates of the capacitor formed by inserting four-dielectric slabs (as shown) have an area
equal to S. Find the equivalent capacitance between A and B if K1 = 2K2 = K3 = K4 = 5.
A
1/4 1/4 1/2

K3C3 d/2
K1C1 K2C2
K4C4 d/2

Solution :
Consider the capacitor as a parallel combination of C1 and C2 and series combination of C3 and
C4 Equivalent Capacitance = C1 + C2 + C3C4/C3 + C4

0  S S 0S/2
 C =  k1  k2   d / 2 d / 2
d 4 4

k3 k4

ELECTROSTATICS
122 QUIZRR
Ex a m p l e 7 2
Two metal plates form a parallel plate capacitor. The distance between the plates is d. A
metal plate of thickness b (= d/2) and same area is inserted completely between the plates.
What is the ratio of the capacitance in the two cases ?
Solution :
Before the introduction of the slab the capacity of the system

q q
C0   [as E = (V/d)]
V (Ed)

A  A  
or, C0   0 as q  A and E =  ...(1)
(/0 ) d d  0 

When the metal slab of thickness b is introduced between the plates, the system becomes equal
to two capacitors C1 and C2 in series (as metal slab is an equipotential surface) as shown in (B).

V V
C1 d-b-y
d V´
b Metal
V´
y C2 y
O O

(A) (B)

So the capacity C of the system now becomes

1 1 1 1 ( d  b  y) y  0 A 
  , i.e.,    as C = d 
C C1 C2 C 0 A 0 A  

1 (d  b) 0 A
or,  , i.e., C= ...(2)
C 0 A ( d  b)

But as here b = (d/2)

0 A  A C
C=  2 0  2C0 . i.e., 2 Ans.
(d /2) d C0

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 123

Ex a m p l e 7 3
How does the charge, capacity, potential, field and energy associated with a capacitor
change qualitatively when the separation between its plates is increased (a) with battery
disconnected (b) with battery attached.
Solution :
(a) When battery is disconnected.

q0 q

d C0, V0, E0, U0 (d+y) C, V, E, U

(A) (B)

In this situation :
(1) Charge remains unchanged, i.e., q = q0 as charge in an isolated system is conserved.
(2) Capacity decreases, i.e., C < C0 as C  (1/d).
(3) PD increases, i.e. V > V0 as q = CV and for constant q, V  (1/C).
(4) Electric field remains constant, i.e., E = E0 as E = / = 0/ = constant.
(5) Energy stored increases, i.e., U > U0 as U = 1/2qV, i.e., U  V for constant q.

(b) When battery is attached.

q0 q

d C0, V0, E0, U0 (d+y) C, V, E, U

(A) (B)

(1) PD across the capacitor remains constant, i.e. V = V0 as battery is a source of constant emf.
(2) Capacity decreases, i.e., C < C0 as C  (1/d).
(3) Charge on the capacitor decreases, i.e., q < q0 as q = CV, i.e., q  C (for constant V.
(4) Electric field between the plates decreases, E < E0 as E = (V/d), i.e., E  (1/d) for constant V.

1
(5) Energy stored in the capacitor decreases, i.e., U < U0 as U = qV, i.e., U  q for constant V.
2

ELECTROSTATICS
124 QUIZRR
M I SCEL L A N EOU S EX A M PL ES

Ex a m p l e 1
A point charge q is placed on the top of a cone of semi vertex angle . Show that the
q  1  cos  
electric flux through the base of the cone is
2 0
How to Proceed : This problem can be solved by the method of symmetry. Consider a Gaussian
surface, a sphere with its centre at the top and radius the slant length of the cone. The flux through
the whole sphere is q/0. Therefore, the flux through the base of the cone can be calculated by using
the following formula,
 S  q
e   .
 S0  0
Here, S0 = area of whole sphere
and S = area of sphere below the base of the cone
Solution : Let R = slant length of cone = radius of Gaussian sphere
 S 0 = area of whole sphere = (4R2)
Cq
S = area of sphere below the base of the cone
R
= 2R2 (1 cos )
A B
 S  q
 The desired flux is, e   .
 S0  0

 2R  1  cos  . q
2

q 1  cos  
=
 4R  
2
0 2 0 Proved

Note : S = 2R2 (1 cos ) can be calculated by integration.

At  = 0 , S = 2R2 (1 cos 0 ) = 0
 = 90 , S = 2R2 (1 cos 90 ) = 2R2
and  = 180 , S = 2R2 (1 cos 180 ) = 4R2
Proof : dS = (2r) Rd
= (2R sin ) Rd as r = R sin 
r
= (2R2) sin  d Rd

d


  2R  sin  d
2
 S = R
0 c

 S = 2R2 (1 cos )

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 125

Ex a m p l e 2
A point charge q is fixed at the origin. Calculate the electric flux through the infinite
plane z = a .
Solution :
Consider a ring of radius r on the plane z = a. The E
thickness of ring is dr. Electric field on the ring due to
r
charge q is, z=a
dr
1 1
E .
4  0 r  a2
2
  a
r2 + a2
Z
Area of the ring dS = (2r).dr y

a x
cos  = 2 2 q
r a

 Flux passing through the ring,

1 q a
d e  E dS cos   . 2 .  2r dr  .
4  0 r  a 2
r  a2
2

q ar dr

2 0
r 
3/2
2
 a2

 Total flux passing through the plane,

 
qa rdr
 e   d e  
2 0
r 
3/2
2
0 0  a2

q
or e 
2 0

Ex a m p l e 3
B C
Is the configuration of an electrostatic field shown in figure
is possible.

A D

ELECTROSTATICS
126 QUIZRR
Solution :
No, it is not possible. To prove it, suppose we take a closed path ABCDA in the electric field, the
line integral over this path should be zero.
 
 E. dl  0
Because this quantity represents VP VP, where P is any point on the path and VP VP is
obviously zero.
 
Along the path AB and CD the line integral of electric field is zero. Since, E  dl and
B  D 
 E. dl   E. dl  0
A C

C  A 
 
Thus, for  E. dl  0,  E. dl should be equal to   E. dl
B D

 
But since, lines are closer along BC, i.e., EBC  E DA

C  A 
  E. dl    E. dl
B D

 
or  E. dl  0
Thus, such a configuration of an electrostatic field shown in figure canÊt be realised in practice.

Ex a m p l e 4
A solid conducting sphere A with a radius R1 = 6 cm has an initial electrostatic potential
V0 = 30 kV relative to ground. Sphere A is then symmetrically surrounded by two conducting
and initially neutral hemispheres B1 and B2. In this way a sphere B with inner radius
R2 = 10 cm and outer radius R3 = 12 cm is formed.
(a) What is the net charge on sphere A ?
(b) What are the charges induced on the inner and outer surface of sphere B ?
(c) What are the electric potentials of spheres A and B ?
(d) What are the electric fields at the surface of sphere A and at the inner and outer
surfaces of sphere B ?
(e) Draw separate graphs of the electric potential and the electric fields as a function
of distance x from the centre of the system.
(f) How would the charge be distributed if the spheres A and B were connected by
a conducting wire ?

ELECTROSTATICS
 QUIZRR 127

1 q
Solution : (a) V0  . 1
4 0 R1

A B1
V0 R1 R1 O
q1  B2
 1 
   R2
 4 0  R3

30  10   6  10 
3 2

=
 9.0  10  9

7
= 2.0 10 C = 0.2 øC Ans.
(b) Charges induced on inner side of B = q1 = 0.2 øC and on outer side of B = q1 = 0.2 øC
Ans.

1  q1 q q 
(c) VA    2  3
4 0  R1 R 2 R 3 

q1  1 1 1 
=    
4 0  R1 R 2 R 3 
Substituting the values,


VA  0.2  106   9.0  10 10   16  101  121 
9 2

= 2.7 104 volt

= 27 kV Ans.

VB 
1  q1 


9.0 109 0.2  106 
 15 kV

  Ans.
4 0  R 3  12  10 2
(d) Electric field at the surface of sphere A,

E1 
1
.
q1


9.0  109 0.2 10 6 
 5  105 V/m

40 R12
 
2
2
6  10

= 0.5 MV/m Ans.

Electric field at the inner side of sphere B,

2 2
 1  q1  R1   6 
E2    2  E1     0.5   
 4 0  R 2  R2   10 

= 0.18 MV/m Ans.

ELECTROSTATICS
128 QUIZRR
Electric field at the outer side of sphere B,

2 2
 1  q1  R1   6 
E3    2  E1     0.5   
 4 0  R 3  R3   12 

= 0.125 MV/m Ans.

(e) V(KV) E(kV/m)

27 500
180
15 125

O 0.06 0.10 0.12 x(m) 0.06 0.10 0.12 X(m)

(f) When the two spheres are brought in contact, then all of the charge q1 transfers to the
outer sphere B.

Ex a m p l e 5
A thick metallic shell of inner radius a and outer radius b has a charge q 1 on it. A point
charge q 2 is fixed at the centre of the shell. Calculate the charge on each surface of the
shell and also potential and field everywhere.
Solution :
The charges on inner and outer surfaces of the shell are as shown in figure. Field lines starting from
q2 terminates on the inner surface of the shell. The field at external points (r  b) is the same as that
due to a point charge (q1 + q2) at the centre, i.e.

 q1  q2 
E  r  b 
4 0 r 2 +(q1 + q2 )

Within the thickness of the shell the field is zero.

E (a < r < b) = 0 q1
b q
The field at points r < a is due to charge q2 only. Hence, a 2

q2
Er  a 
4 0 r 2

q1  q2
Similarly, V  r  b 
4 0 r

1  q1  q2 q2 q2 
V r  a     
4 0  b a r 

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 QUIZRR 129

1  q1  q2 
From r = b to r = a the potential is uniform and has the value,
4 0 b
Figure shows the variation of V (r) and E (r)

E V

O a b r O a b r

Ex a m p l e 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Three identical metallic plates are kept parallel to one another at a
separation of a and b. The outer plates are connected by a thin
conducting wire and a charge Q is placed on the central plate. Find
final charges on all the six plateÊs surfaces. a b

Solution : Q
q2 q1 (Q q 1)
Let the charge distribution in all the six faces be as shown in figure. q1 q3
While distributing the charge on different faces, we have used the fact that
two opposite faces have equal and opposite charges on them. (q 1 Q)
E1
Net charge on plates A and C is zero. Hence, E2
q2 q1 + q3 + q1 Q = 0
a b
or q2 + q3 = Q ...... (i)
Further A and C are at same potentials.
Hence,
VB VA = VB VC or E1a =E2b

q1 Q  q1
 .a  .b (A = Area of plates)
A0 A0

Qb
 q1a = (Q q1) b  q1  ... (ii)
ab

Electric field inside any conducting plate (say inside C) is zero. Therefore,

q2 q1 q1 Q  q1 q1  Q q3
     0
2A0 2A0 2A0 2A0 2A0 2A0
 q2 q3 = 0 ... (iii)

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130 QUIZRR

Qb Q
Solving these three equations, we get q1  a b , q2  q3 
 2
Hence, charge on different faces are as follows.
Face Charge

Q
1 q2 
2
Qb
2  q1  
ab
Qb
3 q1 
ab
Qa
4 Q  q1 
ab
Qa
5 q1  Q  
ab
Q
6 q3 
2

Ex a m p l e 7
Find the field intensity and potential due to a uniformly charged rod with charge per unit
length  and length l at a distance d on the perpendicular bisector and along its length.
Solution :
(a) At a distance d on the perpendicular bisector from the centre horizontal component of E will cancel
each other
dEy = dE cos  dE dE
K  dx
= cos 
r
d
l / 2 x dx
 E  d E cos  x-axis
l / 2 dx
y-axis
l / 2
K  dx d
 
=
l / 2 x 2
d 2
 x2  d 2

l/2
dx

= K  d
x 
3/ 2
2
l / 2  d2

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 QUIZRR 131

l/2
Kd  x 
 K 2l
= 
2  2 d
d 2
l2  4 d 2
 x  d  l / 2

 2l
= 4  0 d
l  4 d2
2

 l
E
2 0 d l2  4 d 2

(b) At an axial point

K  dx d
dE 
 d  x2
x
l/2
dx
 E  K  dx
P
l / 2  d  x
2

l/2
1  d  l / 2   d  l / 2
K  K
=   x
d  l l
l / 2 d   d  
 2  2

4Kl 4Kl    l
  
=
4d 2
l 2
 4d 2
l 2
     2
0  4d  l
2

Ex a m p l e 8
Two conductors carrying equal and opposite charges create a non-uniform field as shown
in fig. What is the capacity of this capacitor if the field along y-asix varies as ?

Q
B
y
d

+Q x
A

Q
E = [1  By2 ] with B = constant.
0 A

Solution : As by definition E ELECTROSTATICS

= (dV/dr)
132 QUIZRR

dV Q 2
 =  [1  By ]
dy 0 A

VB Q d
or, 
VA
dV =
0 A 0
(1  By2 ) dy

Q  1 
d  Bd 3 
0 A 
or, VA VB =
3 

Qd  1 
1  Bd 2 
0 A 
or, V =
3 

Q 0 A
So, C = 
V  1 
d 1  Bd 2 
 3 

Note that this capacity is lesser than that of a parallel plate capacitor [i.e., C = (0A/d)] which has
uniform field between the plates.

Ex a m p l e 9
A parallel plate capacitor has the space between the plates filled with a medium whose
dielectric constant increases uniformly with distance. If d is the distance between the
plates and K1 and K2 are the dielectric constant of the medium at the two plates (square
each of area A) respectively show that the capacity of the capacitor.

 0 A(K 2  K1 )
C=
d log e (K 2 / K 1 )
Solution : As dielectric constant varies uniformly with distance :

dK
 b  const, i.e., K = a + bx
dx
But as for x = 0, K = K1 and for x = d, K = K2, i.e., a = K1 and b = (K2 K1)/d
So, K = K1 + bx with b = (K2 K1)/d

V1 V1
K1 x dx
x
d d K1 K2
K2 dx
V2 V2
L L
(A) (B)

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 QUIZRR 133

  
And hence, E=  
 0 K 0 (K1  bx)

dV   dV 
or,   as E   dx 
dx 0 (K 1  bx)  

V2  d dx
or,  dV  0 ( K1  bx)
V1 0

 d
i.e., V1 V2 = [log e ( K1  bx)]
0 b 0

Q  Q
or, V [log e (K1  bd)  log e K1 ] as  = A 
0 Ab  

Qd   K2    (K 2  K1 ) 
or, V  log e    as b = 
0 A(K 2  K1 )   K1    d 

Q  A( K 2  K1 )
or, C =  0 Ans.
V d log e ( K2 / K1 )

Note : In this problem if the dielectric constant increases at a uniform rate from one edge to
the other (so that the value of K at the two edges are K1 and K2 respectively [fig.(b)],
the capacitor may be supposed to be constituted of large number of elemental capacitors
connected in parallel. In this situation if we consider an elemental capacitor of width dx
at distance x from the edge having dielectric constant K1 :

0 ( K1  bx)( L ' dx)  

0KA
dC  as C = 
d  d 

So, on integrating

0 L' L  LL' 1
C=
d 0
(K1  bx)  0
d
[ K1  bL]
2

0 A  K1  K 2   K 2  K1 
C= as LL' = A and b =
d   
or,
2   L 

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