Sludge treatment and disposal - sludge thickening - sludge

conditioning - sludge dewatering - sludge digestion and composting

Solid waste treatment - sources and classification - collection and

disposal methods - open dumping - sanitary landfill - incineration -
composting
Treatment of industrial waste - pulp and paper mill - textile mill -
distillery - dairy - petroleum refinery - fertilizer industry.

Hazardous waste -types of hazardous waste - health effects -

treatment methods
Sludge
 The constituents removed in wastewater
treatment plants include screening, grit, scum
solids, and biosolids.
 Usually in the form of liquid or semisolids.
 Contains 0.25 to 12 percent solids by weight
depending on the operation or processes used.
 Any garbage or refuse (Municipal Solid Waste)
 Sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water
supply treatment plant, or air pollution control
facility.
 Other discarded material.

 Solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous

material from industrial, commercial, mining,
and agricultural operations, and from
community activities.
 Primary sludge
▪ Solids that settle out in the primary settling basin
 Biological or Secondary Sludge
▪ Solids that have grown in a secondary treatment
process (fixed film or suspended growth).
 Predominantly water
 Micro-organisms
 Viruses, pathogens, germs in general
 Organic particles, heavily bio-degradable
 Heavy metals
 Micro-pollutants, pharmaceuticals, endocrine
disrupters
 All non-degraded compounds extracted from
wastewater are found in the sludge
 Thickening
 Stabilization
 Conditioning
 Dewatering
 Volume Reduction
 Disposal
  Pumps used most frequently to convey sludge
include the plunger, centrifugal, diaphragm, high-
pressure piston and rotary lobe, peristaltic types.

High pressure piston pump Diaphragm pump

Rotary Lobe pump

Hose pump
 Thickening is a procedure used to increase the solids content
of sludge by removing a portion of the liquid fraction.
 It is generally accomplished by physical means, including
co-settling, gravity settling, floatation, centrifugation and
rotary drum.
 The volume reduction obtained is beneficial in down stream
processing such as digestion, dewatering, and combustion by
reducing the following
▪ Capacity of tanks and equipments required.
▪ Quantity of chemicals required for sludge conditioning.
▪ Amount of heat required by digesters and amount of
auxiliary fuels required for heat drying or incineration.
 Gravity separation, similar to settling tank.
 Additional mechanic stirring to enhance
flocculation and extraction of water and gas.
 Supernatant is introduced to primary clarifier or –
if floatables and grease contents are high – to grid
chamber.
 Thickened sludge is withdrawn from hopper and
introduced to sludge treatment.
 For an efficient thickening process the
development of gas bubbles must be prevented.
Inflow
Scum skimmer

Sludge
liquor

Picket fence
 Pre treatment: mostly chemical flocculation
 Sludge is placed in contact with air-saturated water.
 Air bubbles attach to solid particles
→ lower specific gravity than water.
 Floating Sludge bubble composite is collected at the
surface.
 Water is recovered under a scum baffle and removed.
 Flotation thickening is used most efficiently for waste
sludge from suspended growth biological treatment
process such as ASP.
 Centrifuges are used both to thicken and to dewater
sludges. Their application in thickening is limited normally
to waste-activated sludge.
 Thickening by centrifugation involves the settling of sludge
particles under the influence of centrifugal forces.
 The basic type of centrifuge used for sludge thickening is
the solid-bowl centrifuge.
 Under normal conditions, thickening can be accomplished
by centrifugal thickening without polymer addition.
Centrifugal Thickener
1. Rotary-drum thickeners are typically used in small to medium size
plants for waste activated sludge thickening.
2. A rotary-drum thickening system consists of conditioning system and
rotating cylindrical screens. Polymer is mixed with dilute sludge in the
mixing and conditioning drum.
3. The conditioned sludge is then passed to rotating screen drums, which
separate the flocculated solids from the water. Thickened sludge rolls
out the end of the drums, while separated water decants through the
screens.
4. Some design also allow coupling of the rotary drum unit to a belt filter
press for combination thickening and dewatering.
 Solids and biosolids are stabilized to
1. Reduce pathogens
2. Eliminate offensive odors
3. Inhibit reduce or eliminate the potential for putrefaction
 The reasons for above activities are the flourishing of
microorganisms in the organic fraction of the sludge.
 This can be eliminated by the biological reduction of the
volatile content and the addition of chemicals to the solids and
biosolids to make it unsuitable for the survival of
microorganisms.
 In addition to the above reasons the stabilization is used for
volume reduction, production of usable gas (methane) and
improving the dewaterability of sludge.
 The principal methods used for stabilization of
sludge are
1. Alkaline stabilization (with lime)
2. Anaerobic digestion
3. Aerobic digestion
4. composting
 A method to eliminate nuisance conditions in sludge is
through the use of alkaline material (lime- CaO) to
render the sludge unsuitable for the survival of
microorganisms.
 In this lime is added to untreated sludge in sufficient
quantity to raise the pH to 12 or higher.
 The high pH creates an environment that halts or retards
the microbial reactions.
 The sludge will not putrefy, creates odors, or
pose health hazard so long as the pH is
maintained at this level.
 The process can also inactivate virus, bacteria,
and other microorganisms present.
 In advanced alkaline stabilization additives,
such as cement kiln dust, lime kiln dust, or
fly ash, are used.
 Anaerobic digestion is among the oldest process
used for the stabilization of solids and biosolids.
 It involves the decomposition of the organic
matter and inorganic matter (principally sulfates)
in the absence of molecular oxygen.
 The major applications of anaerobic digestion are
in the stabilization of concentrated sludge
produced from the treatment of municipal and
industrial waste water.
 It can produce sufficient digester gas to meet the
energy needs for plant operation.
 Process Fundamentals
 Three types of chemical and biochemical
Hydrolysis
reactions
1. Hydrolysis
2. Fermentation (acidogenesis) Acidogenesis
3. Methanogenesis
 The important factors influencing
1. SRT Acetogenesis
2. HRT
3. Temperature
4. Alkalinity Methanogenesis

5. pH
6. Presence of inhibitory substances.
7. Bioavailability of nutrients and trace metals.
Digester
 Heated to 33 – 37°C → process rates are higher
 Content of digester is mixed → Sludge and water
obtain a similar residence time.
 Digestion usually takes place in heated (about 35
°C), totally mixed tanks.
 Digestion time is about 20 days.
Anaerobic degradation
2 C5H7NO2 + 8 H2O → 5 CH4 + 3 CO2 + 2 NH+4 + 2 HCO3−
Degradation of organic substances of app. 50%
Biogas production: 63% CH4 (Methane)
35% CO2
2% other gases (N2, H2, H2S)
→ electricity and heating

Organic nitrogen is converted to NH4+

→ N-loading of WWTP
 Enhance mixing
 Eliminate cleaning
 Grit accumulation is
minimized.
 Better control of the
scum layer.
 Smaller land area
required.
 Usually constructed
with steel
The major objective of aerobic digestion is to produce a biologically
stable end product suitable for disposal or subsequent treatment in a
variety of processes.
 Aerobic digestion may be suited to treat
1. Waste-activated sludge only
2. Mixtures of waste-activated sludge or trickling filter
sludge and primary sludge
3. Waste sludge from extended aeration plants
 Usually small capacity plants (2 m3/s).
 Activated sludge tank is larger than that combined with an
anaerobic sludge stabilisation.
 No biogas production
 Possibly combined with storage or thickener unit
 Aerobic digestion is a process in which microorganisms
obtain energy by endogenous or auto-oxidation of their
cellular protoplasm.
 The biologically degradable constituents of cellular
material are slowly oxidized to carbon dioxide, water,
and ammonia.
 The ammonia is further converted to nitrates during the
process.
 The principal design considerations are

1. Estimated daily quantity of sludge entering the

digester.
2. Specific oxygen requirements supplied by
diffused or mechanical surface aerators.
3. Digester detention time.
4 Solids loading rate.
 Advantages of aerobic digestion over anaerobic are
1. Volatile solids reduction in well operated plant is
approximately equal to that obtained anaerobically.
2. Lower BOD in supernatant liquor
3. Production of odorless, biologically stable products.
4. Recovery of more of the basic fertilizer values in the
sludge.
5. Operation is relatively easy.
6. Lower capital cost.
7. Suitable to digest nutrient rich biosolids
 Composting is a method of solid waste treatment in
which the organic component of the solid waste
stream is biologically decomposed under
controlled aerobic conditions to a state in which it
can be safely handled, stored, and applied to the
land without adversely affecting the environment.
 Composting is the aerobic, theromophilic,
biological decomposition of organic material
under controlled conditions.
 It is essentially the same process that is
responsible for the decay of organic matter in
nature except that it occurs under controlled
conditions.
 It is a controlled, or engineered, biological
system.
 Sludge that has been composted properly is a
nuisance-free humus-like material.
Fresh Organic
Materials + Oxygen

Microbes,
Moisture,
and Time

Carbon Energy
Compost + Dioxide
+
 Approximately 20-30 % of the volatile solids are converted
to CO2 and water.
 As the organic matter in the sludge decomposes the
compost heats to temperatures in the pasteurization range of
50-70oC and enteric pathogenic organisms are destroyed.
 Composting can provide pathogen kill, volume reduction
and stabilization, and resource recovery.
 Properly composed waste is aesthetically acceptable,
essentially free of human pathogens, and easy to handle.
 Compost can improve a soil’s structure, increase its water
retention, and provide nutrients for plant growth.
 So it is can be used as a soil conditioner in agriculture and
horticulture applications.
 The composting process involves the complex destruction of
organic matter coupled with the production of humic acid to
produce a stabilized end product.
 The microorganisms involved are:
▪ Bacteria
▪ Actinomycetes
▪ Fungi
 Three stages are involved
▪ Mesophilic,
▪ Thermophilic
▪ Cooling
 Mesophilic: Temperature in the compost pile increase from
ambient to 40oC with appearance of fungi and acid producing
bacteria.
 Thermophilic: 40oC-70oC, the microorganisms are replaced by
thermophilic bacteria, actinomycetes and thermophilic fungi. At
this range the maximum decomposition and stabilization takes
place.
 Cooling Stage: Characterized by a reduction in microbial
activity and replacement of the thermophilic organisms with
mesophilic bacteria and fungi. During cooling period further
evaporative release of water from the composted material will
occur as well as stabilization of pH and completion of humic
acid formation.
 Preprocessing: mixing if dewatered sludge with an
amendment and /or a bulking agent.
▪ Amendment: is an organic material added to the feed substrate
primarily to reduce the bulk weight, reduce moisture content, increase
the air voids for proper aeration.
▪ Commonly used amendments are sawdust, straw, recycled compost
and rice hulls.
▪ Bulking agent: organic or inorganic material that is used to provide
structural and to increase the property of the mixture for effective
aeration. Wood chips are the most commonly used bulking agent.
 High rate decomposition: aerating the compost pile either by
the addition of air, by mechanical turning, or by both.
 Recovery of the bulking agent (at the end of either
the high rate decomposition or curing phase.
 Curing and storage: allows further stabilization and
cooling of the compost.
 Post processing: screening for the removal of non-
biodegradables such as metals and plastics or
grinding for size reduction.
 Final disposition
 A portion of the compost is sometimes recycled to
aid in conditioning the compost mixture.
 The two principal methods of composting are
classified into
▪ Agitated: material to be composted is agitated
periodically to introduce oxygen, to control
temperature, and to mix the material to obtain a
uniform product.
▪ Static: the material to be composted remains static
and air is blown through the composting material.
 The most commonly used agitated and static
composting methods are known as windrows
and static pile methods.
 Aerated Static Pile.
▪ It consists of a grid of aeration or exhaust piping over which
a mixture of dewatered sludge and bulking agent is placed.
▪ Material is composted for 21-28 days and is typically
followed by a curing period of 30 days or longer.
▪ Typical pile heights are generally about 2-2.5m.
▪ A layer of screened compost is often placed on top of the
pile for insulation.
▪ Disposable corrugated plastic drainage pipe is commonly
used for air supply and each individual pile is recommended
to have an individual blower for more effective aeration
control.
 Windrow.
▪ In a windrow system, the mixing and screening operations are
similar to those for the aerated static pile operation. Windrows are
constructed from 1 to 2m high and 2 to 4.5 m at the base.
▪ The rows are turned and mixed periodically during the
composting period.
▪ Supplemental mechanical aeration is used in some applications.
▪ The composting period is about 21 to 28 d.
▪ Under typical operating conditions the windrows are turned a
minimum of five times while temperature is maintained at or
above 55oC.
▪ In windrows aerobic conditions are difficult to maintain
throughout the c/s.
 The microbial activity within a pile may be aerobic,
facultative, anaerobic or various combinations, depending
on when and how often the pile is turned.
 The release of odors occur when anaerobic conditions
develop within the windrow.
 In-vessel composting is accomplished inside an
enclosed container or vessel.
 Mechanical systems are designed to minimize odors
and process time by controlling environmental
conditions such as air flow, temperature, and oxygen
concentration.
 The advantages are better process and odor control,
faster throughput, lower labor cost and smaller area
requirements.
 Co-composting of sludge and municipal solid wastes is
a possible alternative where integrated waste disposal
facilities are considered.
 Sludge conditioning is a process whereby sludge
solids are treated with chemicals or various other
means to prepare the sludge for dewatering
processes, in other words, to improve dewatering
characteristics of the sludge.

 Sludge and biosolids are generally conditioned

chemically. Other conditioning methods are heat
treatment and freeze-thaw methods.
 Chemical conditioning (sludge conditioning) prepares the sludge
for better and more economical treatment with vacuum filters or
centrifuges.
 Chemical conditioning can reduce the 90-99 percent incoming
moisture content to 65-85%.
 Chemical conditioning results in coagulation of the solids and
release of the absorbed water.
 Many chemicals have been used such as sulfuric acid, alum,
chlorinated copperas, ferrous sulfate, and ferric chloride with or
without lime, and polymers.
 The most frequently encountered conditioning practice is
the use of ferric chloride either alone or in combination
with lime.
 Important parameters:
1. Chemical Dosage
2. Mixing
 Heat treatment involves heating (450 to 550°F) the
sludge for short periods of time under pressure (1200
psig).
 When the organic sludge is heated, heat causes water to
escape from the sludge.
 The treatment coagulates the solids, breaks down the gel
structure and reduces the water affinity of sludge solids,
as a result the sludge is sterilized and is dewatered
readily.
 An advantage of thermal treatment is that a more readily
dewaterable sludge is produced than with chemical
conditioning.
 The major disadvantages of heat treatment are
▪ High capital cost.
▪ A close supervision and skilled operators.
▪ Side stream produced.
▪ Odorous gases are produced that require extensive
containment.
▪ Scale formation in heat transfer equipment.
 Dewatering is the physical unit operation used to reduce the
moisture content of sludge and biosolids for one or more of
the following reasons
 Easy handling, the costs for trucking to the ultimate disposal
site become substantially lower when the volume is reduced
by dewatering.
 Dewatering is required normally prior to incineration of the
sludge.
 In some cases the removal of excess moisture may be
required to render biosolids odorless and nonputrescible.
 Required prior to land filling sludge and biosolids to reduce
leachate production at the landfill site.
 The commonly used dewatering processes
includes
 Filter press
▪ (a) Rotary drum vacuum filters (RDVF)
▪ (b) Filter press
▪ (c) Continuous belt filter press
 Drying beds
 lagoons
 Gravity reduction
 Centrifuge
 Floatation
 Solid or semisolid, nonsoluble material such as
agricultural refuse, demolition waste, industrial
waste, mining residues, municipal garbage, and
sewage sludge.
 Municipal solid waste includes garbage (highly
decomposable objects, such as food), trash (bulky
items, such as tree branches or old appliances),
and rubbish (slowly decomposable items, such as
paper, glass, or metal objects).
 Commonly, solid waste includes trash
or garbage consisting everyday items
 Four general categories
 1) Muncipal Wastes
 2) Industrial Wastes
 3) Hazardous wastes- Biomedical and E
wastes
 4) Agricultural wastes
 1) Muncipal Wastes
▪ The definitions presented in the following table are
intended to serve as a guide for muncipal solid
wastes
 2) Industrial wastes
 Industrial wastes are those wastes arising
from industrial activities and typically include
rubbish, ashes, demolition and construction
wastes, special wastes and hazardous wastes
 3) Hazardous wastes
 Wastes that pose a substantial danger
immediately or over a period of time to human,
plant or animal life are classified as hazardous
wastes
 A waste is classified as hazardous if it exhibits
any of the following characterestics
▪ Ignitability
▪ Corrosivity
▪ Reactivity
▪ Toxicity
 In the past hazardous wastes were often
grouped into the following categories
▪ Radioactive
▪ Chemicals (wastes that are corrosive, toxic
reactive)
▪ Biological (wastes from hospitals & biological
research)
▪ Flammable wastes
▪ Explosives
 4) Agricultural wastes
 Agricultural waste is waste produced as a
result of various agricultural operations. It
includes manure and other wastes from farms,
poultry houses and slaughterhouses;
harvest waste; fertilizer run- off from fields;
pesticides that enter into water, air or soils;
and salt and silt drained from fields
 Household Hazardous Waste (HHW)
 Construction and Demolition Debris.
 Industrial/Commercial Waste.
 Fluorescent and HID Lamps.
 Regulated Medical Waste.
 Used Electronic Equipment.
 Used Oil.
 Waste Tyres.
 Source Typical waste generators Types of solid wastes

Food wastes, paper,

cardboard, plastics, textiles,
leather, yard wastes, wood,
glass, metals, ashes, special
Single and multifamily
Residential wastes (e.g. bulky items,
dwellings
consumer electronics, white
goods, batteries, oil, tires),
and household hazardous
wastes

Housekeeping wastes,
Light and heavy packaging, food wastes,
manufacturing, fabrication, construction and demolition
Industrial
construction sites, power materials, hazardous
and chemical plants wastes, ashes, special
wastes
 Source Typical waste generators Types of solid wastes

Paper, cardboard, plastics,

Stores, hotels, restaurants, wood, food wastes, glass,
Commercial
markets, office buildings, etc. metals, special wastes,
hazardous waste

Paper, cardboard, plastics,

Schools, hospitals, prisons, wood, food wastes, glass,
Institutional
government centers metals, special wastes,
hazardous wastes

New construction sites, road

Construction and demolition repair, renovation sites, Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc
demolition of buildings
 Source Typical waste generators Types of solid wastes

Street cleaning, landscaping, Street sweepings, landscape

parks, beaches, other and tree trimmings, genera
Municipal services recreational areas, water wastes from parks, beaches
and wastewater treatment and other recreational area,
plants sludge

Heavy and light

Industrial process wastes,
manufacturing, refineries,
scrap materials, off
Process chemical plants, power
specification products, slag,
plants, mineral extraction
tailings
and processing
Spoiled food wastes,
Crops, orchards, vineyards, agricultural wastes,
Agriculture
dairies, feedlots, farms hazardous wastes (e.g.
pesticides)
 Hazardous Waste - Sources
 Lead -old paint, outdated plumbing
 Pesticides Unwashed fruits and vegetables
 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)- Industrial
waste, fish from contaminated water
 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)-
Cigarette smoke, vehicle exhaust, asphalt roads
 Chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents (TCE, PCE,
PCT)- Degreasers, paint removers, dry cleaning
solutions
 Mercury- hermostats, thermometers, some fish
 Uranium- Food & water, proximity to nuclear
testing sites
 Benzene- Degreasers
 Carbon monoxide- Vehicle exhaust, unvented or
faulty furnaces
 VOC (volatile organic compounds)-Fumes from
gasoline, paint, adhesives, building supplies
 Carbon tetrachloride-Adhesives
 Methylene chloride- Auto part cleaners, paint
removers
 VInyl chloride-Pipe sealer
 Ground water contamination due to leaching
of waste dump
 Surface water contamination due to run off
 Bad odours, pests, rodents, wind blown
around the waste dump
 Generation of methane gas
 Frequent fires
 Spread of epidemics
 Soil acidity
 Serious Health issues
➢ Recycling is the best way to solve solid waste
management problem. This process exists in all cities.
However, the recycling system differs from developing
countries and developed countries .

➢ Developed countries have well organized source

separation and recycling system while in the developing
countries the system of recycling is not effective because
it is still in the hands of informal sectors
 1. On-Site Handling, On site Storage: Curb
collection, Direct Haul, transfer station
 2. Collection Services: types and methods
 3. Types of Collection systems(HCS and SCS)
 v) Method of Collection of solid waste
 Major problems
 Poor building layouts
 Road congestion
 physical infrastructures
 Old containers-leaky/damage
 Absence of systematic methods
 Collections were made by
 Muncipal/district council
 Private firm under contract to muncipal
 Private firm contract to private residents
 1.Muncipal Collection Services
▪ a. Residential
▪ i. Curb,alley,and backyard collection (100-120 litres)
▪ Quickest/economical
▪ Crew : 1 driver + 10 collectors
▪ No need to enter property
▪ Curb Service: The house owner is responsible for placing the solid
waste containers at the curb on the scheduled day. The workers
come, collect, and empty the container and put back at the curb.
Curb collection has gained popularity because labor cost for
collection can be minimized.
▪ Alley Service: The containers placed at the alley line from where they
are picked up by workers from refuse vehicle who deposit back the
empty container.
▪ Backyard Service: The workers with the vehicles carry a bin, wheel-
borrow to the yard and empty the solid waste container in it
 Two types
 HCS & SCS
 Collection systems in which the containers used for the
storage of wastes are hauled to the processing, transfer,
or disposal site, emptied, and returned to either their
original location or some other location are defined as
hauled-container systems.
 There are two main types of hauled-container systems:
(1) tilt-frame container and (2) trash-trailer.
 The collector is responsible for driving the vehicle,
loading full containers and unloading empty
containers, and emptying the contents of the container
at the disposal site.
 In some cases, for safety reasons, both a driver and
helper are used.
 Systems that use tilt-frame-loaded vehicles and large
containers, often called drop boxes, are ideally suited for
the collection of all types of solid waste and rubbish from
locations where the generation rate warrants the use of
large containers.
 Open-top containers are used routinely at warehouses and
construction sites. Large containers used in conjunction
with stationary compactors are common at commercial and
industrial services and at transfer stations.
 Because of the large volume that can be hauled, the use of
tilt-frame hauled container systems has become
widespread, especially among private collectors servicing
industrial accounts.
 Ideally suited for the removal of wastes from
sources where the rate of generation is high
 The container is picked up and hauled off to
the disposal area where the container is
emptied and returned to the original location
(conventional mode).
 The container is carried by the truck.
 A variation (exchange container mode) is
start with an empty container.
 The application of trash-trailers is similar to
that of tilt-frame container systems. Trash-
trailers are better for the collection of
especially heavy rubbish, such as sand, timber,
and metal scrap, and often are used for the
collection of demolition wastes at construction
sites
 Advantages:
 Useful when generation rate is high and
containers are large
 May eliminate spillage associated with multiple
smaller containers
 Flexible. Need more capacity, use a larger
container
 Disadvantage:
 If the containers are not filled, low utilization
rate.
 Collection systems in which the containers used
for the storage of wastes remain at the point of
waste generation, except when moved for
collection are defined as stationary-container
systems.
 Labor requirements for mechanically loaded
stationary-container systems are essentially the
same as for hauled-container systems.
 There are two main types of stationary-container
systems: (1) those in which self-loading
compactors are used and (2) those in which
manually loaded vehicles are used.
 Because a variety of container sizes and types
are available, these systems may be used for
the collection of all types of wastes.
 The major application of manual transfer and
loading methods is in the collection of
residential wastes and litter.
 Manual methods are used for the collection of
industrial wastes where pickup points are
inaccessible to the collection vehicle.
 Advantages:
▪ Major advantage is that vehicle does not travel to
disposal area until it is full yielding higher utilization
rates
 Disadvantages:
▪ System is not flexible in terms of picking up bulky
goods
▪ Wastes e.g. demolition, that make damage the
relatively delicate mechanisms
▪ Large volume generations may not have room for
storing large containers
 Recovery and Recycling

 Open Dumping

 Sanitary Landfill

 Incineration

 Composting
▪ Source reduction & reuse
▪ Product package reuse
▪ Package or product redesign that reduces material or toxicity
▪ Reducing use or modifying practices
▪ Recycling: Processing of a waste item into usable forms.
▪ Benefits of recycling:
▪ Reduce environmental degradation
▪ Making money out of waste
▪ Save energy that would have gone into waste handling &
product manufacture
▪ Saving through recycling:
▪ When Al is resmelted- considerable saving in cost
▪ Making paper from waste saves 50% energy
▪ Every tonne of recycled glass saves energy equivalent to 100
litres of oil
They are “open”
Minimum effort and expense
Unsanitary and smelly
Vermin and pests
Contaminate soil, water and air
Fire hazard
 Landfill has been defined as the engineered
deposit of waste onto and into land in such a
way that pollution or harm to the environment
is prevented and, through restoration, land
provided which may be used for another
purpose.
 Each day trash is spread
in thin layers
 Compacted down
 Covered with a soil
layer
 Graded for drainage
(a) excavation and installation of landfill liner

(b) placement of solid waste in landfill

(c) cutaway through completed landfill.

 Two types of lined landfills are excavated and area. At
excavated landfills, soil is excavated from the area where
waste is to be deposited and saved for use as daily,
intermediate, or final cover. Excavated landfills are
constructed on sites where excavation is economical and the
water table is sufficiently below the ground surface.

 Area landfills do not involve soil excavation and are built

where excavation is difficult or the water table is near the
surface. All cover soil is imported to area landfills. Both
types of landfills are lined; the excavated landfill on the
bottom of the excavation, the area landfill on the ground
surface.
 Landfill design is a complex process involving
disciplines such as geomechanics, hydrology, hydraulics,
wastewater treatment, and microbiology.
Design goals
 Protection of groundwater quality
 Protection of air quality
 Production of energy
 Minimization of environmental impact
 Minimization of disposal costs
 Minimization of dumping time for site users
 Extension of site lifetime
 Maximum use of land upon site closure
 Gaseous Emissions: Landfills produce gases comprised primarily
of methane and carbon dioxide. Emissions are controlled to avoid
explosive concentrations of methane or a build-up of landfill
gases that can rupture the cover liner or kill cover vegetation.

 Leachate: Leachate is water that contacts the waste material. It

can contain high concentrations of COD, BOD, nutrients, heavy
metals, and trace organics. Regulations require leachate to be
collected and treated to avoid ground or surface water
contamination. Composite bottom liners are required, consisting
of an HDPE geomembrane over 2 ft of compacted soil. Leachate
is generally sent directly to a municipal wastewater treatment
plant but can be pretreated, recirculated, or treated on-site.
 Surface Water: Leachate generation can be
reduced when water is kept from entering the
landfill, especially the working face.
 Surface water control also reduces erosion of
the final cover.
 Regulations require preventing flow onto the
active portion of the landfill.
 Daily Cover: Exposed waste must be covered with at
least 6 in of soil at the end of each operating day.
Alternative covers, such as foam or temporary blankets,
can be approved for use.
 Hazardous Waste: Hazardous waste should be kept out
of the landfill so that the quality of leachate and gaseous
emissions is improved.
 Landfill operations must have a program for detecting
and preventing the disposal of regulated hazardous
wastes.
 Monitoring: Monitoring is done to identify, quantify,
and track contaminants and to determine where and
when corrective action should take place.
 At least three wells, one upgradient and two
downgradient, should be maintained, and the well water
should be tested at specified intervals.
 Most sites have more than three wells; the applicable
regulations vary by state.
 Monitoring is conducted before, during, and after the
landfill operating period.
 Closure : To reduce, control, or retain leachate,
gaseous emissions, and surface water, landfill
operators must close the landfill properly and
maintain it until waste material stabilizes.
 They must install and maintain a final cover to keep
rainwater out of the landfill and establish vegetation
to reduce erosion.
 The final cover creates a relatively impermeable
barrier over the fill area which keeps rainwater from
entering.
 LINERS: Liners make the bottom and sides of the landfill less
permeable to the movement of water.
 Constructing the soil liner requires spreading and compacting
impermeable soil in several lifts, ensuring that the soil contains
near optimum moisture content and compaction for minimum
permeability.

Liner system.
 Landfills require space
 Produce methane gas (can be used for energy,
or can cause climate change)
 Leachate must be collected and treated
 Potential for water pollution
 NOT a long-term remedy
 Incineration is the second oldest method for the disposal
of waste—the oldest being landfill.
 By definition, incineration is the conversion of waste
material to gas products and solid residues by the
process of combustion.
 Combustion under optimal conditions can cut MSW
90% by volume and 75% by weight. Hot gases
generated as a result of combustion exit the furnace and
pass through boilers which recover energy in the form of
steam.
 This steam can be sold directly or converted to
electricity in a turbine.
 Significantly reduces the volume of garbage
 Produces heat energy for generating electricity.
 Incineration plant combustion temperatures are in excess
of 850oC and the waste is mostly converted into carbon
dioxide and water and any noncombustible materials
(e.g. metals, glass, stones) remain as a solid, known as
Incinerator Bottom Ash (IBA) that always contains a
small amount of residual carbon.
 Materials such as batteries, glass etc. are NOT suitable
for incineration
 Causes air pollution
 Creates toxic ash and other solid waste
 In operation, solids are pumped to the incinerator. The
solids are dried and ignited (burned). As they burn the
organic matter is converted to carbon dioxide and water
vapor and the inorganic matter is left behind as ash or
fixed solids. The ash is then collected for reuse or
disposal.
 Incineration is complete combustion. Combustion is the
rapid exothermic oxidation of combustible elements in
fuel.
 To ensure complete combustion, excess air amounting to
about 50 percent of the theoretical amount will be
required
 The incineration process first dries then burns the
sludge. The process involves the following steps:
1. The temperature of the sludge feed is raised to 212°F.
2. Water evaporates from the sludge.
3. The temperature of the water vapor and air mixture
increases.
4. The temperature of the dried sludge volatile solids
raises to the ignition point.
Note: Incineration will achieve maximum reductions
 if sufficient fuel, air, time, temperature, and turbulence
are provided.
 The multiple hearth furnace consists of a circular steel
shell lined with a refractory surrounding a number of
hearths. Scrappers (rabble arms) are connected to a
central rotating shaft.

 In operation, dewatered sludge solids are placed on the

outer edge of the top hearth. The rotating rabble arms
move them slowly to the center of the hearth. At the
center of the hearth, the solids fall through ports to the
second level.
 The sludge is dried in the upper, or first, operating zone of the
incinerator.
 In the second zone, it is incinerated at a temperature of 760 to
982°C and deodorized.
 In the third zone, the ash is cooled by the in coming combustion air.
 The air, which travels in counter-flow with the sludge, is first
preheated by the ash, then participates in the combustion, and
finally sweeps over the cold incoming sludge drying it until the
moisture content is about 48%.
 The pollution control equipment usually includes three stage
impingement-type scrubbers for particulate and sulfur dioxide
removal and standby after-burners.
 The ash can be used as a soil conditioner and as the raw material for
bricks, concrete blocks, and road fills, or it can be landfilled.
 The fluidized bed incinerator consists of a
vertical circular steel shell (reactor) with a grid
to support a sand bed and an air system to
provide warm air to the bottom of the sand
bed. The evaporation and incineration process
takes place within the super-heated sand bed
layer.
 In operation, air is pumped to the bottom of the unit through
orifices called “tuyeres”. The airflow expands (fluidizes) the
sand bed inside.
 The mass of suspended solids and gas, when active and at
operating temperature expands to about double at-rest volume.
 The sludge solids are injected into the heated sand bed.
 The sludge is mixed quickly within the fluidized bed by the
turbulent action of the bed. The minimum temperature needed
in the sand bed prior to injection of sludge is approximately
700oC.
 The fluidized bed is heated to its operating temperature 760oC-
820oC(1200 to 1500°F). Auxiliary fuel is added when needed
to maintain operating temperature.
 Moisture immediately evaporates. Organic matter ignites
and reduces to ash. Residues are ground to fine ash by
the sand movement.
 Fine ash particles flow up and out of the unit with
exhaust gases.
 Ash particles are removed using common air pollution
control processes (scrubbers etc.). Oxygen analyzers in
the exhaust gas stack control the airflow rate.
 Most of the ash (99%) is captured in the scrubber water,
and the total suspended solids content is approximately
20-30 % of the dry solids feed.
 The recycle flow is normally directed to an ash lagoon.
 Incineration methods for waste water sludge
have the potential to be significant
contributors to air pollution.
 Major air contamination
▪ Odour
▪ Combustion emission
▪ Particulates
▪ Heavy metals (mercury, beryllium etc.)
 Sewage is a water-carried waste, in solution or
suspension, that is intended to be removed from a
community. Also known as wastewater, it is more than
99% water and is characterized by volume or rate of
flow, physical condition, chemical constituents and the
bacteriological organisms that it contains.
 Sewage is the subset of wastewater that is contaminated
with feces or urine, but is often used to mean any
wastewater. Sewage includes domestic, municipal, or
industrial liquid waste products disposed of, usually via a
pipe or sewer.
❑ Domestic sewage comprises spent water from kitchen,
bathroom, lavatory, etc.
❑ The factors which contribute to variations in
characteristics of the domestic sewage are daily per
capita use of water, quality of water supply and the
type, condition and extent of sewerage system, and
habits of the people.
❑ Municipal sewage, which contains both domestic and
industrial wastewater, may differ from place to place
depending upon the type of industries and industrial
establishment.
 1.Temperature
▪ The observations of temperature of sewage are useful in
indicating solubility of oxygen, which affects transfer capacity of
aeration equipment in aerobic systems, and rate of biological
activity.
▪ In general, under Indian condition the temperature of the raw
sewage was observed to be between 15 to 35 C at various places
in different seasons.
 2.The pH
▪ The pH of the fresh sewage is slightly more than the water
supplied to the community. However, decomposition of organic
matter may lower the pH, while the presence of industrial
wastewater may produce extreme fluctuations. Generally the pH
of raw sewage is in the range 5.5 to 8.0.
 3.Colour and Odour
▪ Fresh domestic sewage has a slightly soapy and cloudy
appearance depending upon its concentration.
▪ As time passes the sewage becomes stale, darkening in
colour with a pronounced smell due to microbial activity.
 4.Solids
▪ The sewage solids may be classified into dissolved solids,
suspended solids and volatile suspended solids.
▪ Knowledge of the volatile or organic fraction of solid,
which decomposes, becomes necessary, as this constitutes
the load on biological treatment units or oxygen resources
of a stream when sewage is disposed of by dilution.
 5.Nitrogen The principal nitrogen compounds in domestic
sewage are proteins, amines, amino acids, and urea.
▪ Ammonia nitrogen in sewage results from the bacterial
decomposition of these organic constituents.
▪ Nitrogen being an essential component of biological
protoplasm, its concentration is important for proper
functioning of biological treatment systems and disposal on
land.
▪ Generally, the domestic sewage contains sufficient nitrogen, to
take care of the needs of the biological treatment.
▪ Generally nitrogen content in the untreated sewage is observed
to be in the range of 20 to 50 mg/L measured as TKN.
 6. Phosphorus
▪ Phosphorus is contributing to domestic sewage from food
residues containing phosphorus and their breakdown products.
▪ The use of increased quantities of synthetic detergents adds
substantially to the phosphorus content of sewage.
▪ Phosphorus is also an essential nutrient for the biological
processes.
▪ The concentration of phosphorus in domestic sewage is
generally adequate to support aerobic biological wastewater
treatment.
▪ The concentration of PO4 in raw sewage is generally observed
in the range of 5 to 10 mg/L.
 7.Chlorides
▪ Concentration of chlorides in sewage is greater than
the normal chloride content of water supply.
▪ The chloride concentration excess than the water
supplied can be used as an index of the strength of the
sewage.
▪ Any abnormal increase should indicate discharge of
chloride bearing wastes or saline ground water
infiltration, the latter adding to the sulphates, which
may lead to excessive generation of hydrogen
sulphide.
 8.Organic Material
▪ Generally quantified or expressed in terms of BOD,
COD, TOC etc.
 .Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):
▪ The BOD of the sewage is the amount of oxygen
required for the biochemical decomposition of
biodegradable organic matter under aerobic conditions.
▪ The oxygen consumed in the process is related to the
amount of decomposable organic matter. The general
range of BOD observed for raw sewage is 100 to 400
mg/L.
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
▪ The COD gives the measure of the oxygen required
for chemical oxidation. It does not differentiate
between biological oxidisable and non-oxidisable
material.
▪ However, the ratio of the COD to BOD does not
change significantly for particular waste and hence
this test could be used conveniently for interpreting
performance efficiencies of the treatment units.
▪ In general, the COD of raw sewage at various places is
reported to be in the range 200 to 700 mg/L.
 9.Toxic Metals and Compounds
▪ Some heavy metals and compounds such as chromium,
copper, cyanide, which are toxic may find their way
into municipal sewage through industrial discharges.
▪ The concentration of these compounds is important if
the sewage is to treat by biological treatment methods
or disposed off in stream or on land.
▪ In general these compounds are within toxic limits in
sanitary sewage however, with receipt of industrial
discharges they may cross the limits in municipal
wastewaters.
 The conventional plant’s performance is usually
measured by reductions in suspended matter,
BOD, and bacteria.
 Conventional plants are best identified by what
they do not achieve, namely nutrient removal,
demineralization, and the removal of trace
organics.
 The processes in conventional plants include
1. Pretreatment
2. Primary treatment (Settling)
3. Chemical treatment
4. Biochemical oxidation
5. Disinfection
6. Sludge conditioning and disposal processes.
Conventional domestic wastewater treatment process flow sheet.
 Pretreatment Processes
▪ To protect pumping equipment, control and
monitor instruments and prevent clogging filters.
▪ Pretreatment equipment includes screens,
grinders, skimmers, and grit chambers.
▪ Flow equalization is also a pretreatment process.
▪ Equalization assists in controlling hydraulic
overloads that can occur during the day and also
balances the incoming waste strength.
 Settling or Clarification
 Settling processes remove settleable solids by gravity settling
either prior to or after biological or chemical treatment and
between multiple-stage biological or chemical treatment steps.
 Both circular and rectangular tank shapes (known as clarifiers)
are used.
 In larger tanks, mechanical scrapers accumulate the solids at
an underflow withdrawal point, whereas in smaller and some
older systems, a hopper bottom is used for solids collection.
 Settling tanks are commonly designed based on the overflow
rate, the unit volume of flow per unit of time divided by the
unit of tank area.
 Chemical Treatment
 Traditional chemical precipitation uses either iron or
aluminum salts to form a floc, which is then settled.
Lime also clarifies.
 This process step can reduce the SS up to 85%. The
accumulated chemical sludge is removed by gravity
flow.
 The chemicals and sewage are flash-mixed in a mixing
tank that has only a few minutes detention time followed
by 30 to 90 min detention in a flocculation tank that is
slowly agitated to aid floc growth.
 Biological Oxidation
▪ Attached growth & Suspended growth
▪ Aerobic and Anearobic
 Activated Sludge
 Trickling Filters
 RBC
 Lagoon and Oxidation Ponds
 Oxidation Ditch
 Disinfection
▪ Conventional treatment plants use chlorination as the
final treatment process to reduce bacteria
concentration.
▪ Prechlorination, performed on the plant influent, is
used if the incoming sewage is septic or the flows are
low and the holdup time in the plant is long enough
that the waste can become septic.
(Also see the disinfection discussed in Module I &II)