1.

Briefly describe correlation and experimental method, also discuss their strengths and limitations
(5m) (with the help of example)

2. Discuss the impact of priming, schema persistence and reasoning by metaphor on social cognition
with the help of suitable examples.

1. What Is a Correlational Study?

A correlational study is a type of research design that looks at the relationships between two
or more variables. Correlational studies are non-experimental, which means that the
experimenter does not manipulate or control any of the variables.

A correlation refers to a relationship between two variables. Correlations can be strong or

weak and positive or negative. Sometimes, there is no correlation.

There are three possible outcomes of a correlation study: a positive correlation, a negative
correlation, or no correlation. Researchers can present the results using a numerical value
called the correlation coefficient.

A research design known as a correlational study examines the connections between two or
more variables. Since correlational studies are not experiments, no variables are changed or
under the experimenter's control.

An association between two variables is referred to as a correlation. Strong or weak, positive

or negative correlations are possible. There may not always be a correlation.

A correlation study may reveal a positive correlation, a negative correlation, or no

association at all. The correlation coefficient is a numerical value that researchers can use to
display the findings.

Positive correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A correlation
coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation.
Negative correlations: As the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and
vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation.
No correlation: There is no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient
of 0 indicates no correlation.

Characteristics of a Correlational Study

Correlational studies are often used in psychology, as well as other fields like medicine.
Correlational research is a preliminary way to gather information about a topic. The method
is also useful if researchers are unable to perform an experiment.

Positive correlations occur when both variables rise or fall simultaneously. A high positive
association is indicated by a correlation coefficient that is near to 1.00.
negative correlations: When one variable's concentration rises, the other one falls (and vice
versa). A significant negative connection is indicated by a correlation coefficient that is near
to 1.00.
No relationship: The two variables don't have any connection to one another. There is no
association when the correlation coefficient is 0.

Characteristics of Correlational Studies

In addition to other disciplines like medicine, correlational investigations are frequently
employed in psychology. A preliminary method of gathering data about a subject is
correlational research. The approach is also helpful if experimentation is not possible.
Researchers use correlations to see if a relationship between two or more variables exists,
but the variables themselves are not under the control of the researchers.

While correlational research can demonstrate a relationship between variables, it cannot

prove that changing one variable will change another. In other words, correlational studies
cannot prove cause-and-effect relationships.

Advantages of correlational research

 With the help of this research, you can study the statistical relationship between the
two variables.
 It is less expensive and less time-consuming.
 You can see the variables in a natural setting.
 It is an alternative to experimental research. If you can’t do the experiment, you can
do this research.

Correlational analysis can show a connection between variables, but it cannot establish that
altering one would alter another. Correlational research cannot establish cause-and-effect
connections, in other words.

Correlational research benefits

• You can examine the statistical link between the two variables with the aid of this
research.
• It takes less time and is less expensive.
• The variables are visible in a natural environment.
• It offers a substitute for experimental research. You can conduct this research instead of
the experiment if you can't.

Disadvantages of correlational research

 This research is limited in its nature. It can only determine the relationship between
two variables not more than two variables.
 It doesn’t prove the cause and effect between the variables. It means it doesn’t
indicate which variable becomes the cause of the statistical pattern.
 You cannot have control over the variables. It only allows you to observe or spot the
variables and their statistical patterns.
  The information you get from this research is limited. It only studies the relationship
of variables but does not find the cause.

Correlational research's drawbacks

• The scope of this research is constrained. It is only capable of establishing a relationship

between two variables, never more.
• It fails to establish a link between the variables' causes and effects. This means that it is
unable to identify the variable that ultimately drives the statistical pattern.
• The variables are out of your control. You can only observe the variables and their
statistical patterns with this method.
•
You only learn a few things from this research. Finding the cause is not done; rather the
relationships between variables are studied.

Examples of correlational research

Correlational research examples are numerous and highlight several instances where a correlational
study may be carried out in order to determine the statistical behavioral trend with regards to the
variables under consideration. Here are 3 case examples of correlational research. 

Correlational research examples

Examples of correlational research abound and illustrate a variety of situations in which a

correlational study may be conducted to ascertain the statistical behavioural trend with respect to
the variables under examination. Here are three correlational research case studies.

 You want to know if wealthy people are less likely to be patient. From your experience, you
believe that wealthy people are impatient. However, you want to establish a statistical
pattern that proves or disproves your belief. In this case, you can carry out correlational
research to identify a trend that links both variables. 
 You want to know if there’s a correlation between how much people earn and the number
of children that they have. You do not believe that people with more spending power have
more children than people with less spending power. 

o If affluent people are less inclined to be patient, that is what you want to know.
According to your observations, wealthy individuals lack patience. Establishing a
statistical pattern that supports or refutes your view is what you're after, though. In
this situation, correlational research can be used to find a pattern connecting the
two variables.
o You're interested in finding out if there's a connection between people's income
levels and their family size. You don't think that people with higher incomes have
more kids than individuals with lower incomes.

You think that how much people earn hardly determines the number of children that they have. Yet,
carrying out correlational research on both variables could reveal any correlational relationship that
exists between them. 

 You believe that domestic violence causes a brain hemorrhage. You cannot carry out an
experiment as it would be unethical to deliberately subject people to domestic violence. 
However, you can carry out correlational research to find out if victims of domestic violence suffer
brain hemorrhage more than non-victims. 

You believe that a person's income little influences the number of children they have. Any
correlational relationship between the two variables, however, may be discovered by conducting
correlational study on both of them.

• You think that brain bleeding results from domestic violence. Because it would be unethical to
purposefully subject someone to domestic violence, you cannot conduct an experiment.

However, correlational research can be used to determine whether domestic violence victims
experience brain haemorrhage more frequently than non-victims.

Experimental Method
An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In an
experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is manipulated and the dependent variable
(the effect) is measured; any extraneous variables are controlled.

The goal of an experiment is to test one or more hypotheses and to find cause and effect
relationships. Therefore, correlational studies and other research methods that do not
involve manipulation of variables are not true experiments. A true experiment is carefully
planned, tightly controlled, objective (free of bias), and easy to replicate.

Experimental Method
An experiment is a study in which a theory is put to the test in a scientific manner. In an
experiment, the cause, the independent variable, is changed while the effect, the dependent
variable, is measured and any unrelated factors are controlled.

An experiment's objectives include testing one or more hypotheses and identifying cause-
and-effect correlations. Correlational studies and other research techniques without variable
manipulation are not actual experiments, as a result. A genuine experiment is well thought
out, strictly monitored, impartial (bias-free), and simple to duplicate.

STEPS OF AN EXPERMENT
Advantages of Experimental Research

 It provides researchers with a high level of control. Each variable can be controlled on its
own or in different combinations to study what possible outcomes are available for a
product, theory, or idea as well. This provides a tremendous advantage in an ability to find
accurate results.
 There is no limit to the subject matter or industry involved. It can be used in a wide variety
of situations.
 The results of experimental research can be duplicated. Experimental research is
straightforward, basic form of research that allows for its duplication when the same
variables are controlled by others. This helps to promote the validity of a concept for
products, ideas, and theories.
 Experimental research allows cause and effect to be determined. The manipulation of
variables allows for researchers to be able to look at various cause-and-effect relationships
that a product, theory, or idea can produce.

LIMITATIONS

 Artificiality: The experiment is not typical of real-life situations. Most experiments are
conducted in laboratories - strange and contrived environments in which people are asked
to perform unusual or even bizarre tasks. The artificiality of the lab, together with the
'unnatural' things that the subjects may be asked to do, jointly produces a distortion of
behaviour. Therefore, it should be difficult to generalise findings from experiments because
they are not ecologically valid (true to real life).
  A major difficulty with the experimental method is demand characteristics. Some of the
many confounding variables in a psychology experiment stem from the fact that a
psychology experiment is a social situation in which neither the Subjects or the
Experimenters are passive, inanimate objects but are active, thinking human beings.
 it is not possible to completely control all variables. There may be other variables at work
which the experimenter is unaware of. In particular, it is impossible to completely control
the mental world of people taking part in a study.
 A very major problem with the experimental method concerns ethics. It is also important to
recognise that there are very many areas of human life which cannot be studied using the
experimental method because it would be simply too unethical to do so.

Examples of Experimental Research

Experimental research examples are different, depending on the type of experimental research
design that is being considered. The most basic example of experimental research is laboratory
experiments, which may differ in nature depending on the subject of research.

Administering Exams After the End of Semester

During the semester, students in a class are lectured on particular courses and an exam is
administered at the end of the semester. In this case, the students are the subjects or dependent
variables while the lectures are the independent variables treated on the subjects.

Only one group of carefully selected subjects are considered in this research, making it a pre-
experimental research design example. We will also notice that tests are only carried out at the end
of the semester, and not at the beginning.

Further making it easy for us to conclude that it is a one-shot case study research.

Employee Skill Evaluation

Before employing a job seeker, organizations conduct tests that are used to screen out less qualified
candidates from the pool of qualified applicants. This way, organizations can determine an
employee’s skill set at the point of employment.

In the course of employment, organizations also carry out employee training to improve employee
productivity and generally grow the organization. Further evaluation is carried out at the end of each
training to test the impact of the training on employee skills, and test for improvement.

Here, the subject is the employee, while the treatment is the training conducted. This is a pretest-
posttest control group experimental research example.

2. Impact of priming on social cognition

What is Priming?
Priming, or, the Priming Effect, occurs when an individual’s exposure to a certain stimulus
influences his or her response to a subsequent stimulus, without any awareness of the
connection. These stimuli are often related to words or images that people see during their
day-to-day lives.
Describe priming.
When a person is exposed to one stimulus and then responds to another without being
aware of the link, this is known as priming or the priming effect. These stimuli are frequently
connected to words or pictures that people view on a daily basis.

Individual effects
The priming effect can have a tremendous impact in ways that are detrimental to ourselves
and those around us. Studies have shown that we can be primed to behave in certain
manners based on things we have read, watched, and heard. The professor John Bargh
demonstrated the effects of priming by having different students unscramble sentences that
reflected aggression, patience, and positivity. After they finished unscrambling their
sentences, they were made to wait for Bargh to check their answers. Bargh found that the
students who were given the sentences about aggression to unscramble became the most
frustrated at the waiting time to have their answers checked. The students who were given
the sentences about patience and positivity, however, were the least frustrated when
waiting to have their answers checked. The study thus proved that if we are primed to act in
a certain manner, we become more likely to act in that way.

Individual effects
The priming effect can have a significant negative impact on both us and others around us.
According to studies, the things we read, watch, and hear might condition us to act in
particular ways. John Bargh, a professor, used unscrambled sentences that expressed anger,
patience, and positivity to show the effects of priming. They had to wait for Bargh to review
their answers when they had finished deciphering their words. The students who were given
lines involving aggression to unscramble showed the greatest signs of frustration while
waiting for their solutions to be evaluated, according to Bargh. However, when waiting for
their solutions to be checked, the students who received the phrases about positivity and
patience felt less impatient. The study so demonstrated that when we are primed to act in a
particular way, we are more likely to do so.

Systemic effects
The priming effect can impact society if enough individuals are primed to behave or think in
a specific manner. For companies with recognizable brands, the priming effect can be used
to exploit how people think in order to have them buy more company products. Indeed,
companies can activate or bring certain associations forward into the memory of consumers
to make them more receptive to the product the company wishes to sell. This process is
called a ‘behavioral pump’ and can dramatically influence consumer decision-making.
Without an awareness of how the priming effect impacts their purchasing habits, consumers
can fall victim to the marketing techniques of big companies.

Systematic effects
If a large enough number of people are influenced by the priming effect to act or think in a
certain way, society may be affected. The priming effect can be employed by businesses with
well-known brands to manipulate consumer behaviour and increase sales. In order to
increase customer receptivity to the product a company wants to sell, companies can in fact
activate or bring specific associations to the forefront of the consumer's mind. This
procedure, known as a "behavioural pump," has a significant impact on how consumers
make decisions. Consumers are vulnerable to the marketing strategies used by large
 corporations if they are unaware of how the priming effect affects their purchasing
decisions.
Priming suggests that certain schemas are activated in unison, which in turn leads related or
connected units of information to be activated at the same time. Once related schemas are
activated and more accessible, it becomes easier for us to draw related information into
memory more quickly, and we can thus respond faster when the need arises. For example,
the schemas related to rainstorms and slick roads may be linked in our memories. As a
result, when we drive and it is raining, the memory of slick roads comes to mind, leading us
to slow down and take precaution.

According to priming, some schemas are simultaneously activated, which causes connected
or related units of information to also be simultaneously active. Once connected schemas
are active and more readily available, it is simpler for us to quickly draw related information
into memory and we can therefore react more quickly when the need arises. For instance,
human memories may connect the schemas associated with rainstorms with treacherous
roadways. As a result, when it is raining and we are driving, the recollection of slick roads
prompts us to slow down and exercise caution.

SCHEMA PERSISTENCE
Schemas are based on our past experience and are often helpful— they permit us to make
sense out of a vast array of social information— they have an important “downside” too. By
influencing what we notice, enter into memory, and later remember, schemas can produce
distortions in our understanding of the social world.
 Unfortunately, schemas are often resistant to change—they show a strong perseverance
effect, remaining unchanged even in the face of contradictory information (Kunda & Oleson,
1995).
 Perhaps even worse, schemas can sometimes be self-fulfilling: They influence our responses
to the social world in ways that make it consistent with the schema!
 Do our cognitive frameworks—our schemas—actually shape the social world as well as
reflect it?

Schemas are founded on our prior experiences and, while they are frequently beneficial and
allow us to make sense of a wide range of social information, they can have a significant
"downside." Schemas can skew our perception of the social world by affecting what we
observe, store in memory, and later recall. Sadly, schemas are frequently resistant to
modify; they exhibit a significant persistence effect, remaining intact even in the presence of
opposing information (Kunda & Oleson, 1995).
• Schemas often impact our responses to the social world in ways that make it compatible
with the schema, which is perhaps even worse

 A large body of evidence suggests that this is definitely so (e.g., Madon, Jussim, & Eccles,
1997; Smith, Jussim, & Eccles, 1999).
 Perhaps the most dramatic evidence that schemas can be self-fulfilling was provided by
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968), in a famous study of teachers and the unintended effects of
their expectations on students. These researchers went to an elementary school and
administered an IQ test to all students.
 • A lot of evidence points to the fact that this is true (e.g., Madon, Jussim, & Eccles, 1997;
Smith, Jussim, & Eccles, 1999).
• In their well-known study of teachers and the unintended consequences of their
expectations on students, Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) offered perhaps the most
compelling evidence yet that schemas can be self-fulfilling. All of the pupils were given an IQ
test by these researchers when they visited an elementary school.

 Then they told the teachers that some of the students had scored very high and were about
to “bloom” academically. The teachers were not given such information about other
students, who constituted a control group. Although the researchers had chosen the names
of the students for each group randomly, they predicted that this information would alter
teachers’ expectations about the children and their behavior toward them.
 to find out if this was true, 8 months later the researchers tested both groups of children
once again. Results were clear: those who had been described as “bloomers” to their
teachers showed significantly larger gains on the IQ test than those in the control group.

• After that, they informed the teachers that a few of the pupils had received excellent
scores and were going to "bloom" academically. About the other pupils who made up the
control group, the teachers were not provided this information. Even though the names of
the students in each group were chosen at random by the researchers, they hypothesised
that knowing this knowledge would change what teachers thought of the kids and how they
treated them.
• Eight months later, the researchers evaluated both groups of kids once more to see if this
was accurate. The findings were unmistakable: individuals who had been labelled
"bloomers" by their teachers experienced considerably greater IQ test improvement than
those in the control group.

 in short, teachers’ beliefs about the students had operated in a self-fulfilling manner: The
students whose teachers believed they would “bloom,” actually did. So, schemas can be a
two-edged sword: They can help us make sense of the social world and process information
efficiently, but they can also lock us into acting in ways that create the world that we expect.

The children whose teachers believed they would "bloom" in fact did so. In other words,
teachers' ideas about the pupils had acted in a self-fulfilling manner. Schemas can therefore
be a double-edged sword: they can aid in our effective information processing and
understanding of the social world, but they can also prevent us from acting in ways that do
not conform to our expectations.

Impact on Learning and Memory

Schemas help us interact with the world efficiently. They help us categorize incoming
information so we can learn and think more quickly. As a result, if we encounter new
information that fits an existing schema, we can efficiently understand and interpret it with
minimal cognitive effort.

However, schemas can also impact what we pay attention to and how we interpret new
information. New information that fits an existing schema is more likely to attract an
individual’s attention. In fact, people will occasionally change or distort new information so it
will more comfortably fit into their existing schemas.
Effects on Memory and Learning
Schemas facilitate us communication with the outside world. They aid in organising the
information we get so that we can learn and think more rapidly. As a result, humans may
effectively absorb and interpret new information with little cognitive effort provided it fits an
existing schema.

Schemas, however, can also affect our attention spans and how we understand brand-new
information. One is more likely to pay attention to new information if it fits into an existing
schema. In fact, individuals will occasionally alter or distort new information to better match
their preexisting schemas.

In addition, our schemas impact what we remember. Scholars William F. Brewer and James
C. Treyens demonstrated this in a 1981 study. They individually brought 30 participants into
a room and told them that the space was the office of the principal investigator. They waited
in the office and after 35 seconds were taken to a different room. There, they were
instructed to list everything they remembered about the room they had just been waiting in.
Participants’ recall of the room was much better for objects that fit into their schema of an
office, but they were less successful at remembering objects that didn’t fit their schema. For
example, most participants remembered that the office had a desk and a chair, but only
eight recalled the skull or bulletin board in the room. In addition, nine participants claimed
that they saw books in the office when in reality there weren’t any there.

Additionally, our memory is impacted by our schemas. In a 1981 study, academics William F.
Brewer and James C. Treyens proved this. 30 participants were individually led into a room,
where they were informed that it was the lead investigator's office. After 35 seconds of
waiting in the office, they were led to a different room. They were told to make a list of
every detail they could recall about the waiting room there. When it came to remembering
things in the room that matched their conception of an office, participants did considerably
better than when trying to recall things that didn't. For example, most participants
remembered that the office had a desk and a chair, but only eight recalled the skull or
bulletin board in the room. In addition, nine participants claimed that they saw books in the
office when in reality there weren’t any there.

Impact of reasoning by metaphor on social cognition

Might metaphors—linguistic devices that relate a typically abstract concept to another

dissimilar concept—shape how we perceive and respond to the social world? Because
metaphors can activate different kinds of social knowledge, they can influence how we
interpret events (Landau, Meier, & Keefer, 2010). Consider just a few metaphors:
Her presentation bombed; everyone affiliated with her tried to run for cover.
He lifted the spirits of the audience; he received a warm reception.
Where is our relationship heading? Are we on the right track?

Could metaphors—linguistic constructs that connect an abstract idea to an unrelated idea—

influence how we view and interact with the social world? Metaphors can affect how we
interpret events because they can activate various types of social knowledge (Landau, Meier,
& Keefer, 2010). Just a few metaphors to consider are
Everyone connected to her tried to hide after her presentation flopped.
He made the audience feel better and was welcomed with open arms.
What is the future of our relationship? Do we have the proper course?

What you should notice first is that although you may not have heard any of those specific
metaphors before, you can easily understand what is being communicated. In each of these
examples, abstract concepts are being used to give a particular meaning to a concrete event.
In the first sentence, people’s knowledge of warfare is being used to structure our
understanding of people’s response to the contents of a talk. In the second example, both
weight and temperature are used to guide our understanding of people’s response to the
contents of another talk. In the last example, the concept of a journey or travel is being
applied to love and relationships.

The first thing you should note is that even if you might not have come across any of those
particular metaphors previously, you can still clearly grasp what is being said. In each of
these instances, a concrete event is given a specific meaning through the employment of
abstract notions. To frame our understanding of how people react to the substance of a
discussion, the first line makes use of people's knowledge of battle. In the second
illustration, both weight and temperature are used to help us understand how individuals
reacted to the information in a different discussion. The idea of a voyage or travel is used to
describe love and relationships in the final illustration.

Does such metaphor use have consequences for social judgement and behavior? New
research is emerging that suggests this is so (Landau et al., 2010). Table 2.1 presents a
selection of metaphors, which when primed, can influenced a number of different types of
relevant social inferences and behavior. Let’s just consider one example. In order to make
the contamination metaphor available, Landau, Sullivan, and Greenberg (2009) had
participants first read about the many airborne bacteria in the environment, which were
described as either harmful to humans or not. Then, in a seemingly unrelated task about
American domestic issues, statements relating to the United States were presented using
the body metaphor (“After the Civil War, the United States experienced an unprecedented
growth spurt”) or without it (“After the Civil War, the United States experienced an
unprecedented period of innovation”).

Does the usage of metaphors have an impact on how people act and judge others? There is
new evidence that supports this (Landau et al., 2010). Table 2.1 lists several metaphors that,
when used as a cue, can affect a range of important social assumptions and behaviour. Let's
focus on a single illustration. Landau, Sullivan, and Greenberg (2009) required participants to
first read about the numerous airborne germs present in the environment, which were
classified as either harmful or not to humans in order to make the contamination metaphor
available. After that, comments concerning the United States were presented, either with or
without the body metaphor ("After the Civil War, the United States saw an incredible growth
surge"), in a task that seemed unconnected to the previous one but was actually about
domestic issues in America.

In the third phase of the study, participants were asked to indicate their attitudes toward
immigration. For those with a concern about “Body contamination”—because they’d been
told about how bacteria can harm humans—more negative attitudes toward immigration
were expressed when the metaphor of the United States as a body had been made salient
compared to when the United States had been described without this metaphor. So, how we
talk—literally the pictures we paint with our words—can affect how we interpret and
respond to the social world

Participants in the third round of the study were asked to express their views on
immigration. As a result of information about how bacteria can affect humans, those who
were worried about "Body contamination" reported more negative sentiments toward
immigration when the United States was portrayed using the body metaphor as opposed to
when it wasn't. As a result, the way we communicate—literally, the pictures we paint with
words—can influence how we see and react to the social world.