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Guitar composer Leo Brouwer: The concept of a 'universal language'

Article · July 2008

DOI: 10.1017/S004029820800017X

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 30 Tempo 62 (245) 30–46 © 2008 Cambridge University Press
doi:10.1017/S004029820800017X Printed in the United Kingdom

guitar composer leo brouwer:

Leo Brouwer giving a masterclass, 2007 (photo: Isabelle

the concept of a ‘universal

language’
Hernández, courtesy Oficina Leo Brouwer)

Clive Kronenberg

In the realm of art music, Leo Brouwer (1939-) is widely considered

as the most significant living composer for the guitar.1 Since the latter
part of the 20th century, students of the guitar at most, if not all, recog-
nized music institutions have increasingly sought to perform Brouwer’s
works. Correspondingly, at the South African College of Music
(University of Cape Town) respected instructors like Elspeth Jack,
Neefa van der Schyff, and others, have over many years consistently
and devotedly incorporated Brouwer’s guitar literature into their
teaching programmes. Cape Town’s prized composer-conductor Alan
Stephenson has similarly developed a keen interest in Brouwer’s large-
scale works, inspiring in 1998 a memorable rendition of Brouwer’s
acclaimed Elegiaco Concerto, performed by the talented soloist Christiaan
Van der Vyver and the University of Cape Town Orchestra. In line with
this, one of Brouwer’s underlying goals has been to create works that
are accessible to players of varying standards of performance. As a con-
sequence, young, inexperienced, moderate, advanced as well as top
internationally-acclaimed virtuosic players have all found some meas-
ure of contentment in performing Brouwer’s guitar works.
In his home country, Cuba, Leo Brouwer has gained additional
distinction as writer, principal conductor, leading advisor to the coun-
try’s culture ministry, composer of numerous film scores, operas and
large-scale orchestral works, director of national arts festivals, and
Distinguished Professor of musical theory.2 In 1980 Brouwer was
appointed as Cuba’s Representative to UNESCO’s Caribbean section.
This achievement was crowned in 1987 with his being named a ‘Member
of Honour’ of UNESCO – a rare accomplishment only bestowed upon
an elite group of international artists such as Herbert von Karajan, Isaac
Stern, Joan Sutherland, Yehudi Menuhin and Ravi Shankar.3
One of the larger islands of the Caribbean and a former outpost of
Spanish colonial rule, Cuba served from the 16th until the 19th century
as destination for hundreds of thousands of African subjects brought
there through the slave trade. Hence, modern Cuban culture and arts by
and large portray strong influences rooted in both Spanish and African
cultural traditions, a phenomenon likewise embodied in Brouwer’s
creative output.4 An inspection of the composer’s guitar works, espe-

1
See Walters 1984; Suzuki 1988; Augustine 1988; Cooper C 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1996; Mc
Kenna 1986, 1987, 1988a & 1988b. A full Bibliography will be found at the end of the article.
2
Kronenberg 2005a, Havana Field Research: hereafter referred to as K-HFR. Field research
was conducted in Havana, Cuba during March 2005 as part of the author’s doctoral studies.
3
McKenna 1988b, 10.
4
Besides the presence of elements from the flamenco guitar in Brouwer’s works, the Spanish
influence in his works generally is more acquiescent, illustrating rather trends from the
European art music tradition as a whole.
guitar composer leo brouwer: the concept of a ‘universal language’ 31

cially, reveals the presence of elements of African sacramental song

and ritual music, features he regards as ‘something absolutely abstract’
and ‘fundamental’ that can ‘only be distinguished in the deepest way’.5
Notwithstanding the customary presence of such traditional elements
in his works, Brouwer’s artistic goal, however, has been to create univer-
sal art forms. This goal he has sought to realize by cultivating in-depth
awareness and knowledge of advanced compositional techniques,
styles, and formal structures prevalent in art-music traditions from
beyond his national boundaries.
Due to the isolation and subsequent obscurity of his country of birth,6
for many years Leo Brouwer has not received widespread recognition in
Western musicological circles. It is over the last two decades or so that
guitar magazines in the English-speaking world like Classical Guitar and
Guitar Review provided more detailed background information of both
the artist and his works.7 Paul Century and Dean Suzuki’s early schol-
arly efforts, especially, initiated in-depth analyses of Brouwer’s solo
guitar literature in the English-speaking world. A significant aim of the
present article, which draws mainly on findings of the author’s masters’
study,8 is to present a preliminary, yet broad musicological framework
that offers insight into Leo Brouwer’s artistic development and goals,
his broader cultural milieu, as well as works for solo guitar.9 It is trusted
this approach will both launch further interest in, and enhance exist-
ing awareness of, a universally-acclaimed yet still somewhat secluded
creative figure. I draw attention to, on the one hand, the presence of
traditional African features in Brouwer’s works, and on the other, the
composer’s use of contemporary compositional techniques: aspects
which, I would argue, collectively constitute his conception of a univer-
sal musical language.

artistic development
Leo Brouwer was born in 1939 in Havana, the capital city of Cuba, and
emanates from humble circumstances. His somewhat atypical Cuban
surname stems from his grandfather, who was of Dutch origin, but had
lived most of his life in the country. In contrast to many outstanding art-
ists, in his early childhood Brouwer had little or no exposure to a fertile
cultural environment. As he indicates, ‘in my early years I had no con-
tact with paintings or painters or music’.
He was too young at the time to fully understand this, but later in
his life he came to realise that the social conditions of the era were not
conducive to the cultural growth of the country. The dictatorial rule
of the time caused much of the ‘mutilation of the Cuban roots of cul-

5
Mc Kenna 1988b, 10–16.
6
Cuba’s socialist political system and the ensuing nationalization since the early 1960s of
American-controlled industries, resulted in the US imposing an economic blockade of the
island. This measure has been strictly enforced by a succession of US administrations until
the present day.
7
In the scholarly domain academics such as Paul Century, Dean Suzuki, Constance Mc
Kenna, Roberto Pincirolli, and more recently Marie-Madeleine Doherty, Arun Sethi and
Kim Tran, have embarked on large-scale research projects concerned with Brouwer as artist,
his broader cultural domain, and works for guitar.
8
Kronenberg 2000 Masters Dissertation, ‘Cuban artist Leo Brouwer and his solo guitar
works – from Pieza sin titulo to Elogio de la danza: a contextual-analytical study’, University
of Cape Town. The study contains data collected from (1) personal interviews and general
discussions with Brouwer and (2) his composition lectures at the 1998 Nürtingen Guitar
Festival, Germany. These are designated here as K-NGF 1998. Unless otherwise noted, all
quotations in this article are from these encounters.
9
While works from the mid-1950s to the late 1990s are discussed, the article parricularly
focusses on and analyses the composer’s first period style works (1956–1964).
32 tempo

ture, Cuban painters, writers and musicians’, he notes.10 When he was

about nine years old he was ‘deeply touched’ by Yoruban ritual music,
the West African religious tradition that over time became an integral
part of the island’s national heritage. This experience stayed with him
throughout his life, influencing the character of most of the works he
would compose and gain fame for later in his life.11
From the age of about 12, Brouwer started informal guitar lessons
with his father, an admirer and amateur player of the music of Villa-
Lobos, Tárrega and Granados, among others. Through his father’s
inspiration he became skilled at playing the guitar by ear. Within sev-
eral months the young, yet gifted, learner could count among his first
performing works Chôros and Preludes, some of Villa Lobos’s most
memorable contributions to guitar repertoire. So intense was his con-
centration that some years later Brouwer could still perform these
and other works, near-perfect as written, without ever having seen the
scores. During this time Brouwer also became strongly attracted to the
flamenco guitar, contemplating rather to pursue this playing style on the
instrument. After his initial learning episode with his father, Brouwer,
then aged about 14, went on to receive his only formal guitar instruction
from Cuba’s noted guitar master, Isaac Nicola (1916–1998).
Nicola stemmed from an established artistic environment where the
classical guitar in particular occupied a central place. This renowned
instructor could offer his student much authentic knowledge, as his
own training was rooted in the Aguado-Tárrega Spanish guitar schools.
Through Nicola’s influence Brouwer was exposed to Renaissance and
Baroque music for the first time,12 styles that Emilio Pujol – Tarrega’s
heir and most prominent student – sought to bring into the guitar fold
during his lifetime. Nicola’s tutorship introduced Brouwer, for the first
time also, to some of the major guitar works from the 19th century.
‘Overwhelmed’ by these novel musical idioms, Brouwer was prompted
to ‘abandon’ the flamenco playing style and entirely devote himself to the
concert guitar.13 Some years later the mature Brouwer affirmed, ‘these
revelations that Nicola gave me were my future. My dream!’14
After remaining with Nicola for about two years, Brouwer succeeded
in mastering a sizeable portion of the existing guitar repertoire, a rare
accomplishment by all standards that customarily requires all but a
decade of rigorous training. The youthful artist also acquainted him-
self with detailed knowledge of the piano, double bass, cello, clarinet,
flute and various brass instruments. This wide acquaintance stood him
in good stead when he later started to compose for orchestra, chamber
ensembles, and solo instruments other than the guitar.
It was in effect the mastering of the guitar that led the then 16-year-
old to perceive that historically great composers had hardly considered
the guitar in their works. He reasoned that since they did not compose
for the guitar, he himself would fill those openings:

10
Like many territories of the Caribbean and Latin America, during the 20th century Cuba
was governed by a hugely oppressive dictatorship (see Walterio 1961; Nicole 1965; Fagan
1969; Wright 1991).
11
Extracts following are, with editorial changes, from Kronenberg 2004, Guitarra Mazazine,
Issue 15, 2004.
12
The positive impact of these styles is present in Brouwer’s solo guitar works Pieza sin titulo,
Preludio and Tres Apuntes (see Kronenberg 2000).
13
The influence and thus, character features of the flamenco guitar are present in some of
Brouwer’s works; notable examples are Tres apuntes and Elogio de la danza (see Kronenberg
2000).
14
Dausend 1990, 10.
guitar composer leo brouwer: the concept of a ‘universal language’ 33

[after] learning the so-called great repertoire, the grand repertoire … I realized
that there were a lot of gaps. We didn’t have L’Histoire du Soldat by Stravinsky,
we didn’t have the chamber music by Hindemith, we didn’t have any sonatas by
Bartók. So, as I was young and ambitious and crazy, I told myself that if Bartók
didn’t write any sonatas, maybe I could do it. What a beautiful thing it would be
if Brahms had written a guitar concerto! But he didn’t, so maybe I can. This was
the beginning of composing for me.15
The mid-1950s marks the start of Leo Brouwer’s formal entry into
the domain of composition. During this time a significant segment of
Cuban artists had endeavoured for some years already to promote Afro-
Cuban culture, which through historical and political circumstances had
largely been disregarded. The goal amongst artists to endorse national
cultural elements within their works was not considered an end in itself
as artists simultaneously undertook to create universal art forms. This
philosophy was advanced by prominent Cuban arts movements and
honoured by Leo Brouwer, who put it thus:
One of my questions is, how can I link or connect the historical values, which I
respect and adore, part of my Cuban heritage, how can they be connected with
the universal.16
Brouwer came into contact with the philosophies particularly of two
established Cuban arts movements. The Grupo Minorista (1923) and the
Grupo de Renovación Musical (1942) feature significantly in 20th-century
Cuban art music and determined the philosophical basis from which he
launched his initial style of writing.

Fernando Ortiz and the Grupo Minorista 17

During the early stage of his career, Brouwer’s primary goal was to
incorporate national elements into his works. This notion has much
of its origin in the philosophies of Fernando Ortiz (1881–1969), Cuba’s
major anthropologist and early campaigner of Afro-Cuban culture.
Most of Ortiz’s numerous publications – dating from the first decades
of the 20th century and continuing until the mid-1960s – deal with
topics relating to Afro-Cuban history, organology, dance, theatre, and
African ritual music. His volume La Africanía de la Música Folklórica de
Cuba (1965)18 illustrates copious examples of African ritual music he had
researched, collected, and transcribed throughout his life.
Through much of his scholarly research Ortiz advanced increased
recognition and awareness of African traditions within greater Cuban
culture. In terms of music, he promoted not the mechanical sanction
of Afro-Cuban music as such, but rather the formation of new musical
compositions firmly within the Western European tradition that would
reflect some stylistic elements from the Afro-Cuban heritage as well.19
As a result of this perspective the Grupo Minorista came into being. This
association consisted of young poets, writers, and musicians, and had
among its driving forces noted composers like Amadeo Roldán (1900–
1939) and Alejandro García Caturla (1906–1940).

15
McKenna 1988b, 11.
16
Century 1991, 7.
17
The passages on Ortiz are, with slight changes, from Kronenberg 2004, UNISA Latin American
Report, Vol. 20, No.2.
18
A copy of this collection can be found in the music library of the University of Cape Town.
19
Ortiz cited in Moore 1994, 46.
34 tempo

Among the many Afro-Cuban rhythms Ortiz collected and tran-

scribed, two in particular warrant closer inspection. They are (1) a group
of three syncopated notes, known as the tresillo, and (2) a group of five
notes, likewise syncopated, labelled the cinquillo. A cursory inspection
of Brouwer’s guitar literature clearly illustrates the presence of these
elements.

Example 1:
Afro-Cuban Rhythmic Figures,
After Ortiz, 1965

Jose Ardevol and the Grupo de Renovación Musical

After the premature deaths of Roldán and Caturla (in 1939 and 1940
respectively), the Spanish-born composer Jose Ardevol, who set-
tled in Havana in 1930, has been considered as the leader of modern
Cuban composition. Ardevol taught composition at the Municipal
Conservatory (later renamed the Roldán Conservatory) and established
the Chamber Orchestra of Havana in 1934. In 1942, together with some
of his best students, he founded the Grupo de Renovación Musical. His
purpose was to create a Cuban school of composers that could reach
the same degree of universality as found in other countries. Through his
influence as spiritual leader of this group, Cuban compositional styles
started to reflect contemporary idioms like neo-classicism, atonality and
polytonality. Included in the group were accomplished composers like
Harold Gramatges, Edgardo Martín, Algeliers León and Julian Orbon.
The philosophy of the Grupo de Renovación Musical emphasized the fol-
lowing basic tenets:
1. Cultivation of the great musical forms and their employment in new
works, and
2. The mastering of musical techniques found in the more advanced
countries

According to Ardevol, nationalism was still a necessary stage in Cuba

with its rich popular music; the ideal, however, was to be able to achieve
a universal expression without losing the innate qualities of Cuban cul-
ture (see Century 1991).
In the mid-1950s a group of younger composers joined the ranks of
the Grupo de Renovación Musical. Among them were Natalio Galán, Juan
Blanco, Roberto Valera, Sergio Fernández, as well as the youthful Leo
Brouwer.

Personal study
Brouwer’s training in the art of composition saw him initially under-
taking an intensive self-study course. Guided by the goal to achieve a
universal musical expression, he set out to analyse comprehensively a
diverse selection of music scores of a variety of composers from both
guitar composer leo brouwer: the concept of a ‘universal language’ 35

different nationalities and historical periods. His attention during this

time was captivated mainly by the styles and techniques of recognised
20th-century composers, Béla Bartók, Claude Debussy, Igor Stravinsky
and Manuel de Falla. It was above all these composers’ works that from
the outset impacted on and influenced Brouwer’s technical approach to
composition.

The Juilliard School

In his endeavour to cultivate more accurately his creative skills, during
1959–60 Brouwer took up formal studies in composition and conduct-
ing at the Juilliard School in New York. Here he came into contact with
the artistry of Darius Milhaud, Lukas Foss and Paul Hindemith, some of
the leading contemporary composers of the era. Among the many pow-
erful experiences there were the teachings of Vincent Persichetti, whom
Brouwer found to be a ‘true Kapellmeister’ like ‘Handel and Bach’.20 On
occasion the famed American composer-conductor advised his auspi-
cious student, ‘you do not need to study composition; compose!’21

1961 Polish Festival

Brouwer’s awareness of, and erudition in, contemporary musical arts
were particularly boosted during a visit to the momentous 1961 Polish
Warsaw Autumn Festival. At the event he gained awareness of some of
the most advanced contemporary works on the European continent.
Attracting Brouwer’s interest were reputedly revolutionary compos-
ers – Tadeusz Baird, Kazimierz Serocki, Ernest Block, Luigi Nono and
Hans Werner Henze.22 The première of Penderecki’s orchestral mas-
terpiece Threnody in memory of the victims of Hiroshima (1960) counts
among the many innovative experiences that won Brouwer’s deep
interest and admiration. The overall consequence of this visit was that
Brouwer gained deep-rooted knowledge of prevailing musical develop-
ments such as serialism, aleatoric and electro-acoustic music. Such were
their sway that when he returned to Cuba, the youthful artist organ-
ized an official conference for the country’s principal artists to discuss
these ground-breaking trends, known in some circles as the avant-garde.
Following on this he created Sonograma I, a piece for prepared piano
that was premièred at the establishment in 1961 of the Union of Cuban
Writers and Artists. The piece is pioneering in that it represents Cuba’s
first aleatoric work and the initiation into the country of this contempo-
rary musical style.
Some of the more significant works that followed in this mode are
Sonograma II (1964), an orchestral work, Sonograma III (?) for two pian-
os, and Sonata pian’e forte (1970), written for prepared piano and tape.
Portraying a distinctive avant-garde style, the latter work incorporates
quotations from works of a diverse range of composers, Beethoven,
Skryabin, Gabrieli and Szymanowski. It was from about 1968 that
Brouwer quite demonstrably sought to incorporate into his guitar
works some of the styles and techniques displayed at the 1961 Warsaw
Festival.23
20
Dumond & Denis 1988, 13. The help of Michael Tuffin, retired senior lecturer at the South
African College of Music in translating this article from French, is kindly acknowledged.
21
Ibid.
22
It was Henze especially who enhanced Brouwer’s exposure to as well as recognition in
European art circles. Furthermore, during Henze’s visit to Cuba in the late 1960s Brouwer
collaborated with him on El Cimarrón, a piece for voice, flute, guitar and percussion that
honours a historical Cuban figure (K-NGF 1998).
23
K-NGF 1998.
36 tempo

Persuasions from the ‘non-musical’ domain

In addition to the above and other musical experiences, Brouwer also set
out to acquire in-depth knowledge of various influential writers, poets,
painters, philosophers, choreographers, mathematicians, astronomers,
etc., from different worlds and cultures, many of whom impacted deci-
sively on his own creative imagination.24 Hence many of Brouwer’s
compositions similarly are inspired by a number of diverse persuasions
from the ‘non-musical’ domain. Of special interest and value to the
composer are aspects such as,
• mathematical formulae; for example, the Fibonacci series and the
‘golden section’, configurations employed also by Bartók and other
modern composers;
• spiral structures found in star galaxies, seashells, flowers, etc.;
• structural idioms prevalent in contemporary art works, particularly
those of Paul Klee;
• traditional cultural traits from Hindu and Indian ritual practices

Besides his close involvement in Cuba’s ballet and film industries,

Brouwer himself took up painting in his earlier years. This wide aware-
ness, combined with his added interest in cultural theory and philosophy,
culminated in his becoming an accomplished writer, one imbued with a
broad, universal outlook.

International functions
Due to an impaired right hand, in recent years Brouwer has come to
devote more time to conducting, composing, and international arts
projects. As a recognized guitar figure he is in demand as jury member
at international guitar competitions. He also is required world-wide to
conduct guitar master classes, composition classes, and performance
workshops. Guitar festivals graced by his presence include those held
in Tokyo, Helsinki, Rome, Martinique, Toronto, Athens, Nürtingen,
across much of Latin America as well as in Spain. Guitarists of the
highest order and from across the world congregate every two years in
the country’s capital to participate in the Havana International Guitar
Festival and Competition, presented under Brouwer’s direction.

solo guitar works

First Period Style (1956–1964)
Embedded in Brouwer’s initial works for the guitar is a range of themat-
ic and rhythmic elements inspired by traditional African ritual music.
The melodic material of these works, however, routinely is submerged
into a more composite harmonic structure. The composer’s contem-
porary harmonic expression, though principally tonal, is determined
by the use of conflicting intervals like minor-second dyads, tritone for-
mations, and chromatic colourings. Pieza sin titulo (1956) and Preludio
(1956), particularly, employ two distinctive Afro-Cuban syncopated
rhythms – the tresillo and cinquillo (mentioned above) – which at times
are creatively obscured and manipulated.

24
K-NGF 1998; K-HFR 2005.
guitar composer leo brouwer: the concept of a ‘universal language’ 37

Pieza sin titulo

Pieza sin titulo is one of Brouwer’s earliest known pieces and the first of
three separate works (composed at different times) collectively entitled
Tres piezas sin titulo. Pieza sin titulo was written in 1956, at a time ‘when
Cuba was a country without an identity’. Brouwer’s title (Three pieces
without name) therefore does induce a symbolic meaning on the one
hand. The composer, however, coined the title as he wished to convey
that the works are ‘not preludes, nor studies, nor variations, nor dances’.
As he elaborates, ‘these are evocations, short works using precise ele-
ments as points of departure; one of these pieces, [‘No. 1’] written in
7/4, is based upon African ritual rhythms’.25
One can immediately detect Brouwer’s devotion to his roots, revealed
in his passion for the two African-derived rhythmic elements. These are
incorporated throughout Pieza sin titulo but concealed imaginatively
at times. The composer’s choice of an unstable 7/4 meter periodically
is expressed as a subdivision of ‘3/4’ and ‘4/4’. Repeated bars (or very
similar bars) incorporate the same division. The 7/4 meter likewise
supports the masked appearance of African syncopated rhythms. One
of these, the cinquillo, appears more prominently, being announced in
the opening melodic pitches. At the inception of the piece the tresillo
already surfaces but, as stated, it emerges somewhat disguised. In
subsequent bars stress-markings highlight this feature more pronounc-
edly, with successive chordal announcements reiterating a variant of the
tresillo, sounded at times by three voices in rhythmic unison. The tresillo
emerges throughout the work; and, following the development section,
the initial cinquillo makes its reappearance. This feature also appears
towards the close of the work where it constitutes the rhythm of the
seconds and thirds of the inner voices of the 4/4 metric division.
Although the themes of Brouwer’s works are predominantly his own
invention, he emphasizes that they have been ‘tremendously influenced
by African ritual music’. His aim was to project this kind of expression
from the very first moment he started composing. The theme of Pieza
sin titulo is announced in the opening of the piece and though it is set
in a natural minor mode, it immediately induces some ambiguities.
Arguably either the initial pitch B (part of the chordal announcement)
or the opening F# could signify the commencement of the thematic
phrase. Further, the principal statement could conclude on the root
note B (upper pitch of the three-note chord) of the second bar, or again,
it may be cyclic, extending to the repeated C#s of the bar.
It is appropriate to refer to Ortiz’s collection of African folk song in
order to perceive Brouwer’s theme with greater clarity. Viewed out-
wardly it becomes apparent that the Afro-Cuban chant O ya ya Lumba
lumba is established from the initial three bars up to and including the
first pitch of the fourth bar, after which it undergoes some develop-
ment. It is detectable that a similar process appears in Brouwer’s theme.
It is clear, furthermore, that the traditional chant’s introductory melod-
ic and rhythmic activity returns to calm following the opening measure.
At this point the sounding of the dominant note, G, induces some har-
monic tension, calling for a resolution onto the tonic.

25
Dumond 1988, 7.
38 tempo

Example 2:
Canto mayombe “O ya ya
Lumbe lumbe”
After Ortiz, 1965

In Pieza sin titulo Brouwer likewise introduces the dotted eighth

note C# in the opening, sounding the fifth degree of V. He thereafter
concludes this thematic segment on the root note B. Compared to the
African chant from Ortiz’s collection it becomes visible that Brouwer
sought to evoke an African nuance in the construction of his theme.
Furthermore, other similarities between Brouwer’s work and Ortiz’s
transcription immediately point to various syncopated features and the
tresillo in particular, which is used throughout O ya ya lumba lumba.

Example 3:
Pieza sin titulo

Preludio
Preludio is another early work dating from 1956. According to Brouwer,
although he was ‘almost illiterate’ when he started to compose, he none-
theless considers this work to be something ‘good and mysterious’, a
confirmation of his ‘special taste for the original elements’. ‘Mysterious’
is used perhaps prematurely as this theme has an explicit popular – and
more so, lighthearted – character, rather distinct to the one used in Pieza
sin titulo. Its construction suggests a simple harmonic structure based on
the uncomplicated alternation of primary chords I and V, set moreover
in C major. The composer reiterates that this theme, too, is not an exist-
ing Afro-Cuban theme as such, but that it is ‘tremendously influenced
by the nuance of the African language’.
 guitar composer leo brouwer: the concept of a ‘universal language’ 39

The rhythmic framework of the piece accordingly takes on a charac-

teristic Afro-Cuban syncopated texture, a feature that can be detected
immediately. This is prevalent likewise in Pieza sin titulo and permeates
many of the composer’s later works as well. The metric indication of
Preludio is 6/8 but in the second bar already a duplet appears. In sub-
sequent bars this trait is emphasized in a two-voice texture which also
reappears later on. At times in the piece 2/4 is implied while 3/4 also fea-
tures periodically. The lower voice sounds this triple meter with some
imitation occurring in the higher register. The triple meter recurs more
pronouncedly towards the close of the piece, where it is articulated by
four-note chords.
As the piece commences the upper voice announces the theme
which, as noted, suggests the alternation of I and V, constituted in
each alternate bar. As the eight-bar theme concludes the implied V at
this point is strongly suggestive of a cyclic structure, as the melody can
comfortably repeat itself time and again. In isolation, the tonality of the
theme implies C major, with the intervals of the major second and third
being prominent. In this instance, too, it is suitable to inspect compara-
ble examples from Fernando Ortiz’s collection towards authenticating
the African quality of Brouwer’s theme.
The traditional Afro-Cuban piece Rumba popular derives its dance
rhythm from the accompaniment with the right hand playing synco-
pated chords against the tresillo in the bass. The tune is set in a clear G
major tonality, similarly extending eight bars in length. Its rhythm, how-
ever, is set in regular meter, thus distinguishing itself noticeably from
the accompaniment. Of importance is the piece’s ‘light-hearted’ tem-
perament, which likewise typifies Brouwer’s tune. Moreover, Rumba
popular is structured on I and V(7) only. In the first four bars the tune
is constructed on just three pitches, the tonic, mediant and supertonic,
another character trait comparable to Preludio. As can be observed, fur-
thermore, the intervals of the major second and third form an integral
component of the song from the Afro-Cuban tradition.

Example 4:
Afro-Cuban Rumba popular
After Ortiz, 1965

Similarly, the ritual chant from the African abakuá tradition (tran-
scribed in D major), also suggests the simple harmonies of I and
V. (However, IV is additionally suggested in the opening bar, con-
structed on the tresillo rhythmic figure). At the inception of the chant
the ascending major second extends to a major third, followed by the
announcement of an emblematic triadic figure: palpable features that
equally distinguish Brouwer’s Preludio.
40 tempo

Example 5:
Preludio

Fuga No.1
Fuga No.1 (1957) is a multifaceted contrapuntal work for three voices,
sustained likewise by rhythmic contours of African origin. The work is
a clear expression of the young artist’s growing awareness and fondness
for formal structures and techniques from the polyphonic tradition.
Thus, besides Fuga, later guitar works’ developmental sections often
take on contrapuntal textures. As one might reasonably predict, Fuga
No.1 employs Afro-Cuban melodic and rhythmic elements which
are set within a formal structure of polyphonic music. Whereas the
fugue’s first theme is ‘19th-century Afro-Cuban’, the closing one,
so the composer asserts, is ‘absolute African ritual music from the
16th century or so’. Moreover these themes are the composer’s own
creation, but are based upon the inflections generated by the spoken
African language. For Brouwer, Fuga No.1 illustrates a clear example
of a ‘mixture of cultures, as we say in Spanish, mestisaje’. He considers
ragtime, for instance, as also employing a ‘fusion of white and ‘black’,
i.e., European and African: while the polka is sounded in the left hand,
the right hand plays African syncopated lines (on the piano, that is).
Equally for him, the Cuban dance form danzon is based on the same
principle, since the African cinquillo alternates with polka rhythms
derived from Europe.26
Fuga is written for three voices, with the alto announcing the first
theme in the opening four bars. The initial melodic phrase suggests
the Dorian mode27 based on the four-note sub-structure, D-G-F-E. The
thematic pitch D is prominent in the opening and establishes itself as
a pedal point. The opening thematic statement embodies some of the
structural elements of the fugue, namely distinctive fourths and thirds.
The perfect fourth is employed in the opening leap (D-G), and further
integrated within the unfolding thematic material.
As indicated by the composer, the work incorporates the alternation
of African syncopation with regular rhythmic activity. With the sound-
ing of the answer against the countersubject, this objective is taken
further, as the answer (African cinquillo in the bass) is juxtaposed against
rhythmic regularity in the soprano, a process which also reverses. In
subsequent bars the voices articulate both customs simultaneously, i.e.,
against each other.
Towards the close of the piece, where the melodic material becomes
displaced in higher register, the accented beats emulate the sounds of
26
K-NGF 1998.
27
If however bar 1 as a whole is taken in isolation of the thematic statement (bars 1–4) the
outcome is enormously uncertain and points to both C major and D minor/Dorian mode.
Taken within the context of the theme as a whole, the Dorian mode is the more realistic
option.
guitar composer leo brouwer: the concept of a ‘universal language’ 41

traditional African ritual drummings which infiltrated Cuban culture

several hundred years before.

Tres Apuntes (1959)28

Brouwer’s intellectual growth in the use of advanced techniques per-
haps is most clearly illustrated in Tres Apuntes, at that time his most
skilled and developed solo guitar work. Set in three parts, it serves as
tributes to the aforementioned influential composers: Stravinsky,
Bartók, Falla, and Debussy.29 The movements respectively bring into
prominence specific techniques and styles closely associated with these
artists.30 The initial part, ‘Del el Homenaje a Falla’, illustrates the com-
poser’s admiration not only of Falla, but also Debussy. In honouring
Falla, Brouwer portrays his deep awareness and reverence of the Spanish
guitar through an in-depth exploration of the instrument’s multifarious
timbral faculties. The piece also draws attention to chant elements set
in the Phrygian mode, emblematic of the Moorish cultural influence
on Spain. The same piece incorporates the theme from Debussy’s piano
prelude La Soirée dans Grenade. Brouwer’s tribute has the Soirée melody
making its first appearance in the bass line of the opening bars, with
some transformation occurring in later bars. The inception of the B-sec-
tion of ‘Del el Homenaje a Falla’ recalls the Soirée theme, where it is
offered periodically and in fragmentary manner, interrupted by altered
minor third figurations from earlier in the piece. Of note too, is that
Debussy’s theme is constructed on the whole-tone scale, elements of
which similarly characterize Brouwer’s homage. Brouwer’s perception
of Debussy’s impressionistic style furthermore is mirrored in the fusion
of major and minor harmonies, parallel chordal progressions, and pedal
effects, all of which are character traits of Soirée.
The second part of Tres Apuntes ‘De un fragmento instrumental’
honours Stravinsky through the use and manipulation of an ostinato fig-
ure. The compositional device undergoes stringent rhythmic, metrical,
and melodic alterations, strongly suggestive of the Russian composer’s
unique percussive styles. Written in praise of Bartók (Hakes 1982), the
third and final tribute, ‘Sobre un canto Bulgaria’, employs as its structur-
al element a tune symptomatic of Bulgarian folk song, a distinguishing
feature of many of the Hungarian composer’s works.
Though characterized by changing rhythmic activities, Tres Apuntes
incorporates a basic arrangement of the Cuban-Spanish folk dance
rhythm the guajiro, with its alteration of 6/8 and 3/4. The regular alter-
nation of 6/8 and 3/4 of the guajira dance is however not engaged but
occurs sporadically. Apart from the composer’s manipulation of metric
changes, individual pitched are assigned accentuations both on and off
the beat. Furthermore, melodic lines start in one metre and continue in
another, features which contribute to both a precision and a displace-
ment of a variety of rhythms the composer derived from his cultural
roots. In sum, of special relevance is the fact that the grouping of two (or
more) regular pulse figures, known commonly as polyrhythm or polym-
eter, is prominent throughout West and Central Africa, something that
over time became a notable attribute of Afro-Cuban folk culture.
28
See Brouwer 1972 a-h; 1973 a & b; 1977; 1983 and 1991.
29
Though none of the titles of the three parts alludes to Debussy, there nonetheless is a direct
reference to Debussy in the theme of ‘Del el Homenaje a Falla’, the first part of Tres Apuntes.
30
Credit is given to Hakes for initiating scrutiny of specific works of Stravinsky, Bartók, Falla
and Debussy that greatly influenced Brouwer’s choice of techniques and styles employed
in his guitar works (see Hakes 1982, 129–131). Kronenberg (2000) particularly explores
and analyses comprehensively influential trends from the European art music tradition in
Brouwer’s early guitar works.
42 tempo

Elogio de la Danza (1964)

According to Brouwer, Elogio de la danza is the culmination of his ‘mis-
sion of structuring a more rigorous work’.31 Composed in 1964, this
work represents the final, most mature and acclaimed solo guitar piece
of Brouwer’s first stylistic phase.
Elogio de la danza employs an extensive range of advanced techniques
yet it preserves some semblance of a tonal system. Quite prominent is
the composer’s inventive manipulation of conflicting harmonies, which
are often reinforced by non-tonal strands, chromatic embellishments,
and clashing major/minor combinations. The work’s embryonic ideas
are announced from the inception of the first movement, spanning a
wide compass. Reaching into the high register of the instrument, the
opening notes establish the tranquil, spacious mood that pervades
throughout. These motivic ideas are consistently developed through
prominent use of minor seconds, tritones, and chordal structures built
on fourths and sevenths. As indicated by the composer, the work strong-
ly alludes to the world of ballet. Accordingly it incorporates a range of
delicate expression markings and timbral effects that both initiate and
sustain the calming tone of the movement overall.
The second movement employs an authoritative rhythmic struc-
ture which is underpinned by fairly brusque and defined guitar sounds.
Contrasting markedly from the first movement, it is reminiscent of
Stravinsky’s customary use of driving off-beat patterns. The move-
ment’s robust aura is buttressed at times by rasguado and golpe sounds,32
character features of the flamenco guitar. Amidst sounds of conflict,
untainted E major chords periodically ring out in frank contrast – yet a
further instance of ‘the law of contraries’ at play. 33

Example 6:
Elogio de la danza
Extract from second movement

31
Dumond 1988, 8.
32
The somewhat peculiar arrangement of these techniques in Elogio de la danza has caused
some difficulty amongst guitarists both of moderate and advanced standards. In this regard,
Kilvington (1989, 14–15) offers helpful advice towards successfully executing this section of
the work.
33
A detailed analysis is being prepared for future publication. To my knowledge no in-depth
scholarly scrutiny of Elogio de la danza has yet been published. Special thanks and recognition
go to James May who pointed out many intervallic and harmonic figurations submerged in
the work.
guitar composer leo brouwer: the concept of a ‘universal language’ 43

Instances within the Vivace section of the Obtinato (second move-

ment) noticeably mark the composer’s close bond with African culture.
This section recalls the familiar rhythmic figure, the tresillo, in the lower
voices. While this feature reappears again and again, the proverbial cin-
quillo makes its presence known in the upper four voices.
Apart from the emergence of both the tresillo and the cinquillo, this
pioneering work employs a more definitive syncopated texture on the
whole. The skilful use and manipulation of syncopated rhythms greatly
characterize Brouwer’s works overall; its use here furthermore under-
scores the composer’s close association with the African roots of Cuba’s
national heritage.

Second and Third Period Works (1968–)

Brouwer’s guitar works from his second period (1968–1979) take on
definitive styles from the international avant-garde, revealing the great
impact of the 1961 Polish Festival on his artistic development. Ground-
breaking works like Canticum (1968), La espiral eterna (1970), Per Suonare
a due (1972), Parabola (1973–74) and Tarantos (1973–74) are designed to
expose the performer and listener to successive chromatic clusters, stri-
dent non-tonal clashes, imprecise note-durations and numerous novel
percussive sounds not commonly encountered on this scale on the
concert guitar before. The style of this period similarly illustrates the
inspiration from diverse sources, such as Paul Klee’s art work, mathe-
matical formulae, spiral structures, and the like.
Though the composer was predominantly concerned with structural
and technical innovations during this period, his last and current period
(1980 to the present) has seen a return to the tonal idiom with limited
avant-garde techniques combined with traditional African idioms.
Variations sur un theme de Reinhardt (1984) marks Brouwer’s first major
example of theme and variations, serving also as tribute to the renowned
musical personalities Robert Vidal and Django Reinhardt. In recognition
of the English guitar virtuoso Julian Bream’s appeal for more ‘substan-
tial’ and ‘complex’ guitar works, Brouwer responded with Sonata (1990),
his most extensive guitar work at the time. El rito de los Orishas (1993) is
written in honour of the Uruguayan guitar maestro Alvaro Pierri. In a
similar manner to many of his earlier works, the piece is motivated by
Yoruban ritual music. The work employs recurring notes in the bottom
register, one of the composer’s trademarks, which, in this instance rec-
reate the ‘intensity inherent in Yoruban ceremonial rites’.
El Decameron negro (1980), a programmatic work structured as a sona-
ta, is perhaps one of Brouwer’s most memorable from the latest period.
Based on African mythology, it is considered by the composer as a ‘good
example of an art steeped in universality’. El Decameron negro is inter-
esting in the sense that it was inspired by a collection of West African
folktales collected by the German anthropologist Leo Frobenius in
1910.34 The three movements of the piece, La arpa del guerrero (The harp
of the warrior), La huida de los amantes por el valle de los ecos (The flight of
the lovers through the valley of echoes) and Ballada de la doncella enamo-
rada (Ballad of the love-sick maiden) provide enduring and musically
engaging depictions of both ancient, traditional folklore and the geo-
graphical panorama of the African continent.
To conclude: in his desire to compose for the guitar, to ‘fill the gaps’
of historical circumstance, Leo Brouwer in effect creates a contempo-
rary eloquence previously neglected in the sphere of the instrument.
34
K-NGF 1998.
44 tempo

In his desire to create a ‘universal language’, he brings to fruition his

aspiration to draw stimulus from both the time-honoured African tradi-
tion, implanted since the 1500s in the New World, and from fêted styles
and techniques from far beyond his regional precincts. In this sense
Brouwer endeavours to eliminate the contradiction which usually exists
between the ‘high arts’, centred on structural complexity, and ‘the pop-
ular’ which, in his words, ‘are easily recognised so as not to disturb the
intellectual faculties of the listener’.35 Through this universal undertak-
ing, Leo Brouwer remains accessible to the general listening audience,
embracing and promoting aspects of ‘people’s culture’ while at the
same time raising their critical dimensions.

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The support of the University of Cape Town Post-graduate Funding Office, the
Commission for Overseas Students (London), the Canon Collins Educational Trust
(London), the South African National Research Foundation, and the South African
Department of Arts and Culture towards the author’s prior and current research
hereby is gratefully acknowledged. Further, the valuable assistance of James W
May – serving formerly as Director of the South African College of Music and
the author’s masters’ supervisor – elicits special appreciation and recognition.
The article contains edited extracts from the following publications: UNISA Latin
American Report Vol. 20, No.2, 2004 and Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, Guitarra Magazine Issue
15, 2004 and Guitar Review Vol. 129, Summer 2004 (see Kronenberg 2004a; 2004b;
2004c; and 2005b respectively).

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