Notes in Questioned Documents

NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION
GENERAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. DOCUMENT. Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs, either visible or partially visible,
that may present or ultimately convey meaning to someone, maybe in the form of a pencil, ink writing,
typewriting, or printing on paper.
The term “document” applies to writings; to words printed, lithographed, or photographed; maps or
plans; seals, plates, or even stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved. In its plural form,
“documents” may mean; deeds, agreements, titles, letters, receipts, and other written instruments used
to prove a fact.
• The Latin word “Documentum” means “lesson, or example (in Medieval Latin, “instruction,
or official paper”), OR
• The French word “docere” means to teach.
According to Microsoft Encarta Reference Library (as a noun):

1. a formal piece of writing
2. object containing information
3. computer file
As a verb, Microsoft Encarta gives the following definition:

1. record information in or on media
2. support a claim with evidence
B. QUESTIONED. Any material which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.
C. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT. One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true and are
contested either in whole or part concerning its authenticity, identity, or origin. It may be a deed,
contract, will, election ballot, marriage contract, check, visa, application form, check writer,
certificate, etc.
D. DISPUTED DOCUMENT. A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the
document, and strictly speaking, this is the true meaning. In this text, as well as through prior usage,
however, “disputed document” and “questioned document” are used interchangeably to signify a
document under particular scrutiny.
E. STANDARD, a.k.a. STANDARD DOCUMENT - Are condensed and compact sets of authentic
specimens which, if adequate and proper, should contain a cross-section of the material from a
known source.
"Standard" in questioned documents investigation means those things whose origins are
known and can be proven and which can be legally used as examples to compare with other matters
in question. Usually, a standard consist of the known handwriting of a person such case, "standard"
has the same meaning as is understood by the word "specimen" of writing.
F. EXEMPLAR. A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to characterize known
material. Standard is the older term.
G. HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT. Any document wholly written and signed by one person; is also
known as a holograph. In several jurisdictions, a holographic will can be probated without anyone
having witnessed its execution.
H. REFERENCE COLLECTION. Material compiled and organized by the document examiner to assist
him in answering particular questions. Reference collections of typewriting, check writing
specimens, inks, pens, pencils, and papers are frequently maintained.
PDB Compilation, 2023 1

LEGAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENTS
A. LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS:

1. In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119: any written document by which a right is
established or an obligation is extinguished.
2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed or instrument executed by a
person in which some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced, or set forth.
3. Concerning Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule: any physical embodiment of
information or ideas, e.g., a letter, a contract, a receipt, a book of account, a blue print, or an X-ray
plate (Black’s Law Dictionary).
B. KINDS OF DOCUMENT:
1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT - notarized by a notary public or competent public official with solemnities
required by law.(Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742)
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENT - issued by the government or its agents or its officers have the authority
to do so and the offices, which per their creation, are authorized to issue and be issued in the
performance of their duties.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENT -executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary public or
of any person legally authorized, by which documents, some disposition, or agreement is proved,
evidenced, or set forth (US vs. Orera, 11 Phil. 596).
4. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT - executed following the Code of Commerce or any Mercantile Law,
containing disposition of commercial rights or obligations.
5. Electronic Document (E-Doc) – RA 8792, the e-commerce law
N.B. - A private document may become a public or official document when it

partakes the nature of a public or official record. So if the falsifications committed
on such document that is, when it is already a part of the public record,
falsification of public or official document is committed. However, if such private
document is intended to become a part of the public record, even though falsified
prior thereto, falsification of a public document is committed.
WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE DOCUMENTS - based on some Supreme Court Rulings.
1. A draft of a Municipal payroll that is not yet approved by the proper authority (People vs. Camacho,
44 Phil. 484).
2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up (People vs. Santiago,
CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
3. Pamphlets or books without evidence of disposition or agreement are not documents but merely
merchandise (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).
CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:

1. Documents with questioned signatures.
2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent alterations.
3. Contested or disputed holographic wills.
a. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL - will be entirely written in the handwriting of the testator
b. NOTARIAL WILL - signed by the testator, acknowledged before a notary public with three
witnesses.

4. Documents investigated the question of typewriting.
a. To ascertain their source
b. with a view of establishing their date
c. with a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations or substituted
pages.
5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.
6. Questioned documents in matters of materials used in their production.
7. Documents or writings were investigated because it is alleged that they identify some persons
through handwriting.
a. Anonymous and disputed letters,
b. superscriptions, registrations, and miscellaneous papers.
8. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently attacked or disputed.
CHAPTER TWO - DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. ADDITION - Any matter made a part of the document after its initial preparation may be referred to as
an addition.
B. CONCLUSION - A scientific judgment resulted from relating observed facts by logical, common-
sense reasoning following established rules or laws. In legal terms, the document examiner's decision
is called "opinion."
C. DOCUMENT EXAMINER. One who scientifically studies the details and elements of documents to
identify their source or discover other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred
to as handwriting identification experts, but today the work has outgrown this latter title and involves
other problems than merely examining handwriting.
D. ERASURE - The removal of writings, typewriting, or printing, from a document, is an erasure. It
maybe accomplished by either of two means. Chemical eradication is when the writing is removed or
bleached by chemical agents (e.g., liquid ink eradicator), and abrasive erasure is when the writing is
effaced by rubbing with a rubber eraser or scratching out with a knife or other sharp implement.
E. EXAMINATION - It is the act of making a close and critical study of any material, and with
questioned documents, it is the process necessary to discover the facts about them. Various types are
undertaken, including microscopic, visual photographic, chemical, ultraviolet, and infrared
examination.
F. EXPERT WITNESS. A legal term refers to a witness who, because of his unique training or
experience, is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue or a particular aspect of the case
involved in a court action. His purpose is to interpret technical information in his specialty to assist the
court in administering justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an expert witness.
G. HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION EXPERT. A common name for the document examiner.
H. IDENTIFICATION (Identity) – as used in this text, it is the state of being identical or absolutely the
same as in similarity of source or authorship of the questioned document and the standard document.
I. INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION - "insertion" and "interlineations" include writing and
other material between lines or paragraphs or adding a whole page to a document.
J. NON-IDENTITIFICATION (Non-identity) – as used in this text, the source or authorship of the
compared questions and standard specimens is different.
K. OBLITERATION - the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make the original invisible as an
addition.
L. OPINION. In legal language, it refers to the document Examiner's conclusion. In Court, he expresses
his opinion and demonstrates the reasons for arriving at his idea. Throughout this text, opinion and
conclusion are used synonymously.
M. QUALIFICATION. The professional experience, education, and ability of a document examiner.
Before he can testify as an expert witness, the court must rule that he is qualified in his field.

RATIONALE
Generally, the examination of questioned documents is restricted to “Scientific Comparison, "
meaning that the determination of authenticity, genuineness, falsification, or forgery lies on the availability
of known standards for comparison. After a thorough comparison, the following principle of
identification is applied:
“When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar and spe-

cifically oriented characteristic of such number and significance as to preclude
the possibility of their occurrence by mere coincidence and there are no
unaccounted for differences, it may be concluded that they are same in their
characteristics attributed to the same cause.”
DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Criminalistics Examination. This involves the detection of forgery, erasure, alteration, or obliteration
of documents.
Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner of questioned documents, said that an intelligent
police investigator could detect almost 75% of all forgeries by carefully examining a record with
simple magnifiers and measuring tools.
B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis. This is more focused on determining the author of the writing. It
is a more complex procedure and requires comprehensive study and experience.
FORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)
1. examination of signatures and initials
2. examination of anonymous letters
3. hand printing examination
B. Examination of Typewritings and type prints.
C. Examination of Inks
D. Examination of Erasures, alterations or obliterations, etc.
1. Detection of alteration
2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writings
E. Counterfeiting
1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like.
2. Examination of fake documents
F. Miscellaneous aspects
1. Determination of the age of documents
2. Identification of stamps
3. Examinations of seal and other authenticating devices
DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (In General)

A. VALUE -
1. In committing a crime, the criminal often finds it necessary to employ one or more documents to
further his act.
2. In some crimes, such as forgery, the document is integral to the crime.
3. In others, such as false claims against the government, documents often play an essential part in
proving the commission of the crime.
4. Proof of the fact that a document was altered or made by a particular individual may show that:
a. He committed the crime.

b. He knew about the crime.
c. He was present in a particular locality at a specified time.
B. PURPOSE - A document may be examined to know the following:
a. Identity of the author.
b. Actual contents of the document.
c. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
d. Alterations or erasures have been made.
e. The authenticity of the document.
THE LOGICAL PROGRESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. FIRST - ASCERTAIN THE FACTS: select "QUESTIONED," "DENIED," or "ADMITTED,"
"AUTHENTIC," and "DOUBTFUL" documents.
1. Concerning the Document in Questioned.
a. Is only one signature in question?
b. Is any part of the document in question?
c. Is the date of the document questioned?
d. Is the paper or the typewriter used in the document in questioned? Etc.
2. Regarding the Standards:
a. Make sure that there are sufficient numbers of authentic documents for comparison submitted. If
there are inadequate standards, obtain more.
b. Determine whether the standards are authentic, on which a foundation can be built for admitting
them in evidence.
B. SECOND - ANALYZE THE DETAILS: Synthesize the elements, date, circumstances, conditions,
technical problems, and the like.
1. The examiner, after ascertaining the facts, should have detailed information as to the circumstances
of the questioned document, the condition of an alleged writer, or any condition that may have
affected the writing or typewriting or any facts that are part of the technical problem with the
document that is submitted to the expert.
2. He should inquire about the circumstances and conditions as far as the client knows, such as; was the
document was signed on the wall, on the lap, or lying in bed. Was he sitting on the bed, lying on his
back or side? For example, a document could have been signed in a moving automobile or while
drinking at the bar.
C. THIRD - QUALIFY THE CASE:

1. How much time is needed for the examination?
2. Is it possible to complete the study from the original papers, or is it necessary to make special photo-
enlargements for proper examination?
3. If it is possible to make arrangements with the client for photo-enlargement, is it advisable to do so?
4. Photo-enlargements are always useful for demonstrating the reasons on which the opinion is based,
especially in Court.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION:

A. Analysis (Recognition) - properties or characteristics, observed or measured.
B. Comparison - Properties or characteristics of the unknown determined thought analysis are now
compared with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.
C. Evaluation- Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics will each have a certain value
for identification, determined by its likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of each must
therefore be considered.
CRITERION FOR SCIENCE

A. Accuracy – correspondence between results obtained and the truth.

B. Precision – measure of the consistency of results obtained in repeated study or experimentation.
In scientific study of signatures/handwritings, we learn the basic facts and

then reason carefully and logically from these facts according to established
and recognized rules in order to form an opinion or conclusion as to whether
a questioned signature/handwriting is genuine or forged.
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS - It is the initial examination conducted on a document

to determine whether it is genuine or not. It is not a misnomer, for in reality it consists of painstaking
analysis more than looking at a document and expressing an off-hand opinion.
A. THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT:

1. ensures preparedness;
2. avoidance of delay; and
3. ensures success of the case.
B. Principal points for consideration in the PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION of questioned documents.

Please note that these questions may not be applicable in every case.
1. Is the signature genuine?
2. Is the signature in a natural position?
3. Are the signatures of the witnesses genuine and were they written in the order as they appear?
4. Does the signature touch the other writings? Or was it written last?
5. Are there remains of pencil or carbon marks which may have been an outline for the signature of
other writings?
6. Is the signature shown in an embossed form on the back of the sheet?
7. Is the writings written before the paper was folded?
8. Is the signature written before or after the paper was folded?
9. Is more than one kind of ink used in the preparation of the document?
10. Are the several sheets of the document exactly the same sizes, thickness and colors?
11. Is the paper torn, burned or mutilated in any way, and if so, for what purpose?
12. Is the paper unnecessary soiled or crumpled?
13. Does the document contain abrasion, chemical/pencil erasures, and alterations/substitutions of any
kind?
14. Does the document show abrasion, erasure or lack of continuity when viewed by transmitted light?
15. Has the document been wet in any way and if so, for what purpose?
16. If typewritten, are the contents of the document all written on the same machine?
17. Was each sheet written continuously at one time without being removed from the typewriter?
18. Are there added figures, words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs or pages written on a different
typewriter?
19. Do the perforations agree with the stubs from which the alleged document came?
20. If the document is a carbon copy, does it conform in the size, position, and arrangement of matters
with original letterheads?
21. If the document is a letter, does postmark, postage stamps, manner of sealing and opening of
envelope have any significance?
22. Are there indentations in the paper from handwriting or typewriting on a sheet placed above the
paper examined?
23. Is the rubber-stamp impression if any appears made from a genuine stamp?
24. Is the attached seal of proper date or the seal impression made from a genuine seal and is it made in
proper sequence?

C. Who Conducts the Preliminary Examination? – It should be conducted by a QUESTIONED
DOCUMENT EXPERT.
D. Who is a Questioned Document Expert? A Questioned Document Expert is one who has:
1. Attained the appropriate education and training;
2. Sufficient knowledge on the technical, scientific, and legal aspects of document examinations; and
3. A broad experience in handling questioned document cases.
E. REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT:

1. Assurance of preparedness;
2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted with document cases; consequently, they do not
possess the knowledge of the documents expert's ability of the various methods that exist for
determining forgeries.
3. Avoidance of an “OFF-HAND” opinion.
F. What is an “OFF-HAND OPINION”? Off-hand opinion is usually a conclusion that is not based on
thorough scientific examination.
G. THE DANGER OF OFF-HAND OPINIONS - It has happened in some cases that an off-hand opinion,
has sent an innocent man to prison, while a murderer was given a chance to escape.
INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATIONS

A. MAGNIFYING LENS – Bank personnel and other people involved in currency examinations
usually use and ordinary hand-lens; the maximum diameter of which is four inches, and this
appears big with its wide frame it has a magnifying power of two times the original only.
Magnifying lenses of five times or more magnifying power, with built-in-lighting are more
useful.
B. SHADOWGRAPH – a pictorial image formed by casting a shadow, usually of the hands, upon a
rightful surface or screen.
C. STEREOSCOPIC BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE – a tri-dimensional (3D) enlargement is possible.
D. MEASURES AND TEST PLATES (TRANSPARENT GLASS) – those used for signatures and type
writings.
E. TABLE LAMPS WITH ADJUSTABLE SHADES (Goose Neck Lamps) – used for controlled
illumination; needed in sidelight examination wherein light is placed at a low-angle in a position
oblique to plane or document.
F. TRANSMITTED LIGHT GADGET – a device where light comes from beneath or behind glass on
document is placed.
G. ULTRA VIOLET LAMP – this is usually used in the detection of counterfeited bills but can actually
be used to detect security features of qualified documents.
H. INFRARED VIEWER – primarily used to decipher writings in a charred document.
I. COMPARISON MICROSCOPE – similar to that of the bullet comparison microscope.
TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:

A. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any examination or study which is made with the microscope in
order to discover minute physical details. Stereoscopic examination with low and high power
objectives is used to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen-lift in signature analysis.
With proper angle and intensity or illumination, it aids in the decipherment of erasures, some
minute manipulations not perfectly pictured to the unaided eye and the sequence of entries done by
different writing instruments.

B. TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION-In this examination, the document is viewed with the source
of illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper. Documents are subjected to this type of
examination to determine the presence of erasures, matching of serrations and some other types of
alterations.
C. OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION - An examination with the illumination so controlled that it grazes
or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very low angle. Decipherment of faded
handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery, embossed impressions, etc. are subjected to this
type of examination.
D. PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION - This type of examination is very essential in every document
examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photographs.
E. ULTRA-VIOLET EXAMINATION - Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and occurs in the wave lengths
just below the visible blue-violet end of the spectrum (rainbow). These visible rays react on some
substances so that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon known as FLOURESCENCE.
This type of examination is done in a darkroom after the lamp has been warmed up in order to give a
maximum output of the ultra-violet light. Exposure to the ultra-violet light should be to the minimum
duration in order to avoid fading of some writing ink and typewriter ribbon.
F. INFRARED EXAMINATION - This examination of documents employs invisible radiation beyond the
red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow) which is usually recorded on a specially sensitized
photographic emulsion.
PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. PURPOSES OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN QDE:
1. serve as record of the initial condition of a disputed document;
2. make clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct;
3. enlarge a writing in question so that every quality and characteristics of it can be clearly and
properly interpreted whether the facts so shown point to genuineness or to forgery;
4. enable any number of accurate reproductions of document, thus affording unlimited opportunity
for study, comparison and evaluation by any number of examiners, which would not be possible by
using the document alone;
5. allow cutting apart as may be desired and the various parts classified for comparisons;
6. can show delicate discolorations due to chemical erasures or other fraudulent changes, which may
otherwise be overlooked, or misinterpreted;
7. can show very clearly any erasures by abrasions made by ordinary rubber eraser and it can record
in permanent form with the paper placed obliquely to the plane of the lens and plate and inclined at
just right angle of reflection so as to show differences in the reflected light from different portions
of the paper surface; and
8. with transmitted light, photographs is useful in:
a. examination of watermarks
b. determining the identity, or the differences in paper by showing arrangement of the fibers and
the markings of the wire gauze and dandy roll
c. showing the continuity of strokes and
d. determining retouching or patching of a writing by showing clearly the presence of added ink
film and the uneven distribution of ink in interrupted strokes.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS:
A. ERASURES - One of the common inquiries in questioned document is whether or not an erasure was
actually made on a document. In cases like this, the following examinations are made:
1. Physical inspection: using ultraviolet light, observation with light striking the surface at a sharp
angle, and observation under the microscope maybe considered.
2. Fuming with iodine may cause an almost negligible stain, but in most instances not the slightest
semblance of a stain remains.

B. INDENTED WRITING - Indented writing is a term usually applied to the partially visible depressions
appearing on a sheet of paper underneath the one on which the visible writing appears. These
depressions or indentation are due to the application of pressure on the writing instrument and would
appear as a carbon copy if a sheet of carbon paper had been properly inserted. Indentation may also
appear on a blank sheet of paper if such is used as a backing sheet while typing out a message on a
typewriter. Methods of examination are:
1. Physical methods maybe used by passing a strong beam of nearly parallel light almost horizontally
over the surface of the paper.
2. Fuming the document maybe of values in some cases.
3. Powders of various kinds maybe used without changing the document.
C. BURNED OR CHARRED PAPER - A piece of paper maybe subjected to the action of a limited
amount of heat, causing it to become scorched and retaining a certain amount of its identity or it maybe
subjected to intense heat, reducing it to ashes and losing its identity. However, if the combustion is
incomplete, a certain amount of success maybe realized provided the pieces are large enough to form a
coherent message.
The following methods maybe applied to decipher the original message contained thereon:
1. Photographic methods, using various types of filters and different angles of illumination may
determine the writing contained thereon without changing the appearance of the charred
fragments.
2. Chemical methods, such as spraying, painting, or bathing charred pieces with solutions of
different chemical reagents.
3. Photographic plates maybe utilized by allowing the charred paper to remain in contact with the
emulsion sides in total darkness from one to two weeks.
D. ADDING MACHINES - The construction of an adding machine differs greatly from the typewriter but
the methods and principles of identification are related.
Manufacturers use different types of numerals and from time to time change their design. The
spacing between columns is also not standardized for all machines. Those factors form the basis of
determining the make of the machine and for estimating the period in which it was built.
Another kind of approach is the ribbon impression, for the ribbon is made and operates very
similarly to the typewriter.
Adding machines are not all alike and technical case study
leads to the discovery of identifying factors.
HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A. THE CARE OF DISPUTED DOCUMENTS AND DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE:
1. It is a basic requirement, that when a document becomes disputed and deposited in court or with the
attorney, in order to maintain its original condition, it should be kept UNFOLDED AND IN A
SEPARATE, PROPER SIZE ENVELOPE OR FOLDER. This is true not only for the disputed
documents, but for many other important documentary evidence.
2. It is also advisable that right after the document becomes disputed, or questioned, it is
important to make not only the usual photo static copy (Xerox), but also a proper photograph or
photo-enlargement, done if possible by the document expert or under the supervision of the
document expert.

3. When working in the preparation of case, it is often necessary for the lawyer or court to
handle repeatedly the disputed document. Should this be necessary, instead of handling and
working with the original document, the photograph should be used.
4. Every touching, folding, refolding or pointing to certain parts of a document, can change the physical
condition of the case. For example, touching with wet hands or fingers can create smearing in the
ink, pointing with a pencil can leave marks that create a suspicion of previous pencil marks, or
experiments as proof of attempted forgery.
5. Pointing a document with any other instruments, such as sharp stick, can cause slight damage which
although it can not be seen by the naked eye, can show definite marks under the microscope or on
the enlarged photograph.
6. No test should be made to alter the conditions of the document; for example, the old-fashioned ink
test, which was used to determine the age of the ink-writing.
7. Should any test be necessary, insist that it should be done in the presence of a chemist, or in court, or
in front of both parties involved the case.
B. DO's and DON'T's in the CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

1. “DO’S”
a. Take disputed papers to Document Examiner's Laboratory at the First Opportunity.
b. If storage is necessary, keep in dry place away from excessive heat strong light.
c. Maintain in consequential document, unfolded and in transparent plastic envelope or evidence
preserver.
2. “DONT’S”
a. Do not underscore, make careless markings, fold, erase, impress rubber stamps, sticker, write on,
or otherwise alter any handwriting.
b. Do not smear with fingerprints powder or chemicals.
c. Do not carry handwriting document carelessly in wallet, notebook or brief case on grounds of
interviews.
d. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry then in pocket for a long time.
e. Do not marked disputed documents (either by consciously writing instruments or dividers)
f. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting, tearing or punching for filing
purposes.
g. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or other tests; do no treat or
dust for latent finger prints before consulting a document examiner.
C. HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENTS:

1. Those extremely fragile must be handled as little as possible and transporting them to the laborato-
ry requires extra-ordinary care. With forethought and caution they can be brought from the distant
fire scene to the laboratory.
2. They should be moved in the container in which they are found whenever possible. When
the fragments are not packed tightly, they should be padded with lightweight absorbent cotton. If
jarring can not be entirely eliminated jarring the box must be kept to a minimum.
3. Thus every precaution must be taken in handling and transporting the charred residue in order to
prevent the large pieces from becoming unnecessarily and badly broken. The fragment must be held
firmly without crushing and prevent movement or shifting when finally packed in a sturdy container.

CHAPTER THREE - HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION:
HANDWRITING - It is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as whole,
combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued painstaking
effort. Some defined handwriting as “visible speech.”
KINDS OF WRITINGS:
A. Cursive – connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.
B. Script – separated or printed writing.
C. BLOCK – all CAPITAL LETTERS.
BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

A. In Wignore's Principles of judicial Proof, handwriting is defined as a visible effect of bodily movement
which is an almost unconscious expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting from fixed mental
impression of certain ideas associated with script form.
B. Environment, education and occupation affect individuals so variously in the formation of these
muscular habits that finally the act of writing becomes an almost automatic succession of acts
stimulated by these habits.
C. The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes difficult because the other person
cannot by mere will power reproduce in himself all the muscular combination from the habit of the
first writer.
Is handwriting/signature identification an “exact science”? – In the hand of a

qualified examiner operating under proper conditions, identification by means of
handwriting/signature is certain. Proper conditions include –
1. sufficient questioned writing
2. sufficient known writing
3. sufficient time
4. use of scientific instruments
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING:

In writing the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to the paper, the
directive impulse and the variation in muscular tension that according to the nature of tie writer's nervous
organization occur during the act or writing.
This center near the motor area of the cortex is responsible for the finger movement involved in
handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it becomes diseased as in a graphic, one loses the
ability to write although he could still grasp a fountain pen, ball pen or pencil. Thus, the ability or power
to hold a fountain pen or pencil to form symbols and words can be said to emanate from its cortical
center.
Two Groups of Muscles Involve in Handwriting:

1. extensor muscles - push up the pen to form the upward strokes
2. flexor muscles -which push the pen to from the downward strokes.
Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing - those which operate the joints
of the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in writing
work together to produce written form is known as motor coordination.

VARIATIONS IN HANDWRITING
A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the subjective mind but the hand does not
always produce a stereotyped duplicate of that pattern. The hand ordinarily is not an instrument of
precision and therefore we may not expect every habitual manual operation to be absolutely uniform.
The greater this skill in the art of penmanship, the less the variations there will be in the form of
individualize letters as well as in the writing as a whole.
A. CAUSES OF VARIATION:
1. Function of some external condition i.e. influence of the available space.
2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriation's, emotion and deception.
3. Position of letter - all the letters are to be found initially, medially, and finally. The fact of a
different position, especially in combination with another and particular letter, may modify any of
them in some way or another.
B. IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION
1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a highly important element of
identification. The qualities of personal variation include both its nature and its extent. It becomes
necessary to determine the amount, extent, and exact quality of the variations.
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will be exactly duplicated
in two individuals that such a coincidence becomes practically impossible and this multitude of
possible variations when combined is what constitutes individuality in handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergence in size, lateral spacing
and proportions actually indicate genuineness. Variation in genuine writing is ordinarily in
superficial parts and in size, proportions, degree of care given to the act, design, slant, shading, vigor,
angularity, roundness and direction of stroke.
“The most common error in the identification of handwriting is due to the

fact that the evidence of actual forgery is executed on the ground that
there is variation in genuine writing.”
DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

A. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.
B. After acquiring some degree of skill the children no longer follow the school model.
C. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break down.
D. In the course of trial and error, modification are made, simplification and elaborations, addition and
omissions occur.
1. The writing pattern of each child embodies unique combinations of such deviation from the standard
letter forms or school model, and becomes his personal habits.
2. Although thousands learn the same system and that the natural result is identity, but facts show
that it is not because those who were taught the same system or school copy a class of writers,
but such impairs does not by any means produce a slavish uniformity.
3. Variation begins as soon as writing begins and continues until each writer in the way that seems best
and easiest to him.
SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (school model) - refers to the standard of handwriting instruction taught in
particular school. Classes of copybook depend on the standard school copy adopted by a writer.
A. SYSTEMS of Early American Handwriting:

1. Old English round hand - in fact an Italian hand popular in 1840.
2. Modified round hand - early edition of the Spencerian, and the Payson, Dunton, and Scribners
copybook - 1840 -1860.
3. Spencerian - there is simplification by the omission of extra strokes and flourishes. And a general
tendency toward plainer letters than the preceding system, some of which were very ornate - 1860-
1890.
4. Modern Vertical writing 1890-1900
5. The arm movement writing - the manner or method of writing, instead of the form alone is especially
emphasized.
Out of these five divisions of early handwriting, the modern commercial hand systems developed.
This is characterized by free movement. And the forms adopted are best suited to easy rapid writing.
These are the Zaner and Blozer system of arm movement writing and the Palmer system of American
arm movement. The last great revolution in American handwriting was the adoption of vertical writing
which was in fact a reversion to the old system of slow but legible writing. The connecting stroke is
based on the small circle and is the most distinctive "round hand" ever devised. It was very slow
compared with writing based on the narrow ellipse like the Spencerian in which all connections were
almost points instead of broad curves. Most commercial handwritings tend toward straight connecting
strokes and narrow connections.
B. SOME MODERN SCHOOL MODEL FORMS

1. Palmer Copybook – commonly used in the United States prior to 1980.
2. D’Nealian Copybook – commonly used in the United States since 1980
3. British Copybook
4. French Copybook
5. German Copybook
C. SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COPY FORMS or System Characteristics as Basis in the Identification

of Handwriting:
1. Similarities of form are not indicative of identity unless they concern unusual form or what are
termed deviations from the normal. Similarities are bound to occur in different writings but such
similarities exist only in letters which are normal in form, the fact bears no significance.
2. All differences in form are indicated of non-identity
3. The likeness in form maybe general and simply indicate the class or genus or the difference that does
not differentiate maybe nearly superficial.
4. In many systems of writing, the date and influences of system of writing have an important bearing
on the question of genuine or of forgery and in other cases, the presence of European
characteristics in handwriting is a vital and controlling fact.
D. IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS (System of Writing) – May point:

3. to the nationality of the writer.
4. to the system learned.
5. to the date when the writing was acquired and
6. to some of the influences that have surrounded the writer.
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATIONS

A. ALIGNMENT - Is the relation of parts of the whole of writing or line of individual letters in words
to the baseline. It is the alignment of words. The relative alignment of letters.
B. ANGULAR FORMS – Sharp, straight strokes that are made by stopping the pen and changing
direction before continuing.
C. ARCADE FORMS – Forms that look like arches rounded on the top and open at the bottom.

D. CHARACTERISTICS - any property or mark which distinguishes and in document examination
commonly called to as the identifying details.
E. COLLATION - side by side comparison; collation as used in this text means the critical comparison
on side by side examination.
F. COMPARISON - the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their identifying
qualities; it refers not only a visual but also the mental act in which the element of one item are
related to the counterparts of the other.
G. DISGUISED WRITING - A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in hopes of
hiding his identity. The results, regardless of their effectiveness are termed disguised writing.
H. DOWNSTROKE – The movement of the pen toward the writer.
I. FORM – The writer’s chosen writing style. The way the writing looks, whether it is copybook,
elaborated, simplified or printed.
J. GARLAND FORMS – A cup-like connected form that is open at the top and rounded on the bottom.
K. GESTALT – The German word that means “complete” or “whole”. A good gestalt needs nothing
added or taken away to make it “look right”. Also a school of handwriting analysis that looks at
handwriting as a whole picture.
L. GRAPHOANALYSIS - the study of handwriting based on the two fundamental strokes, the curve
and the straight strokes.
M. GRAPHOMETRY - analysis by comparison and measurement.
N. GRAPHOLOGY - the art of determining character disposition and amplitude of a person from the
study of handwriting. It also means the scientific study and analysis of handwriting, especially with
reference to forgeries and questioned documents.
O. HANDLETTERING. Any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately;
also called handprinting.
P. LEFT-HANDED WRITING. See “wrong hand writing.”
Q. LETTER SPACE – The amount of space left between letters.
R. LINE DIRECTION – Movement of the baseline. May slant up, down, or straight across the page.
S. LINE QUALITY - the overall character of the ink lines from the beginning to the ending strokes.
There are two classes: Good Line quality and Poor Line quality. The visible records in the written
stroke of the basic movements and manner of holding the writing instrument is characterized by the
term "line quality". It is derived from a combination of actors including writing skill, speed rhythm,
freedom of movements, shading and pen position.
T. LINE SPACE – The amount of space left between lines.
U. MANUSCRIPT WRITING. A disconnected form of script or semi-script writing. This type of
writing is taught in young children in elementary schools as the first step in learning to write.
V. MARGINS – The amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.
W. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any study or examination which is made with the microscope
in other to discover minute details.
X. MOVEMENT – It is an important element in handwriting. It embraces all the factors which are
related to the motion of the writing instrument skill, speed freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis,
tremors and the like. The manner in which the writing instrument is move that is by finger, hand,
forearm or whole arm.
Y. NATURAL WRITING - Any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to control
or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality or execution.
Z. NATURAL VARIATION - These are normal or usual deviations found between repeated
specimens of any individual handwriting.
AA. PEN EMPHASIS - The act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surfaces. When the
pen-point has flexibility, this emphasis produces shading, but with more rigid writing points heavy
point emphasis can occur in writing w/out any evidence of shading; the act intermittently forcing
the pen against the paper with increase pressure.

BB. PEN HOLD – The place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the angle at which he
holds it.
CC. PEN POSITION - relationship between the pen point and the paper.
DD. PEN PRESSURE - the average force with which the pen contacts the paper. Pen pressure as
opposed to pen emphasis deals with the usual of average force involved in the writing rather than the
period increases.
EE. PRINTSCRIPT – A creative combination of printing and cursive writing.
FF. PROPORTION or RATIO - the relation between the tall and the short letter is referred as to the
ratio of writing.
GG. QUALITY. A distinct or peculiar character. Also, “quality” is used in describing handwriting to
refer to any identifying factor that is related to the writing movement itself.
HH. RHYTHM – The element of the writing movement which is marked by regular or periodic
recurrences. It may be classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality; the flourishing
succession of motion which are recorded in a written record. Periodicity, alternation of movement.
II. SHADING - Is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure on a flexible pen point or to
the use of a stub pen.
JJ. SIGNIFCANT WRITING HABIT – Any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently uncommon
and well fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification.
KK. SIMPLIFICATION – Eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook model.
LL. SIZE – May refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions between zones.
MM. SKILL - In any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a specimen of handwriting
usually contains evidence of the writer's proficiency; degree, ability, or skill of a write proficiency.
NN. SLOPE/SLANT - the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the baseline. There
are three classes:
1. Slant to the left;
2. Slant to the right; and
3. Vertical Slant.
OO. SPEED OF WRITING - The personal pace at which the writer’s pen moves across the paper.
PP. SPEED (SPEEDY) WRITING - Not everyone writes at the same rate so that consideration of the
speed of writing may be a significant identifying element. Writing speed cannot be measured pre-
cisely from the finished handwriting but can be interpreted in broad terms of slow, moderate, or
rapid.
QQ. SYSTEM (OF WRITING) - The combination of the basic design of letters and the writing
movement as taught in school make up the writing system. Writing through use diverges from the
system, but generally retains some influence of the basic training. See also copy book.
RR. TENSION – The degree of force exerted on the pen compared to the degree of relaxation.
SS. THREADY FORM – An indefinite connective form that looks flat and wavy.
TT. VARIABILITY – The degree to which the writing varies from the copybook model.
UU. VARIATION – The act or process of changing.
VV. WORD SPACE – The amount of space left between words.
WW. WRITING CONDITION – Both the circumstances under which the writing was prepared and
the factors influencing the writer’s ability to write at the time of execution. It includes the writer’s
position (sitting, standing, abed, etc.), the paper support and backing, and the writing instrument;
writing ability may be modified by the condition of the writer’s health, nervous state, or degree of
intoxication.
XX. WRONG-HANDED WRITING. Any writing executed with the opposite hand that normally used;
a.k.a. as “with the awkward hand.” It is one means of disguise. Thus, the writing of a right-
handed person which has been executed with his left hand accounts for the common terminology for
this class of disguise as "left-hand writing".
YY. WRITING IMPULSE – the result of the pen touching down on the paper and moving across the
page, until it is raised from the paper.

MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING
A. KINDS OF MOVEMENT
1. Finger Movement - the thumb, the first, second and slightly the third fingers are in actual motion.
Most usually employed by children and illiterates.
2. Hand Movement - produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with the wrist as the
center of attraction.
3. Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the table.
4. Whole Forearm Movement - action of the entire arm without resting. i.e., blackboard writing.
B. QUALITY OF MOVEMENT
1. Clumsy, illiterate and halting
2. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness
3. Strong, heavy and forceful
4. Nervous and irregular
5. Smooth, flowing and rapid
C. SPEED - Slow and drawn; Deliberate; average; and rapid
D. DIFFERENT MOVEMENTS EMPLOYED AFFECT WRITING IN – Smoothness; Directness;
Uniformity; Continuity of strokes; and Connecting or curves between letters
MOTOR COORDINATION - The special way in which the various muscles used in writing work together to
produced written forms.
A. CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR COORDINATION:

1. Free, smelt rounded curves
2. Gradual changes of directions
3. Pressure is always in a state of change, moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.
4. Speed
5. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of the line whereas in writing produced
with a slow motion as in the finger movement, the shading often has a "bunchy" appearance, in
which the maximum width of the shaded line is attained abruptly.
B. FAULTY COORDINATION IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE FOLLOWING:
1. Wavering and very irregular line or strokes with uncertain and unsteady progress. There is no
freedom of movement along the strokes of the letter-forms. The writing is obviously very slow and is
typical of the writing of a young child or for any one who painstakingly draws a picture of
an unfamiliar form.
2. Angular Line - a very common fault of coordination. Curves, large and small are not smoothly
rounded and there is no gradual change of direction. On the contrary, and angle marks almost every
change are direction in the line. Investigation has disclosed that angles are accompanied by a
lessening of writing speed.
Rhythm in Handwriting - Rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes working in full coordination.
This is manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes which increase and decrease in which like perfect
cones. Pressure is always in a state of change moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.
A. LACK OF RHYTHM - Characterized by a succession of awkward, independent, poorly directed and
disconnected motions.
B. IMPORTANCE OF RHYTHM - By studying the rhythm of the succession of strokes, one can
determine if the writer normally and spontaneously or write with hesitation as if he is attempting to
forge another signature.
C. LETTER OF CONNECTIONS - Determine the essential expression of the writing pattern. It is a
mean indicator of the neuromuscular function. Words are formed by connection letters to one another.

Even letters are formed by the joining of the upward and downward strokes. These types of
connections are:
1. Arcade - a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is a slow mode of connection resulting from
controlled movements.
2. Garland - Links the downward stroke to the upstrokes with a flowing curve swinging from left t
right. It is an easy, effortless mode of connection, written with speed.
3. Angular connective form- When the downward strokes and upward strokes meet directly, angular
connection is formed. This type of connection imposes a check on the continuity of movement
which is characterized by an abrupt stop and start in each turning point.
4. The threadlike connective form - the joining of downward and upward strokes is slurred to a
threadlike tracing or where rounded turns used at both top and bottom produce a double curve.
These forms appear both in the shaping of letters within the word.
THE WRITTEN STROKE:

A. STROKE DEFINED. STROKE - series of lines or curves written in a single letter; one of the lines of
an alphabet or series of lines or curves within a single letter; the path traced by the pen on the paper
B. TERMINOLOGIES CONCERNING STROKE CHARACTERISTICS

1. ARC – a curved formed inside the top curve of loop as in small letters
“h”, “m”, “n”, & “p”.
2. ARCH - any arcade form in the body of a letter found in small letters
which contain arches.
3. ASCENDER - is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.
4. BASELINE - maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be imaginary

alignment of writing; is the ruled or imaginary line upon which the
writing rests.
5. BEADED - Preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually

occurs in capital letters.
6. BEARD - is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.
7. BLUNT - the beginning and ending stroke of a letter (without

hesitation).
8. BODY - The main portion of the letter, minus the initial of strokes,
terminal strokes and the diacritic, of any. Ex: the oval of the letter
"O" is the body, minus the downward stroke and the loop.
9. BOWL - a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into
"O".
10. BUCKLE/BUCKLEKNOT - A loop made as a flourished which is

added to the letters, as in small letter "k & b", or in capital letters "A",
"K","P"; the horizontal end loop stroke that are often used to complete

a letter.
11. CACOGRAPHY - a bad writing.
12. CALLIGRAPHY - the art of beautiful writing.
13. DESCENDER - opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.
14. DIACRITIC - "t" crossing and dots of the letter "i" and "j". The
matters of the Indian script are also known as diacritic signs; an
element added to complete a certain letter, either a cross bar or a dot.
15. ENDING/TERMINATE STROKE OF TOE - the end stroke of a letter.
16. EYE/EYELET/EYELOOP - a small loop or curved formed inside the

letters. This may occur inside the oval of the letters "a, d, o"; the small
loop form by stroke that extend in divergent direction as in small
letters.
17. FOOT - lower part which rest on the base line. The small letter "m"
has three feet, and the small letter "n" has two feet.
18. HABITS - any repeated elements or details, which may serve to

individualize writing.
19. HESITATION - the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink

which is found when writing slows down or stop while the pen take a
stock of the position.
20. HIATUS/PEN JUMP - a gap occurring between a continuous stroke

without lifting the pen. Such as occurrence usually occurs due to
speed; may be regarded also as a special form of pen lift distinguish in
a ball gaps in that of perceptible gaps and appear in the writing.
21. HOOK - It is a minute curve or a ankle which often occurs at the end
of the terminal strokes. It also sometimes occurs at the beginning of an
initial stroke. The terminal curves of the letters "a", "d", "n", "m",
"p", "u", is the hook. In small letter "w" the initial curve is the hook;
the minute involuntary talon like formation found at the
commencement of an initial up stroke or the end terminal stroke.
22. HUMP - Upper portion of its letter "m","n","h" ,"k" - the rounded
outside of the top of the bend stroke or curve in small letter.
23. KNOB -the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to
the slow withdrawal of the pen from the paper (usually applicable to
fountain pen).
24. LIGATURE/CONNECTION - The stroke which connects two stroke
of letter; characterized by connected stroke between letters.
25. LONG LETTER - those letters with both upper and lower loops.

26. LOOP - A oblong curve such as found on the small letter "f", "g", "l"
and letters stroke "f" has two. A loop may be blind or open. A blind
loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the open space.
27. MAJUSCULE - a capital letter.
28. MINUSCULE - a small letter.
29. MOVEMENT IMPULSES - this refer to the continuity of stroke,

forged writing is usually produced by disconnected and broken
movements and more motion or movement impulses than in genuine
writing.
30. PATCHING - retouching or going back over a defective portion of a
written stroke. Careful patching is common defect on forgeries.
31. PEN LIFT - an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing

instrument from the paper.
32. RETRACE/RETRACING - Any part of a stroke which is super

imposed upon the original stroke. Ex: vertical stroke of the letters "d" ,
"t" while coming downward from the top to bottom will have a
retracing strokes; any stroke which goes back over another writing
stroke. In natural handwriting there may be instances in which the pen
doubled back over the course.
33. SHOULDER - Outside portion of the top curve, small letter "m" has
three shoulders and the small letter "n" has two, the small letter "h" has
one shoulder.
34. SPUR - A short initial or terminal stroke.
35. STAFF - Any major long downward stroke of a letter that is the long
downward stroke of the letter "b" , "g".
1.
36. STEM OR SHANK - the upright long downward stroke that is the
trunk or stalk, normally seen in capital letters.
37. TICK/HITCH - Any short stroke, which usually occurs at the top of
the letters.
38. TREMOR - A writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky strokes is

described as writing tremor.
39. WHIRL – The upstroke of a looping ascender.
C. OTHER TERMINOLOGIES CONCERNING STROKES:

1. AIRSTROKE – The movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and continues in the same
direction in the air.
2. COVERING STROKE – A stroke that unnecessarily covers another stroke in a concealing action.
3. FINAL – The ending stroke on a letter when it is at the end of a word.
4. UPSTROKE – Movement of the pen away from the writer.
5. SEQUENCE OF STROKES - The order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper is
referred to as their sequence.
6. SUPPORTED STROKES – Upstrokes partially covering the previous down strokes. Originally
taught in European schools.
7. TRAIT STROKE – a school o handwriting analysis that assigns personality trait manners to
individual writing strokes.
D. QUALITIES OF THE STROKES:

1. Expansion - whether the movement is extended or limited in its range with respect to both vertical
and horizontal dimension.
2. Co-ordination - whether the flow of movement is controlled or uncertain, smooth or jerky,
continuous or interrupted.
3. Speed - whether the movement has been rapid or slow and whether the pace has been steady or
variable.
4. Pressure- whether the pressure exerted in the movement and its upward and downward reach.
5. Direction- Left ward and right ward trend of they movement and its upward and downward reach.
6. Rhythm - in the sequence of movements that weave the total pattern, certain similar phases recur at
more or less regular intervals.
HANDWRITING PROBLEMS:
A. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality is genuine and corresponds
perfectly to the ordinary, and habitual signatures of that person.
B. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality was written by him but in a way
which was different from the ordinary manner and which is more or less different from the common
genuine signatures of that person.
C. A signature/handwriting contested by its author which in reality was written by a third person and
which is a forgery written in an attempted imitation of a model.
D. A spurious signature/handwriting written by somebody who did not attempt to imitate the signature of
a person and who uses a fictitious name and this to give his work the appearance of a signature.
E. An uncontested signature/handwriting, in fact, genuine but written by an unknown person whose name
must be deciphered by the document examiner.
GENERAL CLASSES OF QUESTIONED WRITING

A. Forged or simulated writings in which the attempt is made to discard one’s own writing and assume
the exact writing personality of another person.
B. Those writings that are disguised and in which the writer seeks to hide his own personality without
adapting that of another.
HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER IDENTIFYING FEATURES

Writing Habits - Writing by all its thousand of peculiarities in combination is the most personal and
individuals thing that a man does that leaves a record which can be seen and studies. This is what
constitutes individuality in handwriting.
A. GENERAL(CLASS) CHARACTERISTICS - These characteristics refer to those habits are part of
basic writing system or which are modifications of the system of writing found among so large a group
of writes that have only slight identification value.

B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS - They are characteristics which are the result of the writer's
muscular control, coordination, age, health, and nervous temperament, frequency of writing, personality
and character. They are found in the following:
1. Writing movement
2. Form and design of letters
3. Muscular control or motor control -
a. Loose writing - this is characterized by too much freedom of movement and lack of regulation.
This is noticed especially in tall letters forms.
b. Restrained writing - there is lack of freedom and inhibited movements. It gives you the
impression that every stroke was made with great difficulty. This writing is small. There is
distortion of letter forms which may lead to illegibility.
4. Motor Coordination
5. Shading
6. Skill
7. Alignment
8. Pen pressure
9. Connection
10. Pen hold
11. Rhythm
12. Disconnections or pen lifts between letters
13. Speed.
14. Slant as a writing habit
15. Proportion of letters as an individual characteristic or habit.
16. Quality of stroke or line quality
17. Variation
Indications of speed (speedy) writing:
a) Smooth, unbroken strokes and rounded forms.
b) Frequent signs or tendencies to the right.
c) Marked uncertainly as to the location of the dots of small letters "I", "j" & crosses of small
letter "t".
d) Increased spontaneity of words or small letter "t" connected with the following words.
e) Letters curtailed or degenerated almost to illegibility towards the end of words.
f) Wide writing - width of letters is greater than the connecting spaces adjoining it.
g) Great difference in emphasis between upstrokes and down strokes.
h) Marked simplification of letters especially capital letters.
i) Rising line.
j) Increased pen pressure.
k) Increase in the margin to left at the beginning of the line.
Indications of slow writing:

a) Wavering forms and broken strokes.
b) Frequent signs or tendencies to the left.
c) Conspicuous certainly as to the location of the dots of small letters "I","j","or "t" crosses with
scarcely perceptible deviation from the intended direction.
d) Frequent pauses by meaningless blobs, angles, divided letters and retouches.
e) Careful execution of detail of letters, toward the end or names.
f) Narrow writing.
g) No difference in emphasis in upstroke and downstroke.
h) Ornamental or flourishing connections.
i) Sinking lines.
C. EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Ordinary copy-book form
2. Usual systematic slant
3. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio
4. Conventional spacing
D. CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Permanent characteristics - found always in his handwriting.
2. Common or usual - found in a group of writers who studied the same system of writing.
3. Occasional - found occasionally in his handwriting.
4. Rare - special to the writer and perhaps found only in one or two persons in a group of one hundred
individuals.
E. HOW INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ARE ACQUIRED:

1. Outgrowth of definite teaching
2. Result of imitation
3. Accidental condition or circumstances
4. Expression of certain mental and physical traits of the writer as affected by education,
by environment and by occupation.
F. EXAMPLES OF SOME OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Hook to the right and hook to the left
2. Shape, position, size and angle of "i" dots "t" crossing
3. Idiosyncrasies
4. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure
5. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement endings
6. Abbreviation of letters
7. Simple and compound curves and graceful endings
8. Labored movement producing ragged lines
9. Terminal shadings and forceful endings
10. Presence and influence of foreign writing, with the introduction of Greek "e"
PRINCIPLE IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

A. When any two specimens of handwritings contain a combination of corresponding or similar and
specifically oriented characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of
their occurrence by mere coincidence, and there are no unaccounted for difference, it may be
concluded that they are similar in writing characteristics and therefore written by one and the same
person.
B. Handwritings are fixed habits..
C. These writing habits like habits of speech become so automatic and unconscious that even by the most
strenuous effort, it is almost impossible to change them. It is one of the most permanent of human habits.
D. No duplication of handwriting by two individuals..
CORRECT CONCLUSION
1. To reach the conclusion that two writings are written by the same hand, characteristics or "dents"
and scratches" should be in sufficient quantity to exclude the theory of accidental coincidence; to
reach the conclusion that writings are by different hands, we may find numerous likeliness in class
characteristics but divergences in individual characteristics or we may find divergences in both but
the divergence must be something more than mere superficial differences.

2. If the conclusion of identifying is reached, there must not remain significant differences that
cannot reasonably be explained. This ignoring of the differences or the failure properly to
account for them is the cause of the errors in handwriting identification.
3. Although there is no specific approach, the document examiner always observed: Analysis;
Comparison; and Evaluation.
POINTS TO CONSIDER IN EXAMINING EXTENDED WRITING (Anonymous, threat, poison letters):

A. Uniformity- Does the questioned writing have smooth, rhythmic and free-flowing appearance?
B. Irregularities - Does the questioned writing appear awkward, ill-formed slowly drawn
C. Size & Proportion- Determine the height of the over-all writing as well as the height of the individual
strokes in proportion to each other.
D. Alignment - Are they horizontally aligned, or curving, uphill or downhill.
E. Spacing - Determine the general spacing between letters, spacing between words. Width of the left and
right margins, paragraph indentations.
F. Degree of Slant- Are they uniform or not.
G. Formation and Design of the letters, "t" (-) bars, "i" dots, loops, circle formation.
H. Initial, connecting and final strokes.
HANDPRINTING
A. The procedure and the principle involved are similar to that of cursive handwriting.
B. In block capital and manuscript writings, personal individual rests principally in design, selection,
individual letter construction, size ratios and punctuation habits. The initial step in handwriting
examination is to determine whether the questioned handwriting and standards were accomplished
with:
1. A fluency of movement and a certainty of execution indicative of familiarity with and a measure
or skill in handwriting of conversely.
2. A conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic execution denoting either unfamiliarity with or
disguise in the subject’s handwriting.
CHAPTER FOUR - STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS
DEFINITIONS
A. STANDARD. They are known writings which indicate how a person writes. A writer manifests fixed
habits in his writings that identify him. This fact provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion
regarding any writing identification problem.
B. EXEMPLARS - Specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly known as exemplars. The term
standards is a general term referring to all authenticated writings of the suspects while exemplars
refers more especially to a specimens of standard writing offered in evidence or obtained or request
for comparison with the questioned writing.
C. SAMPLE - A selected representative portion of the whole is known as a sample. In this text, the term
"sample" follows closely the statistical usage.
USEFUL SUGGESTION REGARDING HANDWRITING STANDARDS FOR COMPARISON

A. TYPES OF HANDWRITING "STANDARDS"
1. Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) handwriting of an individual such as signature and
endorsements on canceled checks, legal papers letters, commercial, official, public and private
document and other handwriting such as letters, memoranda, etc. Written in the course of
daily life, both business and socials.
2. Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printings) written by an individual
upon request for the purpose of comparison with other handwriting or for specimen purposes.

3. Post Litem Motan Exemplars - writings produced by the subject after evidential writings have
come into dispute and solely for the purpose of establishing his contentions.
B. TYPES OF STANDARDS DESIRABLE FOR COMPARISON USE IN THE TWO MOST
COMMON TYPES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS PROBLEMS.
1. Submit collected and request standards signature from both individual case.
2. When anonymous letter writings other than signature are in questioned:
a. Submit request standards writings of general nature from both victim and suspect's (as much
standards writing as possible to obtain within reason).
b. Submit request standards of the questioned text written (or printed) - at least 3 writings by the
suspect/s and in some instanced by the victim.
C. SUGGESTED PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING STANDARDS IN ALL

TYPES OF QUESTIONED-DOCUMENT PROBLEMS:
1. Have subject seated in a natural position at table or desk having smooth writing surface.
2. Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those used in questioned writings,
lie; paper should be same size, and ruled or unruled; as questioned document: if questioned
document is in written furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.
3. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned document.
4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is hand printed): give no
assistance in spelling or arrangement on page. Dictate at a rate of speed which will produce the
subject natural writing habits.
5. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in consequence, date, time and
identify by initiating each, and request subjects to sign each specimen.
6. Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt of disguise, and whether subjects
appears to be normally right or left handed, etc.
D. SPECIAL PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING STANDARDS WHERE

CHECKS FORGERY IS CHANGED OR SUSPECTED.
1. Furnish subjects with check blanks similar to the questioned check/s.
2. Dictate the entries to be made on specimen checks as follows:
a. Date - Same as shown on questioned check
b. Payee - - do -
c. Amount- - do -
d. Signature- - do -
e. Any other handwriting shown on questioned check
3. Give subjects to help or suggestions in completing specimen checks.
E. MISCELLANEOUS
1. The laboratory should be informed of the age apparent health and physical condition of the time
standards are written.
2. Do not fold, staple or pin document: handle questioned documents with care.
3. Indicate in the sample handwriting the time, place, date signature of writer as well as witness of the
handwriting.
F.SOME SOURCES OF SIGNATURES WRITTEN IN THE COURSE OF DAILY AFFAIRS

1. Canceled Checks
2. Signature cards for saving, checking and charge accounts and safe deposit boxes.
3. Credit applications and cards
4. Signature on sales slips, on job orders slips, requisition slips and purchase slips.
5. Court records and affidavits, such as naturalization papers, bankruptcy proceedings, divorce
papers. Probated wills and estate files, powers of attorney, etc.

6. Passports, marriage application, license and affidavits.
7. Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of licensee applications
8. Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services
9. Loan application and receipts
10. Records from currency exchanges, check-cashing agencies and pawnshop
11. Time sheets, payroll, pay receipts and personal forms
12. Barangay registration, petitions
13. Signature for certain drug purchases, hotel registrations
14. Church, club and professional society record
15. Veteran records
16. Fingerprint records
17. School or University class records and cards
18. Application for firearm and licenses
19. Application for export and import and dollar allocations
20. ID cards
HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS? – Factors to Consider in the Selection
of standards
A. THE AMOUNT OF STANDARD WRITTEN
B. SIMILARLY OF SUBJECT MATTER. If the questioned writings are hand printed, then get hand
printed standard or exemplar.
C. RELATIVE DATES of the questioned and the standards writing standard signatures or writing
must be those written five (5) years before or five (5)after the date of the questioned signature or
writing.
Importances of Contemporaneous Standards are:

1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s hand writing or signature.
2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation
D. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED AND THE STANDARD ARE
PREPARED. Look for standards prepared under comparable circumstances such as: paper rested on
the knee; standing; sitting; lying down; and/or while on moving vehicle.
E. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used in the preparation of the questioned
document must be obtained in the standards
HANDWRITINGS/SIGNATURES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE - Some problems are complicated

and harder to solve that includes:
Type of Signature Remedy (Required Standards)

1. Signature of the careless or highly erratic Collected standards
writer.
2. Receipt Signature. Other receipt signatures
3. Near - Illiterate Writer. Requested standards if writer is still living
4. Signatures of Physical Impaired Writer a. Collect standards written in the same
a. The intoxicated signature situation
b. Old age deterioration b. collect 2 or 3 times more standards
c. The sick bed signature. c. similar to old age deterioration

5. Disguised signature or writing Specimen written in normal condition could
not be used therefore consider collected and
requested standards.
DISGUISES IN HANDWRITING
A. COMMON DISGUISES
1. Abnormally large writing.
2. Abnormally small writing.
3. Alteration in slant (usually backhand).
4. Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing (with in a single signature).
5. Printed forms instead of cursive forms.
6. Diminution in the usual speed of writing.
7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing.
B. KINDS OF DISGUISES
1. Change of slant - from right to left or vice versa.
2. Change of letter, either from cursive to block style or vice-versa.
3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block form or vice-versa.
4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa.
5. Deteriorating one's handwriting.
6. Using the wrong hand (AMBIDEXTROUS).
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

A. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL EFFECTS. Intoxication affects the physiological being of an individual
hence; the manner of handwriting is also affected.
B. EVIDENCE OF ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION IN HANDWRITING
1. Bizarre letter forms.
2. Greatly enlarged writing.
3. Illegible forms and writing generally.
4. Uneven baseline.
5. Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing.
6. Inconsistency in slant of writing.
7. Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters.
ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARD WRITINGS

A. THE FOLLOWING ARE STANDARD WRITINGS WHICH ARE ADMISSIBLE FOR
COMPARISON PURPOSES:
1. Standard writings witnessed
2. Standards writings admitted
3. Record Maintained in Regular Course of Business as Standard Writings
4. Government Document as standard Writings
5. Ancient writings
6. Other Writings Standards - Among writings admissible as standard are signature on spelling
motion or other instruments, such as an appearance bond, which may without further proof of
genuineness be used as a standard.
7. Familiarity -Sometimes establishes standard writings.
Opinion Evidence - The court seem to be in general agreement

that proof of the genuineness of a standard cannot be established by
the opinion of experts testifying from a comparison of the writing
sought to be used as standard with another writing.
Genuineness
PDB Compilation, 2023 of standard decided by court - The sufficiency of the 26
proof of the genuineness of a standard of writing is a matter to be
decided by the court.
CHAPTER FIVE - INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES
SIGNATURE defined – It is the name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of

acknowledgement. Or, it is a name or a mark that a person puts at the end of a document to attest that he
is its author or that he ratifies its contents.
Microsoft Encarta Reference Library has these to say about signature:

1. signed name
2. signing of name
3. distinctive characteristic
OTHER SIGNIFICANT TERMS

A. ASSISTED SIGNATURE. See Guided Signature.
B. CROSS MARK. Historically, many who could not write signed with a cross mark or crude X. This
authenticating mark is still used today by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can legally stand for a
signature. Ballot marks are also referred to as cross marks because of the common practice of marking
with an X.
C. EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE - Is not simply a signature - it is a signature, signed at a particular time
and place, under particular conditions, while the signer was at particular age, in a particular physical
and mental condition, using particular implements, and with a particular reason and purpose for
recording his name.
D. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE. A forged signature. It involves the writing of a name as a signature
by someone other than the person himself, without his permission, often with some degree of imitation.
E. FREEHAND SIGNATURE. A fraudulent signature that was executed purely by simulation rather
than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature.
F. GUIDED SIGNATURE. A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is steadied in any
way. Under the law of most jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a legal document provided it is
shown that the writer requested the assistance. Guided signatures are most commonly written during a
serious illness or on a deathbed.
G. IMITATED SIGNATURE. Synonymous with freehand forgery.
H. MODEL SIGNATURE. A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an imitated or traced
forgery.
I. THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of setting two or more signature in an inverted position to
weigh their identifying significance, the reason being that those we fail to see under normal
comparison may readily be seen under this theory.
THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED BRANCH OF HANDWRITING

IDENTIFICATION, FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
A. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
B. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.
C. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
D. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its production and is
written automatically.
E. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.

TYPES OF SIGNATURES
A. FORMAL (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL or COPYBOOK FORM) - complete correct signature for an
important document such as will.
B. INFORMAL (CURSORY) - usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
1. Personalized
2. Semi-personalized
C. CARELESS SCRIBBLE - for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph collector.
FORGERY - Forgery is, strictly speaking, a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine document but
also and intent to fraud. However, it is also used synonymously with fraudulent signature or spurious
document.
CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES (CATEGORIES OF FORGERY OF SIGNATURES)

A. SIMULATED OR FREEHAND IMITATION FORGERY – executed purely by simulation rather than
by tracing the outline of a genuine signature can be referred as freehand imitation or simulated forgery.
Or it refers to the free-hand drawing in imitation of model signature.
1. SIMULATED WITH THE MODEL BEFORE THE FORGER
a. DIRECT TECHNIQUE - forger works directly with ink.
b. INDIRECT - forger works first with pencil and afterwards covers the pencil strokes with ink.
2. SIMULATED FREE HAND FORGERY (TECHNIQUE) - used by forgers who have a certain skill
in writing? After some practice, the forger tries to write a copy of the model quickly.
B. TRACED FORGERY (TRACED SIGNATURE)
1. DIRECT TRACING - tracing is made by transmitted light.
2. INDIRECT TRACING - forger uses a carbon paper and place document on which he will trace the
forged signature under the document bearing the model signature with a carbon paper between the
two.
TYPES OF TRACED SIGNATURE:

1. CARBON PROCESS
2. INDENTATION PROCESS
3. TRANSMITTED LIGHT PROCESS
C. SPURIOUS SIGNATURE (SIMPLE FORGERY) - Forger does not try to copy a model but writes
something resembling what we ordinarily call a signature. For this, he uses a false (spurious) name and
makes a rapid stroke, disturbing his usual writing by adopting a camouflage called disguise.
D. FORGERY BY MEANS OF A STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE OR MODEL
E. FORGERY BY COMPUTER SCANNING
SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE:

A. STEP 1 - Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxtaposition or slide-by-side for
simultaneous viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
B. STEP 2 - The first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of execution
(slow, deliberate, rapid, etc). The fundamental difference existing between a genuine signature and an
almost perfect forgery is in the manner of execution.
C. STEP 3 - Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence or tremors, smooth,
fluent or hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when simultaneous viewing is made.

D. STEP 4 - Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine whether the
appearance blunt, club-shaped, tapered or/vanishing.
E. STEP 5 - Design and structure of the letters - Determine as to roundness, smoothness, angularity and
direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design.
F. STEP 6 - Look for the presence of retouching or patching.
G. STEP 7 - Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
H. STEP 8 - Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for theses are the
often changed according to the whim of the writer.
CHARACTERISTICS PRINCIPLES THAT SUPPLY MOST CASES:

A. Pen pressure
B. Movement
C. Proportion
D. Unusual distortion of the forms of letters
E. Inconspicuous characteristics
F. Repeated characteristics
G. Characteristics written with speed
INDICATION OF GENUINENESS
A. Carelessness
B. Spontaneity
C. Alternation of thick and thin strokes
D. Speed
E. Simplification
F. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
G. The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing
H. Rhythm
I. Good line quality
J. Variation
INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED (Direct & Indirect Techniques) and TRACED FORGERIES

A. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, indicating points at which the writer has
temporarily struck.
B. no rhythm
C. carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
D. no contrast between upward and downward strokes
E. slow writing- angular writing
F. blunt beginning and endings
G. placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of letters
H. absence of spontaneity - lack of smoothness of letters
I. restrained writing - there is lack of freedom or "inhibited" movements THAT gives the impression that
every stroke is made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
J. no variation
INDICATIONS OF SIMPLE OR SPURIOUS FORGERY - Writing habits of the writer (forger) is evident in
the forged signature.
INDICATIONS OF FORGERY BY MEANS OF STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE SIGNATURE

A. flat strokes
B. no contrast between upstrokes and down strokes
C. deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or where two strokes cross each other.

D. no variation - All signature will superimpose over each other.
PROCEDURE IN THE COMMON SIGNATURE PROBLEMS

A. Genuine Signature which the writer refuses to admit not genuine. Generally presence of tremors,
remnants of carbon, retouching (patching) indicates forgery. Produced, the probability of genuineness
B. Genuine Signature Deliberately Modified. Examination of this kind of signature is confidently discov-
er that the modification is only on the prominent features of the letter designs that are pointed out by
the disclaimer, while the rest appear to be normal. There are unnatural tremors and retouching. The
minute details in genuine signatures are present.
CHAPTER SIX - FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. COUNTERFEITING - It is the crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins and banknotes.
Literally, it means to make a copy of; or imitate; to make a spurious semblance of, as money or stamps,
with the intent to deceive or defraud. Counterfeiting is something made to imitate the real thing used
for gain.
B. FALSIFICATION – The act/process of making the content/s of a document not the intended content.
C. FORGERY – The act of falsely making or materially altering, with intent to defraud, any writing
which if genuine, might be of legal efficacy or the foundation of a legal liability.
In forgery, every person who, with intent to defraud, signs the name of another person,
or of fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to do so, or falsely makes, alters,
forges or counterfeits any - checks, drag - due bill for the payment of money or property -
or counterfeits or forges the seal forged, or counterfeited, with intent the same to be fake,
altered forged, or counterfeited, with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud any
person.... is guilty of forgery.
MAKING OF PAPER MONEY

A. ENGRAVING – It is the process by which the line to be printed are cut into pieces of metal by hand or
with a machine. Ink is rubbed over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal and the extra ink wiped-off the
top. The pressure of the paper on the plate causes the ink in the holes to be lifted on the surface of the
paper. The ink lines will be felt to be raised above the surface. The engraving process is used for the
production of all genuine bank notes.
B. LETTERPRESS PRINTING – is the most common form of printing books, magazine, letterheads and
the usual printing in common uses. In the process, the letters are made on raised pieces of metal which
covered with ink and then impressed upon the paper in the same form as a rubber stamp or cliché. The
serial numbers of a bank note are usually added by this letterpress process after the note has been
produced by an engraving.
C. OFFSET PRINTING – is the method a photograph is taken of the desire material and a print is made
on a specially prepared aluminum plate. The plate is kept wet with water. When ink is applied, it
sticks only these parts of the plate where printing is desired. The aluminum plate is then put in contact
with rubber roller which transfers the ink to the papers. The offset process is quite used in small
printing plants. Because it was photographic process, it is the most common modern used by
counterfeiter to make false paper money.
BANK NOTE PAPER

Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If a good grade of paper is not used, they would soon wear
out and have to be replaced. Even with the best paper, the old two peso bill usually wears out and has to
be replaced at the end of thirty days. Government buys the very best grade of paper they can get, in order

that the paper will last as long as possible. Special paper also makes it difficult for the counterfeiter to
duplicate it. It is usually the use of wrong paper that causes the counterfeited bank note to be detected by
ultraviolet light.
NOTE: In most modern printing, papers have chemicals added

to make look whiter. These chemicals cause brilliant fluorescence
under ultraviolet light. Bank notes paper does not have this filler and
does not show.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GENUINE AND COUNTERFEIT PAPER NOTE/BILL

GENUINE COUNTERFEIT
A. MAIN PRINT
Distinctive feel & embossed effect Generally smooth
1. The fingers will readily feel the the main print on 1. The fingers will hardly feel the main prints of the
the front & back on fairly new notes. front & back even on new notes.
2. This is due to the measurable thickness of the ink 2. This is brought about by offset print the most
deposited on the paper which gives the prints an common process employed by counterfeiters
embossed effect. 3. The prints are mere stains on the coating of the
sensitized paper which is glossy.
B. PORTRAIT
1. Appears life-like 1. It appears dead.
2. The eyes sparkle. 2. The eyes do not sparkle.
3. The tiny dots and lines (Vignette) forming the 3. It appears blurred, dull, smudgy and poorly
details of the face, hair, etc. are clear, sharp and printed.
well defined. 4. Hair is lifeless.
4. Each portrait stands out distinctly from 5. The face and/or forehead are often naturally white
background. This is noticeable along the or pale due to absence of most of the details.
shoulders.
5. The background is composed of multi-colored 6. The concentric lines depicting the eyes often
fine pattern of lines in varying tones and shades merged into solid printed areas.
interlacing with each other. These shadings or 7. The background often blends with the portrait and
toning are intricately printed in such a way that is usually “scratchy.”
the contrast or shifting of colors creates the 8. The lines are thick with rough edges.
impression of life & vividness to the notes. 9. The multi-colored prints on genuine notes are
extremely difficult to duplicate and as a result,
counterfeit notes are usually off-color & not of the
right shade or tone.
C. WATERMARK
1. The watermark underneath the security lacework 1. This is imitated by printing white ink or dry block
on the right hand side of the note is the same on on the finished paper.
the colored portrait.
2. The design is placed by means of dandy roll 2. Sometimes wax or other oily medium is stamped
during the manufacture of the paper. to give transparency to the portion where the
designing appears.
3. Sharp details of the outline or the light & shadow 3. Printed outline is placed on the inner sheet where
effect are discernible when viewed with the aid of merely a paper cutout is placed inside. As a result
transmitted light. course or harsh and occasional irregular lines &
4. The relif of the features can be felt by running the sometimes opaque areas are very obvious.

finger on the design.
D. METTALIC THREAD
1. This is a special thread placed vertically on the 1. Counterfeit by means of printing on the back of
paper during manufacture. the note, on the inner side of the paper, insertion of
2. On the surface of the paper where this thread is twin thread or simply folding the note vertically
located are patterns of short vertical lines. where the thread appears on the genuine bill.
E. COLORED FIBERS OR SECURITY FIBERS

1. These fibers are scattered on the surface of the On counterfeit, this is simulated by printed lines,
paper (front & back) at random & can be readily can not be picked off, but can be easily erased with
picked off by means of any pointed instrument. ordinary rubber or by agitating with wet fingers.
2. The colors of these fibers are red & blue.
F. LACEWORK DESIGN
The geometric pattern which looks like a delicate On counterfeit, these geometric patterns are often
lacework along the border on both surfaces, blurred, round on the edges & blotch on the joints. Its
embellishing the portraits, value panel & vignettes continuity could not be traced. The color appears faded.
are multicolored & composed of harp lines which are
continuous & traceable even at the joints.
G. COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION
Genuine notes have polychrome background with one predominant color for each denomination.
You should know whose portrait is/are printed on each bill.
PhP 1,000.00 - Blue - Jose Abad Santos, Josefa Llanes Escoda, Vicente Lim
500.00 - Yellow - Benigno S. Aquino
200.00 - Green (Dark in one side and light in another side)
100.00 - Mauve - Manuel A. Roxas
50.00 - Red - Sergio Osmena
20.00 - Orange - Manuel L. Quezon
10.00 - Brown - Apolinario Mabini & Andres Bonifacio
5.00 - Green - Emilio Aguinaldo
H. SERIAL NUMBERS
1. The prefix letter/s & numbers (Six of them except 1. On counterfeit, the letters & numbers are poorly
on replacement note) are clearly printed. printed. They are usually of different style.
2. They have peculiar style & are uniform in size & 2. Most often, they are evenly spaced & poorly
thickness. aligned.
3. Spacing of the numbers is uniform & alignment 3. The numbers are too big or too small, too thick or
is even. too thin & in certain cases shaded on the curves.
I. VIGNETTE
1. The lines & dots composing the vignettes are 1. On counterfeit usually dull & poorly printed.
fine, distinct & sharp.
2. The varying color tone gives a bold look to the 2. It appears dirty.
picture that makes it stands out of the paper. 3. The lines are comparatively thicker with rough
edges.
4. There is no variation in color tone so that the
picture appears flat.
J. CLEARNESS OF PRINT

The registry of the different printed features is In general, a spurious not exhibits a Second hand
perfect. The lines are very clear & sharp. There are look. It is dirty due to the sputtering of ink on the
no Burrs clinging to the sides. interior area. Over-inked areas are visible instantly.
The shadings & ornamentations of the letters & figures
are thick & usually merged.
FEATURES OF NEW PH BANK NOTE
1. Embossed prints 6. concealed value,

2. serial number, 7. security thread
3. security fibers, 8. optically variable device (OVD)
4. watermark, 9. optically variable ink (OVI)
5. see-through mark
1. Embossed prints. Raised prints that feel rough to the touch, i.e., the words REPUBLIKA
NG PILIPINAS and DALAWAMPUNG PISO, portrait, signatures, value panels on the face
of the note.
2. Serial number. Composed of 1 or 2 prefix letters and 6 or 7 asymmetric (increasing in size)

digits located at the lower left and upper right corners of the face of the note.
3. Security fibers. Red and blue, visible fibers embedded on the paper at random and glow in
two colors under the ultraviolet light.
4. Watermark. A shadow image of the portrait and the denominational value (20, 50, 100,
200, 500, 1,000) seen at the blank space on the note when viewed against the light from
either side of the note.
5. See-through mark. The word "PILIPINO" written in Babaylan (pre-Spanish Philippine

writing system) is seen in complete form when the note is viewed against the light.

6. Concealed value. The denominational value which is superimposed on the smaller version
portrait at the upper left side of the note. The value becomes obvious when the note is
rotated 45 degrees and tilted down.
7. Security thread. An embedded thread running vertically across the note which is visible
from either side of the note when viewed against the light.
8. Windowed Color shift with Clear text Security Thread

This is a 1.4 mm security thread vertically located like “stitches” at the face of the note. It
changes in color from magenta to green or green to magenta depending on the angle of view.
When viewed against the light, it appears as a single solid line and the corresponding
denomination of the banknote will show through. This security feature is only present in the
100s, 500s, and newer 1000-peso bills.
9. Optical Variable ink (OVI) – it changes in color depending on the position of the bill
which is present only in 1000 peso Bill on the right denomination panel.
EXAMINATION OF SUSPECTED COUNTERFEIT BANKNOTE

1. As well as inspection under ultraviolet light, the investigator should look at the banknote with a hand
lens.
2. He should pay particular attention to the quantity of the portrait in the bank note. This is the one
extremely fine detail of a good engraved plate.
3. The color of the ink should be compared with the color of a genuine banknote. It is very difficult for
counterfeiter to match exactly the same shade of ink by a genuine manufacturer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF U.S. PAPER MONEY

A. TYPES:
1. Federal Reserve note – with GREEN treasury seal and serial number.
2. United States Note – with RED treasury seal and serial number.
3. Silver Certificate – with BLUE treasury seal and serial number.
B. FEDERAL RESERVE NOTES - Each Federal Reserve Note also carries a regional seal at the left of
the portrait on the face of the bill. This seal is printed in black and bears the name of the Federal
Reserve Bank of issue. Numbers and letters representing the Federal Reserve District in which that
bank is located, are:
1 - Boston - “A” 7 - Chicago - “G”
2 - New York - “B” 8 - St. Louis - “H”
3 - Philadelphia- “C” 9 - Minneapolis - -“I”
4 - Cleveland - “D” 10 - Kansas - “J”
5 - Richmond- “E” 11 - Dallas - “K”
6 - Atlanta - “F” 12 - San Francisco - “L”
C. SALIENT FEATURES COMMON TO ALL TYPES: Portrait – every denomination has the following:
$1 - Washington $50 - Grant
$2 - Jefferson $100 - Franklin
$5 - Lincoln $500 - McKinley
$10 - Hamilton $1000 - Cleveland
$20 - Jackson $5000 - Madison
COINS

A. DEFINITION - These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as money or
collectively referring to metal currency.
B. MAKING OF COINS
CASTING is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster molds bearing an image of
gold coins are filled (within a low temperature) with alloy made with lead or tin. Some molds are used
for high temperature metal such as copper or silver alloy.
STRIKING OR STAMPING is the making of an impression of a coin or metal blank by pressure.
C. CHARACTERISTICS
10. Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the profile, the seal of the
Republic of the Philippines, letterings & numerals are of high relief, so that it can be readily felt
distinctly by running the fingers on theses features. The beadings are regular & the readings are
deep & even.
11. Counterfeit coins feel greasy & appear slimy. The beading composed of tiny round dots
surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular & elongated depressions & are not sharp &
prominent as in the genuine. The letterings & numerals are low & worn out due to the lack of
sharpness of details. The readings are uneven & show signs of filing.
D. COUNTERFEIT METAL MONEY OR COIN

Coin made of gold was to widely use but are not now often see. Government kept their gold in the
form of heavy bars called bullions and then issue papers for the value of gold.
Metal coins issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its face value. In most countries, the
possession of gold coins is now forbidden except for coin collectors.
E. EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT COINS – should be examined by:

1. a magnifying lens
2. comparing it with a known coin
F. DEFECTS IN CAST COIN ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY:

1. formation of air bubbles, or
2. removal of small parts of the sole along with the coin.
The best place to examine a counterfeit coin is on the edge since there are usually special milling
marks or designs which are added to a genuine coin by machinery.
MAKE IT A HABIT to feel and look at all currency being received so that the fingers
and eyes will become familiar with all the features of genuine Central Bank Notes and
Coins. Compare with a known genuine currency of the same denomination when a note or
coin is suspicious.
REMEMBER, not all strangers are counterfeiters, but all counterfeiters are likely to
be strangers.
COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT
Passports are rarely counterfeit, because they are quite complicated in design and manufacture. The
most usual method of forgery is to steal a genuine passport and make change in it. Many safety features are
incorporated in passport and are easily detected by close inspection. Ultraviolet light is very useful in this
type of examination.
The investigator should look particularly at the photograph in any passport as identification card.
This is always necessary because sometimes forgers remove and change or substitute the picture. Hence, the
position of perforation caused by staples and another pasting device should be studied carefully.

LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION - (Pursuant to Title Four,
Chapter One, Revised Penal Code – Crimes against Public Interests)
A. FOREGERIES - What are the crimes called forgeries?

1. Forging the seal of the government, signature or stamp of the chief Executive (Art. 161).
2. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163).
3. Mutilation of coins (Art. 164).
4. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer (Art. 166).
5. Counterfeiting instruments not payable to bearer (Art. 167).
6. Falsification of legislative documents (Art. 172).
7. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastical minister (Art. 171).
8. Falsification by private individuals (Art. 172).
9. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone messages (Art. 173).
10. Falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit or service (Art. 174).
B. ACTS PUNISHABLE UNDER ART. 161:

1. Forging the great seal of the Government of the Philippines.
2. Forging the signature of the President.
3. Forging the stamp of the President.
C. What are the crimes under counterfeiting coins? They are:

1. Making and importing and uttering false coins (Art. 163);
2. Mutilation of coins – importation and utterance of mutilated coins (Art. 164); and
3. Selling of false or mutilated coin, without connivance (Art. 165).
D. Reason for punishing forgery - Forgery of currency is punished so as to maintain the integrity of the
currency and thus insure the credit standing of the government and prevent the imposition on the public
and the government of worthless notes or obligations.
E. ACTS OF FALSIFICATION (Art. 171 & 172)

1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric;
2. causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or proceeding when they did not in fact
so participate;
3. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or proceeding statements other than those in
fact made by them;
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts;
5. Altering true dates;
6. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document which changes its meaning;
7. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a copy of an original document when
no such original exists, or including in such copy a statement contrary to, or different from, that of the
genuine original; or
8. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in a protocol, registry, or official
book.

CHAPTER SEVEN - WRITING MATERIALS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. ANACHRONISM – It refers to something wrong in time and in place. This means that the forger has
trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been
written.
B. PAPER – These are sheets of interlaced fibers - usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes
from cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or
mat, to form a solid surface.
C. WATERMARK - Certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a watermarks impressed in
them during the course of their manufacture.
D. WRITING MATERIALS – Any material used primarily for writing or recording such as papers,
cardboard, board papers, Morocco paper, etc.
WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS - The common (probable) questioned on paper is

its age, whether the actual age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of preparation of the
questioned document.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
A. PAPYRUS - This came into use about 3,500 B.C. - people of Egypt. Palestine, Syria, and Southern
Europe used the pith (soft spongy tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grass-like herb) CYPERUS
PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.
B. PARCHMENT - writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats - was
probably developed in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into
wide use only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of PERGAMUM in ANATOLIA.
C. VELLUM - writing materials from fine skins from young calves or kids and the term (name) was often
used for all kind of parchment manuscripts, it became the most important writing material for
bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts.
Almost every portable surface that would retain the marks of brush or pen was also used as a writing
material during the early period.
D. DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING
1. It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a Chinese court official, CAI
LUN (TSAI LUN), in about A.D. 105. He is the first to succeed in making paper from vegetable
fibers, tree barks (mulberry tree), rags, old fish nettings.
2. The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese acquired it in the 7th century
A.D.
3. In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by marauding Chinese and some Chinese
taken as prisoners were skilled in papermaking and were forced by the city Governor to build
and operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became the papermaking center of the Arab world.
4. Knowledge of papermaking traveled westward, spreading throughout the Middle East, the Moorish
invasion of Spain led to the invention (A.D. 1150) or erection of the first European paper mill, at
JATIVA, province of VALENCIA.

5. Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and by 16th century, paper was manufactured
throughout most of Europe.
6. The first paper mill in England was established in 1495.
7. The first such mill in America in 1690.
8. The first practical machine was made in 1798 by the French inventor Nicholas Louis Robert. The
machine reduced the cost of paper it supplants the hand-molding process in paper manufacture.
9. Robert's machine was improved by the British stationers and brothers Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy
Fourdrinier, who in 1803 produced the first of the machines that bear their name.
10. The solution of the problem of making paper from cheap raw material was achieved by the
introduction of the groundwood process of pulp making about 1840 and the first of the chemical pulp
processes approximately ten years later.
11. CHLORINE - This was introduced in the 19th century for bleaching and colored linen could already
be manufactured for paper.
12. ESPARTO – This is a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and North Africa was first introduced in
England in 1861.
13. STRAW – This was used to make paper in 1800.
14. SULPHITE – This is a paper from wood was not attempted until 1869 and paper called
SULPHITE (modern type) was first used between 1880 and 1890.
15. OLDEST MANUSCRIPT - Letters dated A.D. 874 have been found in Egypt and the oldest
manuscript in England on cotton paper dated AD 1890.
TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT) The age of the document may be estimated from paper.
Four cases were reported by Lucas where the age of the document was established from the
compositor/composition of the paper.
In one of these cases, a document dated 1213 A.H. (A.D. 1798) was found to be written on
paper composed entirely of chemically prepared wood cellulose. Considering that this type of paper was
not introduced not until about 60 years later, the document is obviously a fake one.
A. WATERMARKS
1. Definition – It is a term for a figure or design incorporated into paper during its manufacture and
appearing lighter than the rest of the sheet when viewed in transmitted light. The earliest way of
identifying the date of manufacture of the paper is by the WATERMARK - a brand put on the paper
by the manufacturers.
2. How watermark is made? The watermark was made when the semi-fluid paper pulp (mixture of
cotton or other fibers) was being drained on a grid of laid (warp) and chain (woof) wires. Fine wires
forming the desired design were tied on top of the grid and impressed into the pulp. This impression
made the paper thinner, and therefore, more transparent, where it appeared.
3. Origin. Watermarks first appeared on papers produced in Italy around 1270, less than 100 years
after the art of papermaking was introduced to Europe by Muslims from the Middle East. Early in
the 19th century, papermakers began to solder the watermark wires to the grid frame, thus insuring
uniformity of impression and aiding in the detection of counterfeiting and forgery. The first British
postage stamps of 1840 bore a watermark, but stamps of the United States were not so marked until
1895. When paper began to be machine-made, the watermark wiring was simply transferred to the
grid cover of the dandy roll, a turning cylinder that passed over the paper.
4. Concept of document’s age detection thru watermarks.
a. Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the document by means of watermark, the
earliest known dating from 1282. Unfortunately, however, not all papers contain watermarks.
b. It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers called “DANDY ROLL” that make the
paper, and these designs are changed from time to time.
c. Usually watermarks are requested by their owners/manufacturers with the patent office.

d. If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of tracing the age of the paper. However,
the questioned documents examiner's finding is limited only to the APPROXIMATE DATE
(YEAR) of the paper manufacture.
e. In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is necessary to ascertain the owner of the
watermark in question or its manufacturer.
f. In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the laboratory. Once the manufacturer is
determined, then consideration is given to changes in design and defects of individual design.
g. In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly incorporated inconspicuous changes in
their watermark design in order to date their products.
h. Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark which was not in existence at the time
the document purports to have been executed.
5. In case the watermark did not change, the following is applied:

a. Consider any defect in the individual design may furnish a clue as to the age of the paper.
b. The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged. This damage is also known
as caused by WEAR AND TEAR which becomes progressively more and more as time goes by.
c. The damage on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar markings on the watermark of the paper
manufactured or all papers that will pass through the damaged dandy roll.
d. The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings caused by the dandy roll's damaged
surface, will coordinate with the paper manufacture regarding when such damage occurred on
the dandy roll used.
B. DISCOLORATION - One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance of the changes
in its physical characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a
passage of time due to numerous environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc. In case
of papers out of wood pulp, they start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years. While RUG-SHIP
QUALITY papers, they are very old before discoloration starts.
C. CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION:
1. due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.
2. brown spots due to mold that are very obvious characteristics both in appearance and distribution.
3. exposure to dust and dirt.
4. occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
5. excrete of rats, mice and other insects.
6. may also due to heat, partial burning, etc.
D. DETAILED EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIAL

1. Collect standard document from the issuing institution, company or individual and compare.
Consider the physical characteristics of both questioned and standard documents such as the size, the
thickness, the surface (glossiness, opacity, etc.) and the general texture of the paper.
2. Check with the issuing institution, company or individual about the dissimilarity of writing material
used in the questioned document.
3. Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as folding endurance test, folding test,
bursting test, etc.
CHAPTER EIGHT - WRITING INSTRUMENTS
DEFINITION OF TERMS

A. FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT - One quality of the nib pen is its pliability. This quality varies which
different pens and can be measured by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a spreading of the
nibs or a given degree of shading.
B. FOUNTAIN PEN - A fountain pen is a modern nib which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially
designed chamber. After complete filling the pen is capable of writing a number of pages without
refilling.
C. INK - is a fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or printing.
D. PEN - A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink; or a writing instrument used to
apply inks to the paper is a pen. It came from the Latin word "PENNA", meaning feather.
E. PEN NIBS - The tow divisions or points which from the writing portion of a pen are its nibs.
F. QUILL PENS - It is a hollow, horny part of large feather usually from goose and was used for writing
on parchment. Poland, Germany, Russia, and the Netherlands were the largest producers of quill.
G. WRITING INSTRUMENTS (WRITING IMPLEMENTS) - Writing Implements, manual devices used
to make alphanumeric marks on or in a surface.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
A. REED PENS/SWAMP REED -

1. It came from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt, Armenia and along the shores of the
Persian Gulf, were prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several months.
2. It was the first writing tool that had the writing end slightly frayed like a brush. About 2,000 years
B.C., this reed pen was first used in NEAR EAST on papyrus and later on parchment.
B. QUILL PEN
1. Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers of any bird, those of goose, swan,
crow and (later) turkey, were preferred. The earliest reference (6th century AD) to quill pens
was made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, and this tool was the principal
writing implement for nearly 1300 years.
2. To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first hardened by heating or letting it dry out gradually. The
hardened quill is then cut to a broad edge with a special pen knife.
3. The writer had to re-cut the quill pen frequently to maintain its edge. By the 18th century, the
width of the edge had diminished and the length of the slit had increased creating a flexible point
that produced thick and thin strokes by pressure on the point rather than by the angle at which the
broad edge was held.
C. STEEL POINT PENS (BRAZEN PENS)

1. Although pens of bronze may have been known to Romans, the earliest mention of "BRAZEN
PENS" was in 1465. The 16th century Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR mentions brass
pens for very large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of metal pens did not become
widespread until the early part of the 19th century.
2. The first patented steel pen point was made by the English engineer BRYAN DONKIN in 1803.
3. The leading 19th century English pen manufacturers were WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT,
WILLIAM MITCHELL, AND JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.
D. FOUNTAIN PENS
1. In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent, patented the first practical
FOUNTAIN PEN containing its own ink reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that fed ink
to the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly while writing.
2. By the 1920's, the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument in the west and remained so until
the introduction of the ball point pen after WORLD WAR II.

E. BALL POINT PEN:
1. JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool. A ball point pen has in its point a
small rotating metal ball that continually inks itself as it turns.
2. The ball is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole that feeds ink to the socket
from a long tube (reservoir) inside the pen.
3. As early as the 19th century, attempts had been made to manufacture a pen with a rolling ball tip,
but not until 1938 did Hungarian inventor brothers LADISLAO and GEORG BIRO invent a
viscous, oil-based ink that could be used with such a pen. Hence, they are attributed for the
invention of the first practical ballpoint pen.
4. Early ball point pens did not write well; they tended to skip, and the slow-drying oil-based ink
smudged easily. However, the ball-point pen had several advantages over the fountain pen:
a. the ink was waterproof and almost un-erasable;
b. the ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces;
c. could be hold in almost any position for writing; and
d. the pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making carbon copies.
5. Ink formulas were improved for smoother flow and faster drying, and soon the ball-point replaced
the fountain pen as the universal writing tool.
F. FIBER TIP PENS -

1. In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into the U.S. market and have since challenged the ball
point as the principal writing implement.
2. The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO HORIE of Japan in 1962. It was ideally
suited to the strokes of Japanese writing, which is traditionally done with a pointed ink brush.
3. Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber tip pen
can produce a wide range of colors unavailable in ball point and fountain pen inks. The tip is made
of fine nylon or other synthetic fibers drawn to a point and fastened to the barrel of the pen. Dye is
fed to the point by elaborate capillary mechanism.
G. Felt-tip markers are made of dense natural or artificial fibers impregnated with a dye. These markers
can be cut to a variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A modification of the ball point
pen using a liquid dye fed to a metal/plastic ball was introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INKS

A. Indian Inks - The oldest form of Indian ink consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot or
lampblack) in water to which glue or a vegetable gum was added. Inks of these compositions are
still on the market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes.
B. Log wood Inks - These inks which were used extensively about a century ago, have now because
obsolete and are no longer manufactured. They were made from an aqueous extract of logwood chips
and potassium chromate. These inks will be found only on old.
C. Iron Gallotanate Inks - This ink has been used as writing for over a thousand years. Formerly it was
made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which iron salts were added. The ink was composed of
suspension of the black, almost insoluble ferric tannate.
D. Fountain Pen Inks - These inks are regarded as special fountain pen inks, and consisting of ordinary
iron gallotannate inks with a lower iron content in most cases but with a higher dyestuff content than
normal inks.
E. Dyestuff Inks - These inks are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuffs, to which a
preservative and a flux are added.
F. Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks - These inks are special group of dyestuff inks. They
consist of a pigment paste and a solution of shellac made soluble in water by means of borax, liquid
ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate.

G. Alkaline Writing Inks - These are quick drying inks which possess a ph of from 9 to about 11. They
penetrate quickly through the size of the paper allowing the ink to penetrate quickly into the paper. The
dyestuff in these inks consists of acid dyes, sometimes combined with phthalo cyanide dyes.
H. Ballpoint Pen Inks - The ballpoint pens did not appear on the European market before 1945. The
development of the present pen was accomplished during World War II because the Army and the Air
Force needed a writing instrument which would not leak at high altitude and which supplied quick
drying water resistant writing.
1. In principle, the construction of all ballpoint pens is the same. The differences are in the finish,
the precision with which the instrument is made, the size and the material of the ball, and the
composition of the ink.
2. As a rule, the diameter of the ball lies between 0.6 and 1.0 mm, the cheapest makes having
the largest diameter. The ball is made of steel while the more expensive makes of sapphire.
3. The quality of the pen is chiefly to be judged by the writing angle. The best writing angle for a
ballpoint pen is 90 degrees, but a normal hand of writing seldom uses this angle.
4. The cheaper makes have a minimum writing angle of 55-60 degrees. If one writes at too small an
angle, the brass socket holding the ball will scratch a lined into the paper, parallel with the ink line.
I. Stamp Pad Inks - They are made with the acid of substances such as glycerol, glycol, acetin or benzyl
alcohol and water. Airline dyes are added as coloring matter. For quick drying stamp pad inks, more
volatile organic solvents are used as acetone, ethanol, etc. As a vehicle, dextrine, gum arabic, or
tannin is sometimes added. Through the addition of tannin, the stamp impression becomes water
resistant after drying.
J. Hectograph Inks - These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks and are exclusively made with basic
dyes. To the dyestuff solution several other substances are added such as glycerol, acetic acid and
acetone.
K. Typewriter Ribbon Inks - These inks are usually composed of a blend of aniline dyes, carbon black and
oil such as olein or castor oil. The two-tone ribbons however contain no dyes, but pigments
suspended in oil base. This is necessary because aniline dyes tend to bleed and would cause the sharp
division between the differently colored halves of the ribbon to merge.
L. Printing Inks - Printing inks often consist of a mixture of colored pigments, carbon black and a "base"
which may consist of oil, resins, synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is possible to remove
printing ink from a document by scrubbing the document with an aqueous solution of a suitable
detergent. The rubbing and breaking up of the surface of the ink and the detergent facilitates the
suspension and eventual removal of the carbon and other ingredients by the water.
M. Canceling Inks - These inks often contain carbon and this fact should be burned in mind when it is
required to decipher faint cancellation marks on a postage stamp and wrappers. Carbon is opaque to
infra-red sensitive plate and be relied upon to improve the legibility of any marking affected by a
carbon containing canceling ink. Erasure of canceling ink on valuable stamps is usually affected by
attack on the medium which bind the carbon to the surface of the stamp and it is to be regretted that
many canceling inks are manufactured with media which offer resistance to attack so that the
resistant carbon can simply be swabbed off. This can be usually be detected by infra-red
photography which will reveal the traces of carbon, which almost invariably remain on the stamp.
N. Skrip Ink - These are manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen Company since 1955. The inks contain a
substance which is colorless in visible light and has a strong affinity for the fibers of the paper, and yet
is not bleached by hypochlorite ink eradicators or washed out by soaking on water.
THE EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INK

A. In most cases the inks to be examined are not available in liquid form. One kind of examination
centers on the question as to whether the ink of some writings or of alterations in a police blotter is
identical with the ink found in the possession of the suspect.

B. For this reason, the examination of questioned documents is restricted to a comparative examination of
certain properties of these inks. However the examination carries with it certain difficulties as the
quantity of material available for examination is small and the examination can be done only one.
C. It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is attempted, which results in a partial
destruction of writing, an exhaustive examination by non-destructive methods be carried out.
D. These non-destruction methods include visual examination with the aid of a binocular microscope as
well as photographic examination. They should be used first before any chemical examination is
resorted to.
E. It is necessary therefore to be acquainted with the composition and developmental history, method of
manufacture of the types of ink most commonly used. Sometimes, antedating can only be proven by
identifying a component of the ink, which was not yet included in inks at the alleged date of the
document.
THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF INK

A. THE CHROMATOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION AND SEPARATION OF THE DYESTUFFS IN
THE INK
1. This is restricted to a comparison of the dyestuffs in the ink but sometimes it is also possible to
identify one or more of the components of the dyes.
2. Regarded as the principal method of ink examination.
3. To identify a dyestuff, it is necessary to possess a collection as complete as possible of the various
dyes used in the manufacture of inks.
4. The chromatographic separation of the dyes maybe carried out by paper chromatography.
5. Procedure:
a. Collection of the ink material
(1) Extraction of the inks stroke by scraping fragments from the ink stroke. Dyestuff inks
can as a rule can be extracted with water. Ball point ink can be extracted with organic
solvent such as ethanol, acetone or butanone. Pyridine is the best solvent for ball point
inks.
(2) It is also possible to cut a small pocket at starting line in the chromatographic paper into
which the ink fragments are placed. The pocket is firmly pressed.
b. The vessel which is a beaker or a flask is filled with the solvent; then the filtered paper strip
containing the ink material is lowered into the vessel with the ends just touching the surface of
the solvent and let it hang on the side of the vessel for 15-20 minutes.
c. The chromatography should be carried out in shaded light.
B. DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF THE INK

1. In general, in order to determine the age of writing or the difference in the ages of different
writings, the document examiner makes use of a property of the ink writing which changes in the
course of time. This selection of properties will be determined by the composition of ink and the
circumstances under which the writing ages.
2. Procedure:
a. Ball Point Pen Inks
(1) If a document has been written with a ballpoint pen, the writing in question is bound to date
in all probability from a point of time later than 1945.
(2) The analysis of ballpoint inks may yield an important clue to the age of the ink.
(3) The first ballpoint inks were practically without exception based on oleic acid. These inks
will flow out when a drop of benzene or petroleum ether is applied to them.
(4) Not until 1950 were these inks made on a basic of polyethylene glycols, which are resistant
to treatment with benzene or petroleum ether.
(5) However, the presence of oleic acid is not yet proof that the writing in question is old for
oleic acid is sometimes also used in modern ballpoint inks.

(6) In the later case, however, the ink will as a rule not flow out with the petroleum ether
because these inks, no water soluble coloring matter is worked out. Instead pigments and
dyestuffs are used that will not dissolve in petroleum ether.
(7) The presence of phthalocyanine dyestuff is an indication of an ink produced later than 1954-
1956.
(8) Thus it is not possible to determine the absolute age of ballpoint inks. Neither it is possible
to determine the relative ages of two ballpoint ink writings, not even if they are of the same
kind. The ink dries rather quickly because the base is absorbed by the paper.
(9) Recent ballpoint writing can be offset, and efforts have been made to use the copying power
for age determination.
b. Dyestuff Inks
(1) The dyestuff inks lack properties that would permit age determination but the presence of an
obsolete or modern dyestuff may indicate age of writing.
(2) If a phthalocyanine dye is found in the ink, it would be improbable for the document to be
dated prior to 1953.
c. Iron Gallotannate Inks - These inks show a remarkable change of color in maturing. This based
on the chemical change of ferrous to ferric in the course of time. The following are the methods
used to show the gradual change of inks:
(1) Method based on the change of the Color of the Ink – This method is useful in those cases
where the ink writing received for examination is too recent that the process of maturing can
be observed visually. The kind of ink must be known and one or more writings of known
age must be available for comparison.
(2) Methods based on the Solubility of the Ink – The solubility of iron gallotannate ink
decreases considerably as the ink matures. As with the color change, it can only be applied
successfully to a very recent writing. This method can establish a difference in the age of
writings on one and the same document. The solubility is determined by a visual estimate of
the quantity of ink which can be withdrawn with a drop of water from a stroke. It is
necessary however that the drop of water be applied to ink stroke of the same intensity.
(3) Method based on the amount of ferrous iron in the ink – In iron gallotannate ink, the iron
is mainly present in the complex bound ferrous form. As the manufacturing process goes on,
the ric gallotannate is formed. A drop of aa1-dipyridyl reagent (1% of aa1-dipyridyl in 0.5N
HCL (normal hydrochloric acid)) is applied to the ink stroke. The reagent is left in contact
with the ink for 1 minute and then recovered with a piece of filter paper. If ferrous iron is
still present in the ink, the paper will show a red zone of ferrous aa1-dipyridyl around the
stain of blue dyestuff. By repeating this test daily, it is possible to check the decrease in the
ferrous iron in the ink by the changes in the coloration of this red zone. However, this
method is applicable when the questioned writing is not more than a few days old.
(4) Estimation of age based on the detection of the dyes – Iron gallotannate inks contain an
organic dye, (soluble blue) which is oxidized or at least becomes insoluble complete or
partially as the ink ages. It is claimed that the organic dye becomes completely insoluble in
four to five years. However, the application of this method appears to yield results in
practice.
CHAPTER NINE - TYPEWRITER AND TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION
DEFINITIONS
TYPEWRITER - A writing machine with a keyboard for reproducing letters, figures, symbols and
other resembling printed ones; a machine that can reproduce printed characters on papers or that can

produce printed letters and figures on paper; a machine designed to print or impress type characters on
paper, as a speedier and more legible substitute for handwriting. .
OTHER SIGNIFICANT TERMS:

A. ALIGNMENT - Alignment defects include characters which write improperly in the following
respects: A twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical mal-alignment, and a character "Off its
feet".
B. ALIGNMENT DEFECT - Include character which write improperly in the following respects: A
twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical, mal-alignment and a character special adjustment
to the types block.
C. CARBON IMPRESSION- Any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the action of the
type faces striking thought carbon paper is classed as a carbon impression. Generally, carbon
impressions are "carbon copies", but sometime original typewriting is made directly through a
carbon ribbon.
D. CHARACTER - In connection with typewriting identification, the term "Character" is used to
include letters, symbols, numerals, or points of punctuation.
E. CLOGGED (DIRTY) TYPEFACES - With use the type faces becomes filled with lint, dirty and
ink, particularly in enclosed letters such as the o,e,p, and g.
F. DEFECTS - The term defect describes any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter which is
reflected in its works and which leads to its individualization or identification.
G. NATURAL VARIATIONS - These are normal or usual deviations found between repeated
specimens of any individuals handwriting or in the product of any typewriters.
H. OFF ITS FEET - The condition of a typeface printing heavier on one side or corner than over the
remainder of its outline.
I. PERMANENT DEFECT - Any identifying characteristics of a type-writer which cannot be corrected
by simply cleaning the type face or replacing the ribbon is classified as a permanent defect.
J. PLATEN - The cylinder which serve as the backing of the paper and which absorbs the blow on the
type face is known as a platen.
K. PROPORTIONAL SPACING TYPEWRITING - A modern form of typewriting which resembles
printing in that all of the horizontal space as they do with the conventional typewriter. For example,
the "i" occupies two units. The "o" - three and the "m" - five. A typewriter of this design is known as
a proportional spacing machine.
L. REBOUND - A defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter one slightly
offset to the right or left.
M. RIBBON IMPRESSIONS - Typewriting which is made directly through a cloth ribbon is called
ribbon impression.
N. RIBBON CONDITION - Typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with use and the degree of
determination is a measure of the ribbon condition.
O. TRANSITORY DEFECT - Any identifying typewriter characteristics which can be eliminated by
cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon is described as a transitory defects. Clogged type is
the most common defects in this class.
P. TWISTED LETTER - Each letter and character is designed to print a certain fixed angle to the
base line, due to wear, and damage to the type bars and the type block, some letters become twisted
so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
Q. TYPE FACE - The printing surface of the type block is known as the type face, with most modern
typewriter this block is attached at the end of a movable arm or type bar which propels the type
face against the ribbon and paper to make the typewriter impression.
R. TYPE FACE DEFECTS - Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the type face
metal is known as type face defect. These defect may be actual breaks in the outline of the letter
where the metal has been chipped away sometimes referred to as broken type, or they may be

distorted outlines of the letter where the type face metal has become bent or smashed, they can
only be corrected by replacing the type block.
EVOLUTION OF TYPEWRITERS
A. The first patent, however, was granted by QUEEN ANNE of England to HENRY MILL in 1714 for a
machine designed to reproduce a letter of the alphabet.
B. In 1829, WILLIAM AUSTIN BURT of Detroit invented the TYPOGRAPHER.
C. In 1833 a French patent was given to the French inventor Xavier Progin for a machine that embodied
for the first time one of the principles employed in modern typewriters: the use for each letter or
symbol of separate typebars, actuated by separate lever keys.
D. In 1843, American inventor Charles Grover Thurber invented a typewriter which prints through a
metal ring that revolved horizontally above the platen and was equipped with a series of vertical keys
or plungers having pieces of type at the bottom. The machine was operated by revolving the wheel
until the correct letter was centered over the printing position on the platen, and then striking the key.
E. Several other inventors attempted to produce machines designed to make embossed impressions that
could be read by the blind. One such machine, developed by the American inventor Alfred Ely Beach
in 1856, resembled the modern typewriter in the arrangement of its keys and typebars, but embossed its
letters on a narrow paper strip instead of a sheet.
F. A similar machine created by the American inventor Samuel W. Francis, and patented by him in 1856,
had a circular arrangement of typebars, a moving paper holder, a bell that rang to signal the end of a
line, and an inked ribbon. The keyboard arrangement of Francis's machine resembled the black and
white keys of a piano.
G. The development of the first practical typewriter begun in 1866 by CHRISTOPHER LATHAM
SHOLES and was patented in 1868. He developed the first practical typewriter in cooperation with two
fellow mechanics, CARLOS GLIDEN and SAMUEL SOULE'.
H. Six years later (1874), Christopher Latham Sholes entered an agreement with ELIPHALET
REMINGTON AND SONS, GUNSMITHS & SEWING MACHINES MANUFACTURERS, the
company produced the REMINGTON MODEL I
I. Four years later, REMINGTON MODEL II was introduced having both the lower and upper case of
the alphabet.
J. MARK TWAIN (Samuel Clemens) was among the first to buy a typewriter and the first to submit a
typewritten manuscript to a publisher.
K. GEORGE BERNARD SHAW recognized the importance of typewriter when he became the first
playwright to use it as a stage prop in Candida in 1897.
L. When THOMAS EDISON visited Sholes to see his machine, he forecasted that typewriters would one
day be operated by electricity.
M. Soon afterwards, Edison built such a typewriter. He used a series of magnet, which made the machine
cumbersome and too expensive to be marketed.
N. The first practical electric typewriter was invented in 1914 by JAMES F. SMATHERS of Kansas City.
O. In 1933, the International Business Machines, Inc. (IBM), introduced the first commercially successful
electric typewriter to the business world.
P. The latest development in electric typewriter is one which not only eliminates type bars and movable
carriages but can use six interchangeable type of type faces.
Q. The first basic change in typewriting operation appeared in 1961. Despite of the revolutionary
advances in typewriting capabilities, one essential element has remained unchanged since the first
Remington. The keyboard arrangement, nicknamed QWERTY for the top line of letters,
was designed to make it easier for salesmen to use the machine.
R. A much more efficient arrangement was devised in 1936 by AUGUST DVORAK. The process of
changing over the DVORAK seemed so difficult that it was never even begun.
IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITTEN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A. HAGAN in 1894, made the first comment on typewriting examination. He wrote that all typewriter
machines even when using the same kind of type become more or less peculiar by use as to the
work done by them. These peculiarities positively connect them with the printing done by the machine.
B. This exposition of the principles of typewriting identification was followed in 1900 by AMES who
wrote that the identity of writing by different operators as well as that done on different machines can
be done with considerable degree - Different operators have their own peculiar methods which
differ widely in the location of date, address, margins, punctuation, spacing, signing as well as
impressions from touch.
C. In several articles written between1901 to 1907, ALBERT S. OSBORNE, the foremost document
examiner of the early 20th century, defined the principles of typewriting identification used today. He
called it “THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING IDENIFICATION.”
THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

A. The type faces used by the different type writer manufacturer can be differentiated on the basis
of design and have dating significance.
B. Through usage, typewriters develop individuality which can serve to identify the typewriting of a
particular typewriter.
C. The gradual development of typewriting individuality plus ribbon condition and typeface. Cleanliness
can be used to date a document of fix it written a period of time.
D. Horizontal and vertical alignment, tilting characters, lack of uniformity of impression (off-footedness);
type-face score, breadths, defects and deformities all serve to identify the type writing of a particular
machine.
E. Peculiar habits of striking the type writer keys, spacing, arrangement,
punctuation, mistakes, corrections, can be used to identify a typist or differentiate typists.
F. A sheet of paper cannot be reinserted in a typewriter in exact register with previous typing done on the
sheet of paper.
TYPES OF TYPEWRITERS:
A. CONVENTIONAL TYPEWRITERS USING TYPE BARS
1. Pica Type - 10 letter/inch
2. Elite Type - 12 Letters/inch
3. 6 Letters/inch
4. Teletype Machine
5. 14-16 letter/inch - specials typewriters
B. TYPEWRITER USING SINGLE ELEMENT OR BALL - A machine, capable of typing 10 or 12
characters per inch. Change of horizontal spacing is done easily by the flip of a switch.
C. TYPEWRITER USING A PRINT WHEEL (ELECTRONIC TYPEWRITER) –This has a disc type
device called a print wheel, The printwheel contains all of characters represented on the typewriter
keyboard. This machine has the capability of typing 10, 12 and 15 letters per inch.
CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEWRITERS BASED ON LETTER DESIGNS

A. The small “w” – depending on the presence or absence of a center serif, height of central peak and
design of the two central diagonals.
1. w-1 – central peak is the same height as the top of the outside stroke and is capped by serif.
2. w-2 – same with w-1 but has no central serif.
3. w-3 – central joining is below the top of the sides.
4. w-4 – low center but the two central diagonals join the sides well above the base of the letter.
B. Crossbar of small letter “t” – cross bar is either longer on the right or on the left side and or equidistant
on each side. The curved lower extension of the “t” is either turn upward at a point the left of, to the
right of, or about even with the right terminus of the crossbar of the “t”.

C. The small letter “g” – upper oval is either much smaller or the same and/or different or the same in
shape than the lower oval. Upper and lower ovals are either very closely spaced or not.
D. Small letter “r” – right arm is either long with very small curve at its end or a long right arm with full
curve at the end and/or the right arm is short with its curve moderate to full.
E. Small letter “y” – has three distinctive designs:
1. lower stroke has a broad turn which forms a very shallow trough.
2. lower stroke has a deep full curve which clearly curves right ward.
3. Lower stroke turns sharply upward like forming a narrow trough.
F. Small letter “i” – has two distinctive designs:
1. center of the dot is aligned with the central line of the vertical staff.
2. Center of the dot is set off to the left of the central line of the vertical staff.
G. Upper and Lower Strokes of Capital Letter “E” – maybe equal or the bottom stroke maybe longer than
the upper stroke. The serif is either vertical or oblique. The small “e” may have its straight stroke
either horizontal or oblique.
H. Figure “7” – horizontal stroke is either straight or curve.
I. Figure “5” – horizontal stroke is either straight or slightly or fully curved.
J. The comma “,” – tail may extend to the left of the dot or only very slightly to the left of the dot.
K. Parentheses – may vary in curvature.
Two typewritten documents are said to be typed from one and

the same typewriter if they agree in type face style, design,
spacing, alignment and three or four scars or damaged type faces.
IDENTIFICATION OF TYPEWRITER BY THE DEFECTS OF THE STROKE

A. INTRODUCTION. Each typewriter has its own individual characteristics that enable one to
differentiate the typed characters from a similar machine of the same make. Typewriter of the same
make and model but of different age have differences attributed to wear.
B. WHAT TO CONSIDER?
1. A typewriter coming out fresh from the factory has already some defects which give its own
personality. Whatever the quality of the manufacture, a typewriter is never absolutely perfect.
2. Later, through faults of the typist and also by wear, the typewriter will acquire a stronger
individuality by new defects which become more and more prominent and in time, progressively
overcome the initial ones.
C. PROCEDURE:
1. Conduct preliminary examination of the questioned document to determine the make and model of
the typewriter.
2. Then study the defects of the stroke which will distinguish the suspected typewriter from the others.
The defects of the typewriter maybe compared to ailment or sickness and congenital deformation
while its translation on the paper be compared to symptoms of the defects. This comparison has
the advantage of sorting out the exact conditions of the control of questioned typewritten documents as
follows:
a. First, it will show the actual state of the typewriter and consequently that the aspect of the
stroke is not immutable but evolves progressively so that a good identification needs the
comparison of documents from sufficiently adjacent period.
The health of a typewriter tends to change and the defect become more and more
numerous and characteristics. From time to time, an overhead or repairs may help the
ailment definitely or at least give a temporary or partial healing.

b. It will show that the expert does not see the defect of the typewriter right away but only its
translation on the paper by a writing anomaly of which he must appreciate the cause
c. Lastly it will explain that certain anomalies are not even ascribable to an organic cause of the
type writer but to a phenomenon outside it. For example, an error of manipulation by the
typist may give some anomalies of the stroke and have no connection with the mechanism of
the typewriter itself. Others are due to a temporary sickness such as a torn ribbon which will
give an incomplete impression of the character or dust which may choke the mechanism of the
stroke. It is only the permanent faults which permit of a positive identification.
D. DEFECTS OF A TYPEWRITER:
1. Defects of the Character
a The character may show a distortion in its engraving, a "break" which is shown by an alteration
of the design. Exceptionally, it means a defect of manufacture. Most often, the break occurs
when the machine is working. The metal is locally damaged by the continued striking of the
letter against hard surfaces and according to the general direction of the striking will dented or
deviated. In the first case the altered sign will print an incomplete design with broken or
interrupted lines, in the second case it prints a deformed sign. The predominant cause of the
defect is that corresponding bars one behind the other; the character of corresponding bars strikes
the back of the first and crashes on it.
b Twist of the printing surface which comes in the course of manufacturing. Irregular tempering
gives an abnormal contraction of the metal for the bearing of the character again the plated and
gives a local impression more intense and more heavily inked.
c Misalignment of the two signs engraved on the same character so that they are not set exactly
one under the other. This defect may be due to a bad engraving of the mold.
2. Positioning of the Character on the Type-bar:
a A bad position of the bar on the plate of the soldering apparatus, results in a bad portioning of
the character. It will be bent forward, backward or sideways.
b Sometimes a solder fails in the course of typing. The character turns over the slides along its
support. The changes of alignment become grater and greater growing in frequency in
proportion with the collar of the solder. This defect is detected in the writing by the fact that the
top and the bottom of the letter are not printed with the same intensity and mostly, the vertical
misalignment has a tendency to vary at each stroke and becomes so important that often a part
of both signs of the deficient characters are impressed at the same time.
3. Defects of the Type-bar - The deformation of a type-bar modify the position of the character in
connection with the platen and alter the originally correct writing.
a Any error of place position of the bar in the basket gives an incline to its head and to the
character.
b The type-bars are outer sinuous. Under the effect of an intensive working, the bends are
modified, so that the type-bar elongates or shorten and its head inclines forward or backward.
This deformation causes a misalignment of the character and no longer allows a uniform
impression of its surface.
c Twist of the type-bars is caused by mistakes of the typist. In depressing, by error, two
neighboring keys, two corresponding bars are moved towards the type-bar guide 1, each
bar undergoes the lateral strike of the other and bends along its longitudinal axis. One error in
manipulation does not great damage but its repetition certainly develops the defect. The type-bar
thus bent no long offers a perfectly vertical surface to the axis of the platen and the character
strikes the paper more or less off its feet.
4. Defects of the Ring - On a worn type writer it is not exceptional to find that the more active type-bars
have depressed the metal of the ring at their point of contact. It no longer has any effect on the type-
bars corresponding to the depression -- it no longer stops them in their travel and it does not send
them back to their original position.

These bars strike directly at the platen, stoop their momentarily and fall back by their own
weight giving by this very slow motion a vibration to the character in the vicinity of the platen. At
this time the escapement has already moved and the character gives two impressions instead of one.
The second impression, displaced in connection with the first and much paler
seems to be its shadow. The name given to it is 'veiled stroke'.
5. Disorder of the Type bar guide - If the position of the type bar guide is modified for some reason, the
result is a complete disorder of the writing. A guide moved to the right will raise all signs on the
right of the keyboard and will lower all the signs on the left. If it is moved to the left, it will cause
the opposite effect.
6. Alteration of the Platen - The rubber of the platen gets old and hardens, the surface formally smooth
becomes more and more irregular and rough and does not offer anymore intimate contact with all
surface of the sign. The writing becomes inconsistent and the same sign will print itself partially or
entirely and with a greater intensity and more intensively on the tight or the left, on the bottom or the
top.
7. General Wear of a Typewriter - The typebars are subjected to a lateral play particularly felt at the top.
This gives poor accuracy at the point of impact of the character. The same signs print themselves on
the right or on the left of their theoretical point of impact.
E. TYPEFACE MISALIGNMENTS – synonymous to “alignment defects:

1. Vertical Misalignment - A character printing above or below its proper position. Possible causes are:
a. a character soldered too high or too low on the type bar;
b. an unsoldered character;
c. a type bar having lost its correct curvature;
d. a type bar having an oval of axis bearing;
e. misalignment of the type bar guide to the right or to the left; and
f. disorder of the capital letter shift lock.
2. Lateral or Horizontal Misalignment - An alignment defect in which the character prints the right or
left of its proper position is known as horizontal alignment.
3. Oblique Misalignment – The character leans towards the right or towards the left.
TYPEWRITING STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS – the procurement of typewriting exemplars are grouped as

follows:
A. Study of the questioned document by the investigator;
B. Procurement of the regular course of business typewriting;
C. Preparation of exemplar typewriting by the suspected writer;
D. Preparation of typewriting exemplar by the investigator on suspected typewriter; and
E. The procurement of the suspected typewriter itself by the investigator.
OBTAINING KNOWN TYPEWRITTEN EXEMPLARS - Properly prepared known typewriting samples not
only facilitate the examination in the laboratory but they aid immeasurably in the demonstration in the
court room.
HOW TO OBTAIN EXEMPLARS OF TYPEWRITING:

A. If the typewriter ribbon is obviously new, remove it from the typewriter and send it to the laboratory
with the typewriting exemplars prepared from another ribbon.(the text of the material in question may
still be discernible of the ribbon)
B. Use paper of about of about the same size as the questioned material, type out a full word for word
copy of the message in question, typographical errors, using as nearly as possible the same degree of
touch as that used in typing the questioned material.

C. After placing the typewriter in a stencil position or removing the cloth ribbon, obtain samples of each
character on the keyboard by typing through carbon paper which has been inserted carbon side
down over a piece of white bond paper.
D. Make certain that each specimen contain the make, model and serial number of the typewriter from
which it was produced as well as the date and initials of the officer.
E. Typewriter specimens should be taken from suspected typewriter/s. It is usually not necessary
to forward the typewriter to the laboratory if complete known exemplars are obtained.
F. If possible, after a typewritten exemplar is obtained from a suspected typewriter, the investigation
should insure that the typewriter is kept in its current condition.
G. With evidence thus obtained from typewritten documents, the laboratory experts is in position to
lend valuable assistance to the solution and subsequent prosecution of many cases.
CHAPTER TEN - PHOTO MECHANICAL PRINTING PROCESS
METHODS OF PRINTING
A. RELIEF PRINTING (LETTERPRESS)
In this method of printing, the image characters are raised above the level of the non-printing areas.
The ink is applied to a raised surface which in turn is applied to paper. The letterpress process is the
oldest of all printing procedures. It prints with cleaner and sharper letters.
After the type has been set, the next step is the actual printing which is made on one of three
principles:
1. The platen or “flatbed press” opens and closes like a clam shaft; it has raised type on one flat surface
and paper on another flat surface and the two are pressed together. Small hand presses are generally
platen presses.
2. Cylinder presses roll the paper around a cylinder and then across the flat surface of inked type.
3. Rotary presses pass the paper between two cylinders, one of which holds the curved printing plates.
B. INTAGLIO (GRAVURE PRINTING) – There are four types of printing which employ the Intaglio
principle of placing ink in an area which has been cut out or etched.
1. Gravure – This is a process in which the ink in recessed or sunken letters is drawn out or sucked out
under pressure. The process produces high quality reproduction of photographs and half-tone
illustrations, but the letters of type reproduced have slightly fuzzy edges. The printing is done from
large copper plates or copper covered cylinders on presses of two kinds; sheet-fed gravure presses
and web-fed rotogravure presses for longer runs. The copper plates or cylinders are produced by
making film positives of the art work to be reproduced.
2. Engraving – The paper her is forced into the sunken areas of a metal plate where the ink is. A
special plate is made by the artist who removes or scratches areas in the metal itself into which the
ink is placed. The actual printing process is very slow, and after the paper is removed from the plate,
time must be allowed for the drying of the ink to prevent smudging.
3. Planographic – Lithography is the most well known printing process which employs the principle of
putting ink on a chemically treated surface. The commercial application of lithography is known as
offset. In this process, the copy is placed in front of a big camera and photographed so that the film
is the exact size that the final result is to be. The film is in turn placed over a sensitized plate make
of paper, albumen or chemically treated metal) and exposed to a strong light.
4. Stencil – Stencil sheets on which the copy is typed or drawn are made of a porous lease tissue,
covered with a coating which is impervious to ink. The typing or drawing pushes the coating aside
and exposes the porous tissue. This stencil wrapped around an inked cylinder and the cylinder is
rolled across the paper, forcing the ink through the porous parts of the stencil.

C. PLANOGRAPHIC (LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING) – In planographic printing, the image characters are
in the same general plane as the non-printing areas. The ink is applied to a dead level plate which has
been chemically treated such as lithograph and offset.
D. STENCIL – It is a process where the letters or image are holes cut in a sheet, or a sheet is made more
porous in the area of the letters and ink is applied to paper through the holes or porous areas such as
mimeograph.
E. HALFTONE BLOCK PRINTING – This is offset-related and is used for the reproduction of pictures and
illustrations in little covers. To prepare a halftone block, the model is photograph and its image is
transferred to a metal surface by photo-printing.
IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PRINTING

A. LETTERPRESS
1. Study of this printing shows that the edges of the letters are more sharply defined than offset
printing.
2. Careful microscopic study and measurement may reveal different “runs” of letterpress printing
which have been made from the same set-up; the “y” type face may exhibit evidence of damage and
the spacing and alignment may be different due to pressure applied by the frame.
B. OFFSET
1. The edges of the letters are more irregular than in letterpress;
2. The middle portion and the edges of the letters are more or less of the same density; and
3. There is no indentation of the paper in the area of the printed letters as is sometimes found in letter
press printing.
IDENTIFICATION OF PRINTING – The identification of printing is based on the general principles which
consider the existence of an adequate combination of class and individual characteristics exceeding the limits
of an accidental coincidence.
A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – maybe grouped under body size and type face designs.
1. Body size of a type – responsible for the width of a line and depth of a column.
2. Unit measurement – six picas making an inch.
3. The body size in metallic type – varies from six points up to seventy points, larger ones being made
mainly in wood.
4. According to the type face – there are eight main designs
B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – These come into existence as a result of:
1. Defective setting in relative space positioning, slant and weight of type faces; or
2. Due to mutilations and imperfections in the type faces.
REFERENCES:
1. Manual in Question Documents – by Darlito Bernard Delizo (UC)
2. Compilation of handouts and pop-sheets, University of Baguio and Baguio City Foundation
University.
3. Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library 2003. © 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation.
4. A Practical Guide to questioned Document Examination. Antonio B. Rotor.
5. Questioned documents. Albert Osborne, 1926. Reprinted, 1996.
6. A Compendium in Criminalistics. Cirilo M. Tradio.
7. Revised Penal Code, Book II.
8. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Handwriting Analysis. Sheila Lowe, 1999.
REFERENCES:
1. Manual in Question Documents – by Darlito Bernard Delizo (UC)

2. Compilation of handouts and pop-sheets, University of Baguio and Baguio City Foundation
University.
3. Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library 2003. © 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation.
4. A Practical Guide to questioned Document Examination. Antonio B. Rotor.
5. Questioned documents. Albert Osborne, 1926. Reprinted, 1996.
6. A Compendium in Criminalistics. Cirilo M. Tradio.
7. Revised Penal Code, Book II.
8. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Handwriting Analysis. Sheila Lowe, 1999.

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NOTES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

GENERAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

According to Microsoft Encarta Reference Library (as a noun):

As a verb, Microsoft Encarta gives the following definition:

PDB Compilation, 2023 1

A. LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS:

N.B. - A private document may become a public or official document when it

CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:

PDB Compilation, 2023 2

CHAPTER TWO - DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

PDB Compilation, 2023 3

“When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar and spe-

DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

FORMS/ASPECTS (SUBJECTS) OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (In General)

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THE LOGICAL PROGRESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

C. THIRD - QUALIFY THE CASE:

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION:

CRITERION FOR SCIENCE

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In scientific study of signatures/handwritings, we learn the basic facts and

PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS - It is the initial examination conducted on a document

A. THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT:

B. Principal points for consideration in the PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION of questioned documents.

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E. REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT:

INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATIONS

TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:

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PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

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HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

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B. DO's and DON'T's in the CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

C. HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENTS:

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BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

Is handwriting/signature identification an “exact science”? – In the hand of a

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING:

Two Groups of Muscles Involve in Handwriting:

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“The most common error in the identification of handwriting is due to the

DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

A. SYSTEMS of Early American Handwriting:

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B. SOME MODERN SCHOOL MODEL FORMS

C. SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COPY FORMS or System Characteristics as Basis in the Identification

D. IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS (System of Writing) – May point:

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATIONS

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A. CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR COORDINATION:

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THE WRITTEN STROKE:

B. TERMINOLOGIES CONCERNING STROKE CHARACTERISTICS

3. ASCENDER - is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.