CMT

MODULE 1 • Load Measuring Unit - This unit has a pendulum

dynamometer unit that has a small cylinder with a
UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE (UTM) piston which moves with the non-pulsating oil flow.
To test mechanical properties of a material such as • Control Devices - It can be electric or hydraulic.
compressive, tensile, shear and flexural must use Electric control devices make use of switches to
this machine called Universal Testing Machine move the crossheads and switch on/off the unit.
(UTM). This testing machine can make a stress
strain diagram that we used to compute yield Functions of Universal Testing Machine
strength, tensile strength and others. To test the mechanical properties of materials is the
main function of UTM. The following are the same
standard tests performed by UTM:

1. Tensile Test - Determine the force needed to

pull the specimen apart and along with how much
the material stretches before it breaks.

2. Compression Test - This is opposite of tensile

Components of Universal Testing Machine Two test where you compress an object between two
main parts of UTM: level plates until a certain load or distance has
1. Loading Unit been reached or the product breaks.
- where the test specimen takes place and the load
that must be exerted to the material. 3.Bending Stress - This is where you support a
length of material by spanning it across two
consists of following components: supports on each end. There is nothing supporting
• Load Frame - It consists of a table (to place the the middle portion underneath of it.
specimen for compression test), upper crosshead,
and lower crosshead. 4. Peel Test - This test pulls apart two materials
that have been bonded together.
• Upper/Lower crosshead: Upper crosshead is to
clamp the specimen needs to be tested from top or 5. Puncture Stress - In this test you secure a
its one end; Lower crosshead is the movable circular section of material around its perimeter.
crosshead whose screws can be loosened for
height adjustment and tightened. Wood is a complex material because this material
has properties which is inconsistent compared with
• Elongation Scale - The relative movement of the plastics or metals that throughout its properties are
lower and upper table is measured by an consistent. Wood is stronger along with its grain
elongation scale which is provided along with the that across of it.
loading unit.
TYPES OF GRAIN
2. Control Unit Grains are classified according to its look:
- where the load is applied and get the • Straight Grain - means that the fibers in a board
corresponding test result. The load is applied with run roughly parallel with the vertical axis of the log
control valve and released by release valve. The from which it was sawn.
load is applied with the help of hydraulic pressure. • Irregular Grain - the wood fibers run at varying
and irregular directions from the vertical axis of the
- consists of following components: log.
• Hydraulic Power Unit - This unit consists of an • Diagonal Grain - results when an otherwise
oil pump that provides non- pulsating oil flow into straight-grained log isn’t sawn along its vertical
the main cylinder of the load unit. This flow helps in axis.
the smooth application of load on the specimen. • Spiral Grain - A tree that grew twisted produces a
log and subsequent with spiral grain, where the
fibers follow a spiral course with either a left or right
hand twist.
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• Interlocked Grain - comes from trees whose AIR CONTENT (ASTM C231)
fibers in each growth layer tended to align in Air-entrained concrete is typically specified in areas
opposite directions. of the country where frost-related damage can
• Wavy Grain - When direction of the wood fibers occur. The measurement of air content in fresh
constantly changes. concrete of normal density is typically performed
using the pressure method (ASTM C 231). Another
WOOD GRAIN DIRECTION AND STRENGTH useful test is ASTM C 173.
• GRAIN DIRECTION - The wood is very strong in
compression parallel to grain because the wood COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
cells act as tiny columns or tubes bonded together, CYLINDERS
giving and receiving support from neighboring cells. The compressive strength of the concrete cylinder
is one of the most common performance measures
• SPECIFIC GRAVITY - Density (the weight for a performed by the engineers in the structural design.
given volume) is a good indicator of a wood's Here, the compressive strength of concrete
strength. This is calculated by its specific gravity cylinders is determined by applying continuous load
which is the ratio between the weight of a volume of over the cylinder until failure occurs.
wood and by the weight of the same volume of
water. APPARATUS FOR CONCRETE CYLINDER
The sample cylinder prepared can be any of the
• COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH - talks about how two dimensions as mentioned below. The diameter
much of a load can a wood species/material of the cylinder cast must be at least 3 times the
withstand parallel to the grain. nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate
employed in the concrete manufacture. The
• BENDING STRENGTH - also called as "modulus apparatus required is mentioned below:
of rupture" that shows about how much of a load 1. Compression testing machine
can a wood species/material withstand 2. Cylinder mold of 150mm diameter and 300mm
perpendicular to the grain. height or 100 x 200mm 3. Weighing balance.

• STIFFNESS (MODULUS OF ELASTICITY) - talks FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

about how much is the deflection that the wood Flexural strength of concrete is the measure of the
produced when load is applied perpendicular to the tensile strength of concrete and to resist failure in
grain. the bending it is a measure of an un-reinforced
• HARDNESS - reveals how resistant the surface of concrete beam or slab.
the wood is to scratches, dents, and other abuse.
WHY TEST FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF
MODULE 2 CONCRETE?
The designers of pavements use a theory that is
TYPICAL FRESH CONCRETE TESTS based on flexural strength so laboratory mix design
Typical means, the common test needed in small- based on flexure may be required or to yield the
size construction project. needed design MR, cement content may be
selected from past experience. Some also use MR
SAMPLING (ASTM C172) for acceptance of pavements and field control and
ASTM C172 gives the requirements and few use this test for structural concrete.
procedures for sampling concrete out of different
mixers and receptacles used in the making and Apparatus:
moving of concrete. There are the following apparatus used for
determining the flexural strength of concrete as
CONCRETE SLUMP TEST (ASTM C143) given below;
These are applicable for concrete with slumps 1. Beam Mold
greater than 1/2 inch and less than 9 inches. Once 2. Tamping Bar
the concrete sample has been remixed, start taking 3. Flexural Testing Machine
the slump tests within 5 minutes.
MODULE 3
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Tensile Strength of Steel • Cold Drawn Steel - produced by cold drawing

that mainly used to produce steel wire, and is also
Steel is defined as an alloy made from iron and used to produce round steel and hexagonal bars
carbon which are the mostly used metal materials with diameters below 50mm and steel pipes with
in the industry. Steel is also known as ferrous diameters below 76mm.
materials.
• Cast Steel - produced by casting method, and its
CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL carbon content is generally between 0.15-0.60%.
Steels are classified according to: This is mainly used to manufacture parts that are
• Chemical Composition complex in shape, difficult to forge or cut, and
• Use and Application require higher strength and plasticity.
• Manufacturing Processing Forms
• Smelting Methods • Forged Steel - produced by forging method.
Other aspects of mechanical properties are also
Chemical Composition higher than steel castings, so for some important
• Carbon Steel - This steel consists of carbon machine parts should be forged steel.
content with less than 2% and containing other
minimal elements such as silicon, phosphorus, TENSILE STRENGTH OF STEEL
sulfur and oxygen.
Strength of Steels
• Alloy Steel - This steel was made by adding This is the ability of material to withstand an applied
some alloying elements (e.g. titanium, chromium, load without failure or plastic deformation. From
aluminum, copper, nickel, molybdenum, this, the relation between the external loads exerted
manganese, tungsten, vanadium, silicon) to carbon to a material and the change or deformation of
steel for the improvements of the properties of material's dimension.
steel.
Stress- Strain Relationship
Use and Application • Yield Strength – it is the maximum stress limit of
Here are some examples of steel according to its a material wherein it cannot return to its original
use or application: shape.
• Structural steel - used for making construction • Ultimate Strength – this is the maximum stress
materials with different shapes. that the material can take before breaking; also
• Die steel - cutting plastics, wood, fabrics and known as tensile strength.
paperboard • Young's Modulus of Elasticity - the slope. E =
• Spring steel - spring clips and washers 200 GPa (Low Carbon Steel)
• Bearing steel
• Abrasion resistant steel (Wear-resistant steel) COMMON MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION:
• Valve steel
• Cold heading steel MASONRY AND ASPHALT
• Free cutting steel Masonry is the building of structures from
• Bridge steel individual units, which are often laid in and bound
• Pressure vessel steel, etc together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer
to the units themselves.
Manufacturing Process
Here are some example of steel according to Common Materials of Masonry Construction:
manufacturing process: • Bricks
• Hot Rolled Steel - produced by hot rolling that • Building Stone (marble, granite, travertine and
commonly used to produce profile steel, steel pipe, limestone)
steel plate and wire. • Cast Stone
• Concrete Block
• Cold Rolled Steel - produced by cold rolling that • Glass Block
commonly used to roll thin sheets and steel strips. • Cob
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Concrete Masonry Units or CMU • BEARING (ASTM C90) – consists of thick, heavy
These are commonly used in construction. It can be masonry walls of brick or stone that support the
a solid unit called concrete bricks, and hollow unit entire structure, including the horizontal floor slabs,
such as concrete blocks, hollow blocks and cinder which could be made of reinforced concrete, wood,
blocks. These hollow units should have less than or steel members.
75% cross- sectional area in every plane parallel to • NON-LOAD BEARING (ASTM C129) – does not
the bearing surface. support any gravity loads from the building, hence
doesn’t bear any weight besides its own.
Types of Concrete Blocks or Concrete Masonry
Units Mortar, Plaster and Grout
Mortar
• Solid Concrete Blocks Solid- concrete blocks ➢ a mixture of Portland cement, lime, sand and
are commonly used, which are heavy in weight and
manufactured from dense aggregate. They are very water.
strong and provides good stability to the structures. ➢ Two mixtures of Mortar:
• Lime mortar - made of lime, sand and water.
• Hollow Concrete Blocks- hollow concrete blocks
Lime makes the mortar rich which increases its
contain void area greater than 25% of gross area.
workability.
Solid area of hollow bricks should be more than
• Cement mortar- made of lime mortar mixed with
50%. The hollow part may be divided into several
Portland cement.
components based on our requirement. They are
manufactured from lightweight aggregates. They
Grout
are light weight blocks and easy to install.
➢ A high-slump concrete consisting of Portland
Types of Hollow Concrete Blocks: cement, lime, sand, fine gravel and water. Grout is
• Stretcher block - it is laid with its length parallel
to the face of the wall and used to used to fill the cores or voids in hollow masonry
join the corner masonry. units.
• Corner block - it is used at the ends of corners of
masonry. ➢ Two classifications of Grout:
• Pillar block - these are used when two ends of • Non-Sanded Grout - a cement-based grout
the corner are visible. Also called a double corner normally used on smaller tile joints. It is
block. recommended in floor and wall tiling projects with
• Jamb block - these are used when there is an grout joints spacing between 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch.
elaborate window opening in the wall. • Sanded Grout - consist of a cement-based
• Partition block – these are generally used to mortar that has small sand grains added to it to
build partition walls. help it when setting. Adding the sand to the grout,
• Lintel block - these are used for the purpose of provide a stronger grout that is normally used in
the provision of beam or lintel beam. joints larger than 1/8-inch.
• Frogged brick block - it contains a frog on its top
along with a header stretcher like a frogged brick. Plaster
• Bullnose block - it is similar to corner blocks but ➢ A fluid mixture of Portland cement, lime, sand
rounded edges at the corner.
• LIGHT-WEIGHT UNITS - have higher thermal and and water. This is used for either exterior or interior
fire resistance properties and lower sand resistance walls. The average compressive strength of plaster
than normal weight units.
• MEDIUM-WEIGHT UNITS - moderate weight and is about 13.8 Mpa at 28 days.
cost generally offer the best labor production to
➢ Types of Masonry Wall:
material cost ratio.
• NORMAL-WEIGHT UNITS - made of well-graded ● Load Bearing Wall - constructed with
sand, gravel, and crushed stone Classification of bricks, stones or concrete blocks. These
CMU LOAD walls can be exterior as well as interior walls
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● Reinforced Masonry Walls - the use of • Adhesive- binds together all the components
reinforcement in walls helps it to withstand without bringing about any positive or negative
tension forces and heavy compressive changes in their properties.
loads. • Water proof- bitumen is insoluble in water and
● Hollow Masonry Walls - used to prevent can serve as an effective sealant
moisture reaching the interior of the building • Strong- though the coarse aggregates are the
by providing hollow space between outside main load bearing component in a pavement,
and inside face of the wall. bitumen or asphalt also play a vital role in
● Composite Masonry Walls - these walls distributing the traffic loads to the layers beneath.
are constructed with two or more units such • Durable- bitumen lives up to twenty years if
as stones or bricks and hollow bricks. This maintained properly throughout the pavement life.
type of masonry wall construction is done • Versatile- bitumen is a relatively easy to use
for better appearance with economy material because of its thermoplastic property. It
● Post-Tensioned Masonry Walls - can be spread easily along the underlying
constructed to strengthen the masonry walls pavement layers as it liquefies when heated making
against the forces that may induce tension the job easier and hardens in a solid mass when
in the wall such as earthquake forces or cooled.
wind forces. • Economical- it is available in cheaper rates
almost all over the world.
Testing of Samples:
● SHAKE TABLE TESTING- an experimental Uses of Asphalt
platform that stimulates earthquake motion • Road surfaces
to verify seismic performance of building • Aircraft landing
structures • Waterproofing for fabrics
● COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF BRICKS- • Used to seal some alkaline batteries
the compressive strength of bricks is found • Used for water proofing and as an adhesive
by crushing 12 of them individually until they • For flooring, damp proofing in buildings,
fail of crumble. The pressure required to waterproofing of various types of pools and baths
crush them is noted and the average
compressive strength of the brick is stated Types of Asphalt
as newtons per mm of surface area required • Cutback Asphalt - a cutback asphalt is simply a
to ultimately crush the brick. combination of asphalt cement and petroleum
● GROUT SLUMP TESTING- the consistency solvent.
of grout may range from stiff (about 4 • Residual Asphalt- Residual asphalt is the asphalt
gallons of water per sack of cement) to fluid binder left over after the emulsion has set. It is then
(as many as 10 gallons of water per sack of blended with various solvents to produce cutback
cement), depending upon the nature of the asphalt in three classifications:
grouting job at hand. 1. Rapid Curing (RC)
2. Medium Curing (MC) 3. Slow Curing (SC)
Asphalt is a dark brown to black cementitious
materials in semisolid or solid form consisting of • Emulsified Asphalt- An asphalt emulsion is liquid
bitumen found in deposits of natural asphalt. The asphalt cement emulsified in water. It is composed
aggregates used for asphalt mixtures are sand, of asphalt, water and an emulsifying agent (such as
gravel or slags. soap).

Bitumen • Plastic Asphalt Cement- An asphaltic concrete

A black, oily, viscous material that is petroleum, a or paving material includes from 5 to 20 percent or
naturally-occurring organic by product of more of granular recycled plastic, which
decomposed organic materials. Bitumen is the supplements or replaces the rock aggregate
thickest form of petroleum. component of the mixture.

Properties of Bituminous Materials

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• Quick Setting Asphalt- A much like plastic as

asphalt cement but it has greater adhesive
properties and set ups rapidly.

• Asphalt Roofing- It is a porous fabric strip

saturated with asphalt.
➢ Asphalt Shingle Roofing
➢ Asphalt Roll Roofing

• Asphalt Paving- Asphalt is widely used for

paving because of its cementitious substance and
still will bind other ingredient such aggregates,
together.

Laboratory Test of Asphalt

• Viscosity Test- This is used to test the flow
properties of asphalt at a temperature.

• Penetration Test- It is an empirical test that

measures the consistency (hardness) of an asphalt
at a specified test condition.

• Flash Point Test- The flash point test determines

the temperature to which an asphalt can be safely
heated in the presence of an open flame.

• Ductility Test- The ductility test (ASTM D113)

measures the distance a standard asphalt sample
will stretch without breaking under a standard
testing condition (5 cm/min at 25 °C)

• Solubility Test- This test is used to ascertain the

purity of asphalt cement. The solubility test is used
to detect contamination in asphalt cement

• Thin Film Oven Test- This test subjects a sample

of asphalt to hardening condition similar to that
occur in a hot mix plan operation.

• Specific Gravity Test- The specific gravity test of

a materials is the ratio of the weight of a given
volume of the materials to the weight of equal
volume of the water.