Cagayan State University – Carig Campus

College of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Electrical Engineering
First Semester S.Y. 2023-2024

MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

MATERIAL TESTING
Engr. Raymond H. Lallabban
Subject Instructor
Email address: rhl.csu@gmail.com
Mobile/Viber Number: 0917-771-9039
Material Testing
measurement of the characteristics and
behavior of such substances as metals, ceramics,
or plastics under various conditions. The data thus
obtained can be used in specifying the suitability of
materials for various applications—e.g.,
building or aircraft construction, machinery, or packing.
Why are metals tested ?
• Ensure quality
• Test properties
• Prevent failure in use
• Make informed choices in using materials

Factor of Safety
is the ratio comparing the actual stress on
a material and the safe useable stress.
Two forms of testing

• Mechanical tests – the material may be

physically tested to destruction. Will normally
specify a value for properties such as strength,
hardness, toughness,etc
• Non-destructive tests (NDT) – samples or
finished articles are tested before being used.
Types of Testing
Mechanical testing: Non-destructive tests:
• Tensile • Visual Testing (VT)
• Creep • Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
• Compression • Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
• Bend or flexure • Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
• Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
• Hardness • Radiography Testing (RT)
• Impact
• Fatigue
Tensile Testing
a sample is subjected to a controlled
tension until failure. The results from the
test are commonly used to select a material for an
application, for quality control, and to predict how a
material will react under other types of
forces.
Properties that are directly measured via a
tensile test are ultimate tensile
strength, maximum elongation and
reduction in area.
From these measurements the following
properties can also be determined: Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and
strain-hardening characteristics.
Tensile Testing Machine
Tensile specimen
A tensile specimen is a
standardized sample cross-
section. It has two shoulders
and a gauge (section) in
between. The shoulders are
large so they can be readily
gripped, whereas the gauge Tensile specimens made from an
section has a smaller cross- aluminum alloy. The left two
specimens have a round cross-
section so that the section and threaded shoulders. The
deformation and failure can right two are flat specimen designed
to be used with serrated grips.
occur in this area.
A standard specimen is prepared in a round or a square section along
the gauge length, depending on the standard used. Both ends of the
specimens should have sufficient length and a surface condition such
that they are firmly gripped during testing.
The shoulders of the test specimen can be manufactured in
various ways to mate to various grips in the testing machine
(see the image below). Each system has advantages and
disadvantages; for example, shoulders designed for serrated
grips are easy and cheap to manufacture, but the alignment
of the specimen is dependent on the skill of the technician.
On the other hand, a pinned grip assures good alignment.
Threaded shoulders and grips also assure good alignment,
but the technician must know to thread each shoulder into the
grip at least one diameter's length, otherwise the threads can
strip before the specimen fractures.
A. A Threaded shoulder for use with a threaded grip
B. A round shoulder for use with serrated grips
C. A butt end shoulder for use with a split collar
D. A flat shoulder for used with serrated grips
E. A flat shoulder with a through hole for a pinned grip
Creep Testing
A creep-testing machine measures the Creep (the
tendency of a material after being subjected to high
levels of stress, e.g. high temperatures, to change its
form in relation to time) of an object.

It is a device that measures the alteration of a

material after it has been put through different
forms of stress. Creep machines are important to see
how much strain (load) an object can handle under
pressure, so engineers and researchers are able to
determine what materials to use.
The device generates a creep time-dependent
curve by calculating the steady rate of creep in
reference to the time it takes for the material
to change. Creep machines are primarily used
by engineers to determine the stability of a
material and its behavior when it is put
through ordinary stresses.
Design
Researchers look to test objects with a creep machine to
understand the process of metallurgy and the physical
mechanical properties of a metal, test the development of
alloys, receive data from the loads that are derived and to
find out whether a sample or material is within the boundary
of what they are testing. The basic design of a creep machine
is the furnace, loading device and support structure.
o Load platform or sometimes called load hanger is where the
object will endure pressure at a constant rate.
o Grips are used to hold the material you are testing in a
certain position. Position is important because if the alignment
is off, the machine will deliver inaccurate readings of the creep
of the material.
o Dial Gauge is used to measure the strain. It is the object that
captures the movement of the object in the machine. The load
beam transfers the movement from the grip to the dial gauge.
o Heating Chamber is what surrounds the object and maintain
the temperature that the object is subjected to.
Applications
Creep machines are most commonly used in experiments to
determine how efficient and stable a material is. The
machine is used by students and companies to create a creep
curve on how much pressure and stress a material can
handle. The machine is able to calculate the stress rate, time
and pressure.
Applications
• Displacement-Limited applications : the size must be precise
and there must be little errors or tendency to change. This is
most commonly found in turbine rotors in jet engines.
• Rupture Limited applications: in this application the break
cannot occur to the material but there can be various
dimensions as the material goes through creep. High pressure
tubes are examples of them.
• Stress relaxation limited application : the tension at the
beginning becomes more relaxed and the tension will continue
to relax as the time goes by, such as cable wires and bolts.
Compressive Testing
• Determine a material’s response to crushing, or
support-type loading (such as in the beams of a
house).
• Testing machines and extensometers for compression
tests resemble those used for tension tests. Specimens
are generally simpler, however, because gripping is not
usually a problem.
• Furthermore, specimens may have a constant cross-
sectional area throughout their full length. The gauge
length of a sample in a compression test is its full length.
Bend Test
o Bend test - Application of a force to the center of a bar that is
supported on each end to determine the resistance of the material
to a static or slowly applied load.
o Flexural strength or modulus of rupture -The stress required to
fracture a specimen in a bend test.
o Flexural modulus - The modulus of elasticity calculated from the
results of a bend test, giving the slope of the stress-deflection
curve.
 (c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under
license.

(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength , and (b) the
deflection δ obtained by bending
Flexural Strength
• Schematic for a 3-
point bending test.
• Able to measure the
stress-strain behavior
and flexural strength
of brittle ceramics.
• Flexural strength
(modulus of rupture or
bend strength) is the
stress at fracture.
See Table 7.2 for more values.
Hardness of Materials
Is the measure of the resistance of a metal to
permanent plastic deformation. The hardness of a
metal is measured by forcing an indenter into its
surface. The indenter material which is usually a
ball, pyramid, or cone is made of a material much
harder than the material being tested.
Hardness Testers
Hardness testing machine

The indenter is pressed

into the metal.

Softer materials leave a

deeper indentation.
Brinell hardness test
o Uses ball indenter.
o Cannot be used for thin
materials.
o Ball may deform on very
hard materials
o Surface area of
indentation is measured.
Vickers hardness test
o Uses square pyramid
indenter.
o Accurate results.
o Measures length of diagonal
on indentation.
Rockwell hardness tests
o Gives direct reading.
o Rockwell B (ball) used for soft
materials.
o Rockwell C (cone) uses
diamond cone for hard
materials.
o Flexible, quick and easy to
use.
Impact Tests
• Toughness of metals is the ability to
withstand shock load and impact. It will
not fracture when twisted.
 Izod test
• Strikes at 167 Joules.
• Test specimen is held
vertically.
• Notch faces striker.
Charpy impact test
• Strikes form higher position
with 300 Joules.
• Test specimen is held
horizontally.
• Notch faces away form striker.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
o Organization
o Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
o Six most common NDT methods
o Process of each NDT Method
o Advantages and limitations of NDT methods
o Conclusion
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
Non-Destructive testing is the use of
noninvasive techniques to
determine the integrity of a
material, component or structure
or quantitatively measure some
characteristics of an object. It is the
testing of materials, for surface or
internal flaws or metallurgical
condition, without interfering in any
way with the integrity of the material
or its suitability for service.
i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.
 Methods of NDT
Ther
mog
Micro raph
Visual wave y
ar t i cle
est ing n et i cP
Tap T M ag
Acoustic
X-ray Micr oscopy
Acoust
ic Em ission ents n t
em net r a
asur Pe
Me i quid
etic L
Ult n
ras Mag Replication
on
ic
Lase Eddy
r Inte Curr
kage rferom ent
Flux Lea etry
Six Most Common NDT Methods

1. Visual Testing (VT)

2. Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
4. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
5. Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
6. Radiography Testing (RT)
Visual Testing
Visual testing is the most basic and common inspection
method involves in using of human eyes to look for
defects. But now it is done by the use special tools such
as video scopes, magnifying glasses, mirrors, or
borescopes to gain access and more closely inspect the
subject area.

Visual Testing Equipments:

•Mirrors (especially small, angled mirrors),
•Magnifying glasses,
•Microscopes (optical and electron),
•Borescopes and fiber optic borescopes,
•Closed circuit television (CCTV) systems,
•Videoscope.
Visual Testing Equipment

Videoscope Borescopes
Advanced Videoscope

Magnifying glass
Microscope
 Dye Penetrant Testing

This method is commonly used for detect the surface

cracks or defects. Dye penetrant Testing (DPT) is one of
the most widely used nondestructive Testing (NDT)
methods. DPT can be used to inspect almost any
material provided that its surface is not extremely rough.
Dye Penetrant Testing Process

Three liquids are

used in this method.

1. Cleaner
2. Penetrant
3. Developer
 Dye Penetrant Testing of a Boiler

At first the surface of the material that is to be tested is

cleaned by a liquid. The liquid is called cleaner.
Dye Penetrant Testing of a Boiler

Then a liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the

surface of the part and allowed time to seep into surface breaking
defects. This liquid is called penetrant. After five or ten minutes the
excess penetrant is removed from the surface.
 Dye Penetrant Testing of a Boiler

Then another liquid is applied to pull the trapped penetrant

out the defect and spread it on the surface where it can be
seen. This liquid is called developer.
Findings

After Dye Penetrant Testing

there are two surface cracks
are
Detected.

Two surface cracks

Advantages of Dye Penetrant Testing
 This method has high sensitivity to small surface
discontinuities.
 Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at low cost.
 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the
part and constitute a visual representation of the flaw.
 Aerosol spray can make penetrant materials very
portable.
 Penetrant materials and associated equipment are
relatively inexpensive.
Limitations of Dye Penetrant Testing
 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
 Precleaning is critical since contaminants can mask
defects.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface
being inspected.
 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection
sensitivity.
 Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is
required.
 Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
Magnetic Particle Testing
This method is suitable for the detection of
surface and near surface discontinuities in
magnetic material, mainly ferrite steel and
iron. Magnetic particle Testing (MPT) is a
nondestructive testing method used for
defect detection. MPT is fast and relatively
easy to apply, and material surface
preparation is not as critical as it is for some
other NDT methods.
 Basic Principle of MPT
Magnetic Flux Leakage Crack
Magnetic Flux Line

S N
N S N S

Fig.1: Magnetized Metal with no crack Fig.2: Magnetized Metal with crack

In the first figure the magnetized metal has no crack and there
only two poles that is north pole and south pole. And in second
figure the magnetized metal has a crack and at the crack point
there creates another north and south pole for the magnetic flux
leakage.
Magnetic Particle Testing Process
The first step in a magnetic particle
testing is to magnetize the
test component by a MPT
equipment. If there any defects on
the surface or near to the surface
are present, the defects will create a
leakage field.

Then finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment

are applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted
to magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an
indication directly over the defects. This indication can be
visually detected under proper lighting conditions.
Magnetic Particle Testing in Superheater Pipe Welding

First the welding joint is magnetized by MPT equipment. Then finely

milled iron particles are applied to the magnetized weld joint.
 Magnetic Particle Testing in Gas Pipe Welding
Iron particles make a
cluster at the welding
joint for magnetic
flux leakage because
of welding defects.

Cluster
Advantages Magnetic Particle Testing
o It does not need very stringent pre-cleaning operation.
o It is the best method for the detection of surface and
near to the surface cracks in ferromagnetic materials.
o Fast and relatively simple NDT method.
o Generally inexpensive.
o Will work through thin coating.
o Highly portable NDT method.
o It is quicker.
Limitations of Magnetic Particle Testing
o Material must be ferromagnetic.
o Orientation and strength of magnetic field is critical.
o Detects surface and near-to-surface discontinuities
only.
o Large currents sometimes require.
Ultrasonic Testing
This technique is used for the
detection of internal surface
(particularly distant surface) defects in
sound conducting materials. In this
method high frequency sound waves
are introduced into a material and they
are reflected back from surface and
flaws. Reflected sound energy is
displayed versus time, and inspector
can visualize a cross section of the
specimen showing the depth of
features.
 Basic Principle of Ultrasonic Testing
A typical UT system consists of several functional units, such
as the pulser/receiver, piezoelectric transducer, and display
devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can
produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser,
the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy.
The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the
materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity
(such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be
reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave
signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the
piezoelectrical transducer and is displayed on a screen.
 Basic Principle of Ultrasonic Testing
In the figure below, the reflected signal strength is
displayed versus the time from signal generation, when
a echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly
related to the distance. From the signal, information
about the reflector location, size, orientation and other
features can sometimes be gained.

initial Piezoelectric
pulse Transducer
back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack
0 2 4 6 8 10 plate

Oscilloscope, or flaw detector screen

 Piezoelectric Transducer
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one
form to another. Presently, piezoelectric material is
commonly used as a basic component of transducers. A
piezoelectric element is a crystal which delivers a voltage
when mechanical force is applied between its faces, and it
deforms mechanically when voltage is applied between its
faces. Because of these characteristics piezoelectric
element is capable of acting as both a sensing and a
transmitting element. Piezoelectric transducers have been
conventionally used to convert electric signals into sound
wave, or to convert sound wave into electric signals.
Piezoelectric Transducer
case

Signal wire
Piezoelectric element
Test Techniques: Normal and Angle Beam
• In normal beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at 90 degree
to the surface.
• In angle beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at some
angles other than 90.
• The choice between normal and angle beam
inspection usually depends on two
considerations:
- The orientation of the feature of interest –
the sound should be directed to produce
the largest reflection from the feature.
- Obstructions on the surface of the part
that must be worked around.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing
o Thickness and lengths up to 30 ft can be tested.
o Position, size and type of defect can be determined.
o Instant test results.
o Portable.
o Capable of being fully automated.
o Access to only one side necessary.
Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
o The operator can decide whether the test piece is
defective or not while the test is in progress.
o Considerable degree of skill necessary to obtain
the fullest information from the test.
o Very thin sections can prove difficult.
Eddy Current Testing
This method is widely used to detect
surface flaws, to measure thin walls from
one surface only, to measure thin coatings
and in some applications to measure
depth. This method is applicable to
electrically conductive materials only. In
this method eddy currents are produced in
the product by bringing it close to an
alternating current carrying coil. The main
applications of the eddy current technique
are for the detection of surface or
subsurface flaws, conductivity
measurement and coating thickness
measurement.
Application of ECT
o Crack Detection
o Corrosion Monitoring
o Material Thickness Measurements
o Coating Thickness Measurements
o Conductivity Measurements
Electromagnetic Induction
o Eddy currents are created through a process called
electromagnetic induction.

o When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as

copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the
conductor.

o This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to

maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to zero.
Electromagnetic Induction
If another electrical conductor is brought into the proximity
of this changing magnetic field, the reverse effect will occur.
Magnetic field cutting through the second conductor will
cause an “induced” current to flow in this second conductor.
Eddy currents are a form of induced currents!

Current Flow
Crack Detection
Crack detection is one of the primary uses of eddy current
inspection. Cracks cause a disruption in the circular flow
patterns of the eddy currents and weaken their strength.
This change in strength at the crack location can be
detected.

Magnetic Field
From Test Coil

Magnetic Field
From
Eddy Currents

Crack
Eddy Currents
Eddy Current Testing
Equipments
Probes - Mode of Operation
Eddy current probes are available in a large variety of
shapes and sizes. In fact, one of the major
advantages of eddy current inspection is that probes
can be custom designed for a wide variety of
applications. Eddy current probes are classified by the
configuration and mode of operation of the test coils.
 Different Types of Probes

Absolute Probes Surface Probes Bobbin Probes

Advantages of Eddy Current Testing
o Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
o Detect surface and near surface defects
o Inspection gives immediate results
o Equipment is very portable
o Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
o Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive
materials
Limitations of Eddy Current Testing
o Only conductive materials can be inspected.
o Surface must be accessible to the probe.
o Skill and training required is more extensive than other
techniques.
o Surface finish and roughness may interfere.
o Depth of penetration is limited.
 Radiography Testing
Radiography Testing (RT), or industrial radiography
is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method of
inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the
ability of short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate
various materials.
Radiographic Testing Method is nothing but to take
the shadow picture of an object onto a film by the
passage of X-ray or Gamma ray through it. It is the
same as the medical radiography (X-ray). Only
difference in their wave length.
 Radiography Testing Process
The principles are the same for both X and Gamma
radiography. In X-radiography the penetrating power is
determined by the number of volts applied to the X-Ray
tube - in steel approximately 1000 volts per inch thickness
is necessary. To produce an X or Gamma radiograph, the
film package is placed close to the surface of the subject.
The source of radiation is positioned on the other side of
the subject some distance away, so that the radiation
passes through the subject and on to the film.
 Radiography Testing Process
After the exposure period the film is removed, processed,
dried, and then viewed by transmitted light on a special
viewer. Various radiographic and photographic
accessories are necessary, including such items as
radiation monitors, film markers, image quality indicators,
darkroom equipment, etc. Where the last is concerned
there are many degrees of sophistication, including fully
automatic processing units. These accessories are the
same for both X and Gamma radiography systems. Also
required are such consumable items as radiographic film
and processing chemicals
 Radiography Testing Process

Radioactive Source

Electrons
+ -
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation

X-ray film
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Top view of developed film

Essential Elements for Radiography Testing
1. A source of penetrating radiation, such as an X-ray machine.
2. The object to be radiographed, such as a weldment.
3. A recording or viewing device, usually photographic (X-ray) film
enclosed in a light tight holder.
4. A qualified radiographer trained to produce a satisfactory
exposure.
5. A person skilled in the interpretation of radiographs.
 Radiographic Image

Normal image

Radiographic image
 Radiation Safety

Ionizing radiation is an extremely important NDT tool but

it can pose a hazard to human health. For this reason,
special precautions must be observed when using and
working around ionizing radiation. Complicating matters
further is the fact that Gamma and X-ray radiation are not
detectable by the human body. However, the risks can be
minimized when the radiation is handled and managed
properly.
 Advantages of Radiography Testing

o Information is presented pictorially.

o A permanent record is provided which may be viewed at a
time and place distant from the test.
o Useful for thin sections.
o Sensitivity declared on each film suitable for any material.
Limitations of Radiography Testing
o Possible health hazard.
o Need to direct the beam accurately for two-dimensional
defects.
o Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary
o Not suitable for automation.
o Not suitable for surface defects.
 Importance of NDT
1. NDT increases the safety and reliability of the product
during operation.
2. It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and
conserving materials, labor and energy.
3. It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as a
producer of quality goods. All of the above factors boost the
sales of the product which bring more economical benefits
for the manufacturer.
4. NDT is also used widely for routine or periodic
determination of quality of the plants and structures during
service.
5. This not only increases the safety of operation but also
eliminates any forced shut down of the plants.