CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW OF CRANKSHAFT

2.1. Single Cylinder Engine

A single cylinder engine is the type of internal combustion engine in which air
is compressed to a sufficiently high temperature to ignite diesel fuel injected in to the
cylinder, where combustion and expansion actuate a piston. It converts the chemical
energy which is stored in the fuel into mechanical energy that can be used to power
freight trucks, large tractors, locomotives, and marine vessels. A limited number of
automobiles also are diesel powered, as are some electric power generator sets.
A single cylinder engine is basic piston engine configuration of an internal
combustion. It is often seen on motorcycles, auto rickshaws, motor scooters, mopeds,
dirt bikes, go karts and has many uses in portable tools and garden machinery. Some
single cylinder automobiles and tractors have been produced, bur is rare today due to
developments in engine. Single cylinder engine is simple and economical in
construction. The vibration of this engine is acceptable in many applications, while
less acceptable in others.
Components such as the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine have to be
nearly as strong as that in a multi cylinder engine of the same capacity per cylinder,
meaning that some parts are effectively four times heavier than they need to be for the
total displacement of the engine. The single cylinder engine will almost inevitably
develop a lower power to weight ratio than a multi cylinder engine of similar
technology. This can be a disadvantage in mobile operations, although it is of little
significance in others and in most stationary applications.

2.1.1. Diesel Combustion

The diesel engine is an intermittent combustion piston cylinder device. It
operates on either a two stroke or four stroke cycle. However, unlike the spark
ignition gasoline engine, the diesel engine induces only air into the combustion
chamber on its
intake stroke. Diesel engines are typically constructed with compression ratios in the
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range 14:1 to 22:1. Both two stroke and four stroke engine designs can be found
among engines with bores.
The diesel engine gains its energy by burning fuel injected by or sprayed into
the compressed, hot air charge within the cylinder. The air must be heated to a
temperature greater than the temperature at which the injected fuel can ignite. Fuel
sprayed into air that has a temperature higher than the auto ignition temperature of the
fuel spontaneously reacts with the oxygen in the air and burns. Air temperatures are
typically in excess of 526 degrees centigrade. However, at engines start up,
supplemental heating of the cylinders is sometimes employed, since the temperature
of the air within the cylinders is determined by both the engine’s compression ratio
and its current operating temperature. Diesel engines are sometimes called
compression ignition engines because initiation of combustion relies on air heated by
compression rather than on an electric spark. In a diesel engine, fuel is introduced as
the piston approached the top dead center of its stroke. The fuel is introduced under
high pressure either into a pre combustion chamber or directly into the piston cylinder
combustion chamber. With the exception of small, high speed systems, diesel engines
use direct injection. Since the entire combustion process is controlled by fuel
injection, injection must begin at the correct piston position.

Figure 2.1 Single Cylinder Four Stroke Diesel Engine

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2.2. Basic Parts of Single Cylinder Diesel Engine

The basic parts of engines components are:
i. Cylinder
ii. Cylinder block
iii. Cylinder head
iv. Piston
v. Piston ring
vi. Piston pin
vii. Connecting rod
viii. Crankshaft
ix. Intake valve
x. Exhaust valve
xi. Camshaft and Cam
xii. Combustion chamber
xiii. Flywheel
xiv. Gudgeon pin
xv. Fuel injection
xvi. Crankcase
xvii. Rocker arm

Figure 2.2 Four Stroke Diesel Engine

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2.2.1. Cylinder
The function of a cylinder is to retain the working fluid and to guide the piston.
The cylinders are usually made of cast iron or cast steel. Since the cylinder has to
withstand high temperature due to the combustion of fuel, therefore, some
arrangement must be provided to cool the cylinder. The single cylinder engines such
as scooters and motorcycles are generally air cooled. They are provided with fins
around the cylinder.

2.2.2. Piston
The piston is a disc which reciprocates within a cylinder. It is either moved by
the fluid or it moves the fluid which enters the cylinder. The main function of the
piston of an internal combustion engine is to receive the impulse from the expanding
gas and to transmit the energy to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. The
piston must also disperse a large amount of heat from the combustion chamber to the
cylinder walls.

2.2.3. Piston Ring

The piston rings are used to impart the necessary radial pressure to maintain the
seal between the piston and the cylinder bore. The piston rings are of the following
types:
i. Compression rings or pressure rings
ii. Oil control rings or oil scraper

2.2.4. Connecting Rod

The connecting rod is the intermediate member between the piston and the
crankshaft. Its primary function is to transmit the push and pull from the piston pin to
the crankpin and thus convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary
motion of the crank.

2.2.5. Rocker Arm

The rocker arm is used to actuate the inlet and exhaust valves motion as directed
by the cam and follower.

2.2.6. Camshaft and Cam

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In internal combustion engines, camshaft is a rotating shaft with attached disks

of irregular shape, which actuate the intake and exhaust valves of the cylinders. The
cams and the camshaft are usually formed as a unit, with the cams set at angles so as
to open and close the valves in a prescribed sequence as the cams rotate. A separate
camshaft for each row of cylinders is driven by gears of chains from the crankshaft.
Cam is the machine component that either rotates or moves back and forth to
creates a prescribed motion in a contacting element known as a follower. The shape of
the contacting surface of the cam is determined by the prescribed motion and profile
of the follower; the latter is usually flat or circular.
Cams are made in a variety of forms, such as
i. a rotating disk of plate with the required profile
ii. a plate with groove cut on its face to fit a roller on the follower
iii. a cylindrical or conical member with follower groove cut around the surface
iv. a cylinder with the required profile cut in the end of a reciprocating wedge of
the required shape
Cam follower mechanisms are particularly useful when a simple motion of one
part of a machine is to be converted to a more complicated prescribed motion of
another part, one that must be accurately timed with respect to the simple motion and
may include periods of rest. The motion of the camshaft in an automobile engine is a
simple rotation that bears a fixed ratio to the crankshaft speed, whereas the valve
motion produced by the cams is accurately timed relative to the crankshaft rotation
and includes dwells during which the valves remain closed. Cams are essential
elements in automatic machine tools, textile machinery, sewing machines, printing
machines, and many others. If the follower is not restrained by a groove on the cam, a
spring is necessary to keep the follower in contact with the cam.

2.2.7. Flywheel
Flywheel is the type of a heavy wheel attached to a rotating shaft so as to
smooth out delivery of power from a motor to a machine. The inertia of the flywheel
opposes and moderates fluctuations in the speed of the engine and stores the excess
energy for intermittent use. To oppose speed fluctuations effectively, a flywheel is
given a high rotational inertia and most of its weight is well out from the axis. A
wheel with a heavy rim connected to the central hub by spokes or a web.
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Many flywheels used on reciprocating engines to smooth out the flow of power
are made in this way. The energy stored in a flywheel, however, depends on both the
weight distribution and rotary speed. If the speed is doubled, the kinetic energy is
quadrupled. A rim type flywheel will burst at a much lower rotary speed than a disk
type wheel of the same weight and diameter. For minimum weight and high energy
storing capacity, a flywheel may be made of high strength steel and designed as a
tapered disk, thick at the center and thin at the rim.
In automobile engines the flywheel serves to smooth out the pulses of energy
provided by the combustion in the cylinders and to provide energy for the
compression stroke of the pistons. The larger the rotational inertia of the flywheel, the
smaller the changes in speed resulting from the intermittent power supply and
demand.

2.2.8. Crankcase
The crankcase is usually located on the bottom of the cylinder block. The
crankcase is defined as the area around the crankshaft and crankshaft bearings. This
area encloses the rotating crankshaft and crankshaft counter weights and directs
returning oil into the oil pan. The oil pan is located at the bottom of the crankcase.
The oil pan collects and stores the engine’s supply of supply of lubricating oil. Large
diesel engines may have the oil pan divided into several separate pans.

2.3. Function of Crank Shaft

A crankshaft is used to convert reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary
motion or vice versa. The crankshaft consists of the shaft parts, which revolve in the
main bearings, the crank pins to which the big ends of the connecting rod are
connected, the crank arms or webs, which connect the crankpins, and the shaft parts.
The crankshaft is the principal member of the crank train or crank assembly,
which latter converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons into rotary motion. It is
subjected to both torsional and bending stresses, and in modern high speed, multi-
cylinder engines these stresses may be greatly increased by resonance, which not only
renders the engine noisy, but also may fracture the shaft.
In addition, the crankshaft has both supporting bearings or main bearings and
crankpin bearings, and all of its bearing surfaces must be sufficiently large so that the
unit bearing load cannot become excessive even under the most unfavorable
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conditions. At high speeds the bearing loads are due in large part to dynamic forces
inertia and centrifugal. Fortunately, loads on main bearings due to centrifugal force
can be reduced, and even completely eliminated, by the provision of suitable
counterweights. All dynamic forces increase as the square of the speed of rotation.
2.4. Working Principle of Crankshaft
Power from the burnt gases in the combustion chamber is delivered to the
crankshaft through the piston, piston pin and connecting rod. The crankshaft changes
reciprocating motion of the piston in cylinder to the rotary motion of the flywheel.
Conversion of motion is executed by use of the offset in the crankshaft. Each
offset part of the crankshaft has a bearing surface known as a crank pin to which the
connecting rod is attached. Crank through is the offset from the crankshaft center line.
The stroke of the piston is controlled by the throw of the crankshaft. The combustion
force is transferred to the crank throw after the crankshaft has moved past top dead
center to produce turning effort or torque, which rotates the crankshaft. Thus all the
engine power is delivered through the crankshaft. The cam shaft is rotated by the
crankshaft through gears using chain driven or belt driven sprockets. The cam shaft
drive is timed for opening of the valves in relation to the piston position. The
crankshaft rotates in main bearings, which are split in half for assembly around the
crankshaft main bearing journals.
Both the crankshaft and camshaft must be capable of withstanding the
intermittent variable loads impressed on them. During transfer of torque to the output
shaft, the force deflects the crankshaft. This deflection occurs due to bending and
twisting of the crankshaft. Crankshaft deflections are directly related to engine
roughness. When deflections of the crankshaft occur at same vibrational or resonant
frequency as another engine part, the parts vibrate together.
These vibrations may reach the audible level producing a thumping sound. The
part may fail if this type of vibration is allowed to continue. Harmful resonant
frequencies of the crankshaft are damped using a torsional vibration damper.
Torsional stiffness is one of the most important crankshaft design requirements. This
can be achieved by using material with the correct physical properties and by
minimizing stress concentration.
The crankshaft is located in the crankcase and is supported by main bearings.
represents schematic view of a typical crankshaft. The angle of the crankshaft throws
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in relation to each other is selected to provide a smooth power output. V 8 engines use
90 degrees and 6 cylinder engines use 120 degree crank throws. The engine firing
order is determined from the angles selected. A crankshaft for a four cylinder engine
is referred to a five bearing shaft. This means that the shaft has five main bearings,
one on each side of every big end which makes the crankshaft very stiff and supports
it well. As a result, the engine is normally very smooth and long lasting.
Because of the additional internal webs required to support the main bearings,
the crank case itself is very stiff. The disadvantages of this type of bearing
arrangement are that it is more expensive and engine may have to be slightly longer to
accommodate the extra main bearings.
Counter weights are used to balance static and dynamic forces that occur during
engine operation. Main and rod bearing journal overlap increases crankshaft strength
because more of the load is carried through the overlap area rather than through the
fillet and crankshaft web. Since the stress concentration takes place at oil holes drilled
through the crankshaft journals, these are usually located where the crankshaft loads
and stresses are minimal.
Lightening holes in the crank throws do not reduce their strength if the hole size
is less than half of the bearing journal diameter, rather these holes often increase
crankshaft strength by relieving some of the crankshaft’s natural stress. Automatic
transmission pressure and clutch release forces tend to push the crankshaft towards
the front of the engine.
Thrust bearings in the engine support this thrust load as well maintain the
crankshaft position. Thrust bearings may be located on any one of the main bearing
journals. Experience shows that the bearing lasts much longer when the journal is
polished against the direction of normal rotation than if polished in the direction of
normal rotation. Most crankshaft balancing is done during manufacture by drilling
holes in the counterweight to lighten them. Sometimes these holes are drilled after the
crankshaft is installed in the engine.

2.5. Types of Crankshaft

A crankshaft is composed of the crankpins, crank arms, crank journals, and
driving ends. As a rule, crankshafts are forged in a single piece, but occasionally they
are built up. Built up crankshafts are used in small single and double cylinder
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motorcycle engines. The enclosed flywheels of these engines take the place of the
crank arms, the crankpin and crank journals being bolted to the flywheels, which
latter are cast with solid webs. The built up construction also has advantages when it
is desired to support the crankshaft in three or more ball bearings, as with a one piece
shaft all intermediate bearings would have to be stripped over the crank arms, and
therefore would have to be made extraordinarily large.

Figure 2.3 Single Cylinder’s Crankshaft

A crankpin together with the two crank arms on opposite sides of it is frequently
referred to as a throw. In some crankshafts there is only a single throw between a pair
of main journals or supporting bearings, while in others there are two and even three
or four throws between main bearings.

2.5.1. Based on the Position of the Crankpin

i. Side crankshaft or overhung crankshaft
ii. Centre crankshaft

Figure 2.4 Side or Overhung Crankshaft

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The advantages of a side crank configuration include geometric simplicity,

relative ease of manufacture, relative ease of assembly, ability to use simple slide on
bearings, and relatively low cost. The advantages of a center crank configuration
include good stability, balanced forces, and lower stresses, but cost is higher and a
split connecting rod bearing is required for assembly. several center cranks side by
side, in sequence, along a common centerline of rotation. The throws are rotationally
indexed to provide the desired phasing.

Figure 2.5 Centre Crankshaft

2.5.2. Based on the Number of Throw

The other classification is based on the number of cranks in the shaft are:
i. Single throw crankshafts
ii. Multi throw crankshafts
A crankshaft with only one side crank or centre crank is called a single throw
crankshaft. A crankshaft with two side cranks, one on each end or more centre cranks
is called as multi throw crankshaft.

2.6. Materials of Crankshaft

The crankshafts are subjected to shock and fatigue loads. Thus material of the
crankshaft should be tough and fatigue resistant. The crankshafts are generally made
of carbon steel, special steel or special cast iron.
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Figure 2.6 Types of Crankshaft

i. For the proper functioning, the crankshaft should full fill the following
conditions:
ii. Enough strength to withstand the forces to which it is subjected the bending
and twisting moments.
iii. Enough rigidity to keep the distortion a minimum.
iv. Stiffness to minimize and strength to resist, the stresses due to torsional
vibrations of the shaft.
v. Sufficient mass properly distributed to see that it does not vibrate critically at
the speeds at which it is operated.
vi. Sufficient projected areas of crankpins and journals to keep down the bearing
pressure to a value dependent on the lubrication available.
vii. Minimum weight, especially in aero engines.
The crankshafts are made much heavier and stronger than necessary from the
strength point of view so as to meet the requirements of rigidity and vibrations.
Therefore, the weight cannot be reduced appreciably by using a material with a very
high strength. The material to be selected will also depend upon the method of
manufacture cast, forged, or built up. Built up crank shafts are sometimes used in aero
engines where light weight is very important. In industrial engines, 0.35 Carbon steel
of ultimate tensile strength 500MPa to 525 MPa and 0.45 Carbon steel of ultimate
tensile strength of about 627 to 780 MPa are commonly used.
In transport engines, alloy steel, manganese steel having ultimate tensile
strength of about 784 to 940 MPa is generally used.
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In aero engines, nickel chromium steel having ultimate tensile of about 940 to
1100 MPa is generally used. Heavy duty Cast iron is being successfully used for
crankshafts, especially for industrial engines of comparatively low speed and it can
replace easily the plain carbon steels. Cast iron usually used for crankshafts is nickel
cast iron with ultimate tensile strength ranging from 350 to 525 MPa. Cast steel is also
used as material for crankshafts, its ultimate tensile strength ranging from 560 to 600
MPa.
Medium carbon steel is the material most extensively used. The blanks from
which the crankshafts are machined are produced by the drop forging process. This
process requires several heating to a good red heat, which impairs the physical
qualities of the steel, and the latter have to be restored and the latter have to be
restored by suitable heat treatment, consisting of normalizing, reheating and
quenching. The carbon steel generally used for crankshafts is S.A.E. steel No. 1045.

2.7. Manufacturing Process for Crankshaft

The crankshafts are made by drop forging or casting process but the former
method is more common. The surface of the crankpin is hardened by case carburizing,
nitriding or induction hardening.
Forging is the process of heating a metal to a desired temperature in order to
acquire sufficient plasticity, followed by operations like hammering, bending and
pressing to give it a desired shape. The drop forging is carried out with the help of
drop hammers and is particularly suitable for mass production of identical parts. The
forging process has the following advantages:
i. It refines the structure of the metal.
ii. It renders the metal stronger by setting the direction of grains.
iii. It effects considerable saving in time, labour and material as compared to the
production of a similar item by cutting from a solid stock and then shaping
it.
iv. The reasonable degree of accuracy may be obtained by forging.
v. The forgings may be welded.

Casting is a manufacturing process by which a molten material such as metal

or
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plastic is introduced into a mold, allowed to solidify within the mold, and then ejected
or broken out to make a fabricated part. Casting is used for making parts of complex
shape, such as crankshafts, that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other
methods, machining from solid material. Sand mold casting is adaptable to a very
wide range of alloys, shapes, sizes, and production quantities. Hollow shapes can be
produced in these castings through the use of cores.
Great care must be observed in the manufacture of crankshafts since it is the
most important part of the engine. Small crankshafts are drop forged. Larger shafts
are forged and machined to shape. Casting of the crankshafts allows a theoretically
desirable but complicated shape with a minimum amount of machining and at the
smallest cost. These are cast in permanent moulds for maximum accuracy and a
minimum of machining. While machining, the shaft must be properly supported
between centers and special precautions should be taken to avoid springing. The
journals and crankpins are ground to exact size after turning. After this, the crankshaft
is balanced. Large shafts of low speed engines are balanced statically; Crankshafts of
high speed engines are balanced dynamically on special balancing machines.

Figure 2.7 Die Forging Process for Crankshaft

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2.7.1. Comparison of Forging and Casting Processes

To some extent, forging and casting are competitive, even where different
materials are involved with each process. As a general rule, the tooling investment is
higher for forging than for casting. Thus, the use of forging tends to be restricted to
applications in which the higher material properties of steel compare to cast iron or
the
higher properties of wrought steel compared to cast steel can be made use of in the
design.

2.8. Main Components of Crankshaft

A crankshaft comprises the following components:
i. Main Journals
ii. Crankpin
iii. Crank Webs or Crank Arms
iv. Main Bearings
v. Connecting rod Bearings
vi. Counter Weights
vii. Flywheel mounting flange
viii. Oil Holes

Figure 2.8 Crankshaft Assembly with Other Parts

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Figure 2.9 Exploded View of Crankshaft with Other Parts

In figure 2.9, crankshaft components are
Label (1) crankshaft with connecting rod
Label (2) left hand crank web
Label (3) right hand crank web
Label (4) crank pin
Label (7) thrust washer
Label (24) counter weights
Label (25,26) Ball bearings

2.8.1. Crankpin
A crankpin, also known as a crank journal, is a mechanical device in an engine
which connects the crankshaft to the connecting rod for each cylinder. It has a
cylindrical surface to allow the crankpin to rotate relative to the big end of the
connecting rod. The crankpin connects to the larger end of the connecting rod for each
cylinder. This end of the connecting rod is called the big end, as opposed to the small
end which connects to the wrist or gudgeon pin in the piston. The bearing which
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allows the crankpin to rotate around its shaft is called the rod bearing. In automotive
engines, the most common type of rod bearing is the plain bearing, however bushings
or roller bearings are also used in some engines.

Figure 2.10 Crank Pin

In a single cylinder engine, straight engine or flat engine, each crankpin

normally serves just one cylinder. This results for a relatively simple design which is
the cheapest to produce. Some V twin engines use a single cylinder per crankpin.
Most V engines have each pair of cylinders sharing a crankpin. This usually requires
an offset between the cylinders in each bank, resulting in a simple connecting rod
design.

2.8.2. Crank Web

These are the cranked arms of the shaft, which provide the throws of the
crankshaft. They support the big end crankpin. They must have adequate thickness
and width to withstand both the twisting and the bending effort, created within these
webs. But their excessive mass causes inertial effect, which tends to wind and unwide
the shaft during operation. Crank has left hand and right hand crank web.

2.8.3. Crank Throw

This is the distance from the main journal centers to the big end journal
centers
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It is the amount the cranked arms are offset from the center of rotation of the
crankshaft. A small crank throw reduces both the crankshaft turning-effort and the
distance the piston moves between the dead centers. A large crank-throw increases
both the leverage applied to the crankshaft and stroke of the piston.

2.8.4. Main bearing Journal

Main bearing journal is the parallel cylindrical portions of the crankshaft,
supported rigidly by the plain bearings mounted in the crankcase. The journals
diameter must be proper to provide torsional strength. The diameter and width of the
journal should have sufficient projected area to avoid overloading of the plain
bearing.

2.8.5. Counter Weights

Crankshafts normally have either integral or attachable counterweights. These
counterweights counteract the centrifugal force created by each individual crankpin
and its webs as the whole crankshaft is rotated about the main journal axis. In absence
of the counterweights, the crankpin masses tend to bend and distort the crankshaft
causing excessive edge loading in the main bearings. Therefore, each half crank web
is generally extended in the opposite direction to that of the crankpin, to
counterbalance the effects of the crankpin.
2.8.6. Oil Hole
Oil from the main oil gallery reaches each individual main journal and
bearing.
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Figure 2.11 Crank Web and Crank Throw

Oil is fed through a central circumferential groove in the bearing and it
completely surrounds the central region of the journal surface. Diagonal oil hole drills
are provided in the crankshaft which pass through the webs between the main and big
end journals for lubrication of the big end journal. For effective lubrication of the big
end, these oil holes emerge from the crankpin at about 30 degrees on the leading side
of the crank’s TDC position. The drilled oil passages should not be close to the side
walls of the webs or near the fillet junction between the journal and the webs to avoid
high stress concentration, which may cause fatigue failure. Also the oil holes on the
journal surfaces must be chamfered to reduce stress concentration, but excessive
chamfering can destroy the oil film.

Figure 2.12 Crankshaft Bearing Sets

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Figure 2.13 Oil Hole in Crankshaft