ALTINBAS UNIVERSITY

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
IE258 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
LAB.
Tension, Bending, Compression and
Torsion Test

TENSION TEST
Mechanical testing plays an important role in evaluating fundamental properties of
engineering materials as well as in developing new materials and in controlling the quality of
materials for use in design and construction. If a material is to be used as part of an engineering
structure that will be subjected to a load, it is important to know that the material is strong
enough and rigid enough to withstand the loads that it will experience in service. As a result
engineers have developed a number of experimental techniques for mechanical testing of
engineering materials subjected to tension, compression, bending or torsion loading.
The most common type of test used to measure the mechanical properties of a material
is the Tension Test. Tension test is widely used to provide a basic design information on the
strength of materials and is an acceptance test for the specification of materials. The major
parameters that describe the stress-strain curve obtained during the tension test are the tensile
strength (UTS), yield strength or yield point (σy), elastic modulus (E), percent elongation (∆L%)
and the reduction in area (RA%). Toughness, Resilience, Poisson’s ratio(ν) can also be found
by the use of this testing technique.
In this test, a specimen is prepared suitable for gripping into the jaws of the testing
machine type that will be used. The specimens used is approximately uniform over a gage
length (the length within which elongation measurements are made).
 Tensile specimens (a) rectangular, (b) round
Tensile specimens are machined from the material to be tested in the desired orientation
and according to the standards. The cross section of the specimen is usually round, square or
rectangular. For metals, a piece of sufficient thickness can be obtained so that it can be easily
machined, a round specimen is commonly used. For sheet and plate stock, a flat specimen is
usually employed. The change in the gage length of the sample as pulling proceeds is measured
from either the change in actuator position (stroke or overall change in length) or a sensor
attached to the sample (called an extensometer).
According to the loading type, there are two kinds of tensile testing machines;
1 – Screw Driven Testing Machine: During the experiment, elongation rate is kept
constant.
2 – Hydraulic Testing Machine: Keeps the loading rate constant. The loading rate can
be set depending on the desired time to fracture.
A tensile load is applied to the specimen until it fractures. During the test, the load
required to make a certain elongation on the material is recorded. A load-elongation curve is
plotted by an x-y recorder, so that the tensile behavior of the material can be obtained. An
engineering stress-strain curve can be constructed from this load-elongation curve by making
the required calculations. Then the mechanical parameters that we search for can be found by
studying on this curve.
Below a typical engineering stress-strain diagram and the significant parameters are
shown;
 Engineering Stress is obtained by dividing the load by the original area of the cross section of
the specimen.
Stress σ = P/Ao ( Load/Initial cross-sectional area)
Strain = e = ∆l/lo (Elongation/Initial gage length)
Stress and strain are independent of the geometry of the specimen.
Elastic Region: The part of the stress-strain curve upto the yielding point. Elastic
deformation is recoverable. In the elastic region, stress and strain are related to each other
linearly.
Hooke’s Law: σ = Ee
The linearity constant E is called the elastic modulus which is specific for each type of
material.
Plastic Region: The part of the stress-strain diagram after the yielding point. At the
yielding point, the plastic deformation starts. Plastic deformation is permanent. At the
maximum point of the stress-strain diagram (σUTS), necking starts.
Tensile Strength is the maximum stress that the material can support.
σUTS = Pmax/Ao
Because the tensile strength is easy to determine and is a quite reproducible property, it
is useful for the purposes of specifications and for quality control of a product. Extensive
empirical correlations between tensile strength and properties such as hardness and fatigue
strength are often quite useful. For brittle materials, the tensile strength is a valid criterion for
design.
 Yield Strength is the stress level at which plastic deformation starts. The beginning of
first plastic deformation is called yielding. It is an important parameter in design. The stress at
which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin depends on the sensitivity of the
strain measurements. With most materials there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic
behavior, and the point at which plastic deformation begins is hard to define with precision.
Various criteria for the initiation of yielding are used depending on the sensitivity of the strain
measurements and the intended use of the data. 0,2% off-set method is a commonly used
method to determine the yield stength. σy(0.2%) is found by drawing a parallel line to the elastic
region and the point at which this line intersects with the stress-strain curve is set as the yielding
point.

Ductility is the degree of plastic deformation that a material can withstand before
fracture. A material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed
brittle.
In general, measurements of ductility are of interest in three ways:
1. To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without fracture in
metalworking operations such as rolling and extrusion.
2. To indicate to the designer, in a general way, the ability of the metal to flow plastically
before fracture.
3. To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions.
Ductility measurements may be specified to assess material quality even though no direct
relationship exists between the ductility measurement and performance in service.
Ductility can be expressed either in terms of percent elongation (z) or percent reduction
in area (q) ;
 z = [(lf -lo )/lo ]*100
q = [(Ao -Af )/Ao ]*100
There is a mathematical relation between z and q!
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically.
Toughness is a measure of energy required to cause fracture.
Poisson’s Ratio is the lateral contraction per unit breadth divided by the longitudinal
extension per unit length.
ν =-( ∆d/do)/(∆l/lo)

Typical engineering stress-strain behavior to fracture, point F. The tensile strength is indicated
at point M. The circular insets represent the geometry of the deformed specimen at various points
along the curve.
Video Break!
 COMPRESSION TEST
In a compression test, normally, the specimen is subjected to an increasing axial
compressive load. Both load and strain are monitored either continuously or in finite
increments, and the compressive properties are determined.
The data obtained from a compression test may include the yield strength, the yield
point, Young's modulus, the stress-strain curve, and the compressive strength. In the case of a
material that does not fail in compression by a shattering fracture, compressive strength is a
value that is dependent on total strain and specimen geometry.
When compressive loads are applied to a material, the relationship between stress and
strain is the same as in case of tensile loads.
The stress-strain curve determined from the tension test is of limited usefulness because
necking limits uniform deformation to true strains less than 0.5. Since metalworking processes
involve large plastic strains, it is desirable to measure the flow curve out to a true strain of 2.0
to 4.0. The compression of a short cylinder between anvils is a much better test for measuring
the flow stress in metalworking applications at high strain values. In addition to the limitation
because of necking, tensile response is crack sensitive, which means that when a crack is present
in the material, it fails before the critical stress for fracture is reached. But compressive loads
give better mechanical properties, since cracks do not propagate under compressive loads.
So compression test is useful to determine the mechanical properties of a material for
two reasons. First is that the behavior of ductile materials at high strains can be observed. And
second, real performance of brittle material and of a notched or cracked material can be
observed under compression test.

Fig.1: Ductile vs Brittle material stress-strain curves

 The compressive strength of a material determines how much it deforms under a
compressive load. Some materials such as concrete are strong in compression but weak in
tension. Generally a material will respond compression in one of the three following ways:

For materials that are brittle, only slight deformation occurs prior to fracture. However,
with more ductile materials, failure may occur by either barreling (when the length is less than
twice the diameter) or buckling (when the length is greater than 3 times of the diameter).
While tensile instability is necking, compressive instability is buckling.
It is assumed that the cross-sectional area is constant over the gage length and that the
stress is uniaxial and uniform in each cross section along the gage length. Errors in stress and
strain occur if the assumptions of uniformity do not exist in a test. Buckling and barreling cause
nonuniform stress and strain distributions, and elimination of these phenomena in compression
tests can lead to more accurate stress-strain data.
Effect of Friction The friction between the anvils and the materials can lead to
difficulties unless it is controlled. According to the theory of constant volume during
compression, with diameter D and height (or length) h;
D0 2 h0 = Df 2 hf
During deformation, as the metal spreads over the compression anvils to increase its
diameter, frictional forces will oppose the outward flow of metal. This frictional resistance
occurs at the surface of the specimen which is in contact with the anvils, while the metal at
specimen midheight can flow outward. This leads to a barreling specimen profile, and internally
a region of undeformed metal is created near the anvil surfaces.
 When these plastically undeformed dead metal zones overlap, the load requirement for
deformation increases. This is the reason for the bending of the load vs. deformation curve
upward sharply, at some point(B) (see the below figure).
 On the above figure, the effects of friction on the deformation behavior can be observed.
At the same applied load, deformation is limited with increasing friction. Also to obtain the
same amount of strain, load requirement is increased with increasing friction.
Another effect of friction is that it may cause cracking, either shear or normal cracks.
The type of cracks is due to the amount of friction. As an example, for 1040 steel, upto a
coefficient of friction of 0.25, shear cracks are observed while above 0.25, normal cracks are
dominant.

We can summarize the effects of friction as;

• Friction causes barreling
• Friction leads to dead metal zone formation
• Friction limits deformation
 • Friction increases the load requirement
• Friction causes cracking problems
So we have to eliminate either the friction or the effect of friction.
To eliminate friction a lubricant suitable for the material and the anvils can be used.
To decrease effect of friction, two basic methods are offered;
• Interrupted loading method: By this method, the required load can be lowered and
the maximum amount of deformation can be increased, since the overlapping of dead metal
zones is restricted.
• Using high length specimen or Cooke and Larke extrapolation Method: For an
infinitely long specimen, the effect of friction is zero. So when D/h ratio is decreased, where D
is the diameter and h is the height of the specimen, the effect of friction will be lowered.

But a disadvantage of using longer specimens is that buckling may occur. Cooke and
Larke have suggested a technique by which we can determine the strain value of an infinitely
long specimen. In this technique, a number of set of specimens is tested and different loads at
low and high frictions. And the relation between D0/h0 and %∆h for each set are plotted on the
same graph. In each set, specimens with same diameter but different height are used. (%∆h is
the measure of strain). Then the curves are extrapolated to the x-axis where D0/h0 is zero, that
is infinite length. It should be noted that the extrapolation points for the sets tested at the same
load but at different friction severities will coincide.
 Note that, the deformation behavior is the same for two different loads at the same
friction values, but only the lines are shifted to right at higher loads.
The intersection points with the x-axis give the %∆h value of an infinitely long
specimen. Note also that these extrapolation points coincide independent of friction at the same
applied load.
So, we can plot the P vs %∆h graph which is independent of friction, by the data we
have obtained.

Video break!
 BENDING TEST
3- POINT BENDING TEST

If forces act on a piece of material in such a way that they tend to induce compressive stresses
over one part of a cross-section of tensile stresses over the remaining part, the piece said to be
in bending.

The bending test may serve as a direct means of evaluating behavior under bending loads,
particularly for determining the limits of structural stability of beams of various shapes and
sizes. It may also be an indicator of the strength of the material, when tensile specimens are
difficult or impossible to machine which is the case, for example, for structural ceramics.

a)

b)

Fig.2. a) 3-Point bending test, b) Stress distribution on a bend specimen

MODULUS OF RUPTURE
The maximum stress, or stress at fracture using bend test, is known as the modulus of rupture,
or bend strength, an important parameter for brittle materials.

𝑀.𝑐
𝜎= (Bend Stress)
𝐼

Where,
M: Maximum bending moment, M = F.L/4
L: span length
c: distance from neutral axis
I: moment of inertia of cross section,
F: applied load

A few examples of possible cross section of a solid beam

d R

-Rectangular cross section -Circular cross section

b: width, d: depth or thickness of material R=Radius

Cross-section M c I σ σmr

𝐹. 𝐿⁄ 𝑑⁄ 𝑏. 𝑑 3 3𝐹. 𝐿⁄ 3𝐹𝑓 . 𝐿
Rectangular 4 2 2. 𝑏. 𝑑 2 ⁄
12 2. 𝑏. 𝑑 2
𝐹. 𝐿⁄ 𝜋. 𝑅 4 𝐹. 𝐿⁄ 𝐹𝑓 . 𝐿
Circular 4 R 𝜋. 𝑅 3 ⁄
4 𝜋. 𝑅 3
BENDING STRAIN, 𝜀 = 𝑐⁄𝑅 = 12. 𝑌. 𝑐⁄ 2
𝑐 𝐿
Where, Rc radius of curvature of the neutral axis and Y is the maximum deflection at the
midpoint of the specimen.

FLEXURAL MODULUS
Flexural properties of structures concern engineers in many applications. For example, a tall
building sways when the wind blows or a bridge structure bends when traffic passes. Engineers
model the flexural performance of the structure while designing it. The structure must not
deform excessively. A bridge structure must accept the traffic load without fracturing and
without making drivers and passengers nervous or 'seasick' as they pass. Designers use the
modulus of elasticity, which is a material property, to predict the structural deformation
associated with the load.

We extract material properties from tests performed on small, carefully prepared and handled
samples of the material. Solid mechanics lets us design a specimen for extraction of reliable
property data. Scrupulous attention to experimental technique and data analysis is necessary.
This data drives the design of large structures; therefore, the cost of making an error at this stage
can result in unfortunate loss of capital investment, materials and energy, regrettable legal
claims and impermissible personal injury.

Young's modulus of elasticity determines the elastic deformation of a test specimen.Different

test specimen geometries are possible. Tensile extension of cylinders and flexural bending of
thin sheets both provide a measure of the Young's modulus. This material property is the same
in both tests if the material is isotropic. For some materials, brittle materials, the flexural test is
easier to conduct. Flexure fixtures are inexpensive. Deformation is easy to measure because the
flexure magnifies the deflection.

Flexural Modulus: 𝜎⁄𝜀

Experimental Procedure

1-Take the material and prepare for testing (proper to standard or desired values)
- Dimension of your specimen
- Select for suitable flexural bend grips and fixtures and their dimension
- Select for suitable test machine
2- The material places into the test machine
- Check the dimensions of your specimen, grips and fixtures
3- Manually apply pre-force with loading pin
- Loading-pin placement in the middle and over your material
4- Choose the speed of load (proper to standard or desired values)
5- Start it.
Table1. Results Table
Exp. No Time(s) Extension(mm) Load(N) Flexure strain(%) Flexure stress (MPa)

Example 1.
b=10.87 mm, d=2,86 mm, L=60 mm Rectangular shape object, (mention above equation can
be used) find the flexure strain and stress and flexural modulus.
Exp. No Time(s) Extension(mm) Load(N) Flexure Flexure Flexural
strain (%) stress (MPa) Mod. (GPa)
1 132,6 4,42 59,17 2.107 59,894 2,84
c=2.86/2=1.43 mm
12. (4,42). (1,43)⁄
𝜀=
602
σ = 3. (59,17).60
⁄2. (10,87). (2,86)2

Video Brake!
 Fig 3. Example three point bending test results graph

What is the difference between 3-point bending and 4-point bending?

The highest or maximum bend stress occurs under the loading anvil in three point flexural bend
tests. In four point bend tests, the maximum flexural stress is spread over the section of the
beam between loading points. Also, a three point test best applies where the material is
homogeneous, such as plastic materials. A four point test tends to be the best choice if the
material is not homogeneous, such as composites or wood.

Flexural Bend Grips and Fixtures

The fixtures are available on force capacities to Flexural tests on ceramics and glass with special
500 kN with anvils and bases 160 mm wide. articulating anvils at loads upto 10 kN and bases
150 mm.
Some Examples of Standards

Standard Materials Standard Materials

ASTM F382 Biomedical ASTM C1609 Concrete

ASTM C1161 Ceramics ASTM C947 Concrete

ASTM C133 Ceramics ASTM C203 Construction

ASTM C1341 Ceramics JEDEC 22B113 Electronics

ASTM C1421 Ceramics ASTM C158 Glass

ASTM C1499 Ceramics EN ISO 1288 Glass

ASTM C1674 Ceramics ASTM E190 Metal Welds

ASTM C393 Composites ASTM E190 Metal Welds

ASTM D2344 Composites ASTM E290 Metal Welds

ASTM D2344 Composites ASTM A720 Metals

ASTM D7249 Composites ASTM B312 Metals

ASTM D7264 Composites ASTM E855 Metals

ASTM C1399 Concrete ASTM D4476 Plastics

ASTM C1550 Concrete ASTM D7774 Plastics

 Torsion Test
In addition to undergoing tensile and compressive forces, a workpiece may also be subjected to shear
strains (Fig.1), such as in the punching of holes in sheet metals, swaging and machining. The method
generally used to determine properties of materials in shear is the torsion test. This test is usually
performed on a thin tubular specimen in order to obtain an approximately uniform stress and strain
distribution along its cross-section. The test specimen usually has a reduced cross-section in order to
confine the deformation to a narrow zone. The shear stress, τ, can be calculated from the formula
τ= T/2πr2t
where T is the torque applied, r is the average radius of the tube, and t is the thickness of the tube at its
narrow section.
The shear strain, γ, can be calculated from the formula
γ=rɸ/l
where l is the length of the tube section and ɸ the angle of twist in radians.

Figure 1. A typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two heads of a testing machine and
twisted; note the shear deformation of an element in the reduced section of the specimen.
The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain in the elastic range is known as the shear modulus, or
modulus of rigidity, G. The shear modulus is a quantity related to the modulus of elasticity, E, by the
formula,
G= E/2(1+v)
The angle of twist, ɸ, to fracture in the torsion of solid round bars at elevated temperatures has been
found to be useful in estimating the forgeability of metals. The greater the number of twists prior to
failure, the better is the forgeability.
Ref.
-https://mechanicalc.com/reference/mechanical-properties-of-materials
-Gül Çevik, ResearchAssistant METU-METE, Met E 477 – TESTING AND EVALUATION OF MATERIALS, 2005
-https://www.testresources.net
-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3dQ05Ma06QY
-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFfmvlRXJdI
-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bd-HsYgokGo
-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFeHYFPElvE
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-LDgJjbQeEo
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=94Bu1DiHOoM
- Manufacturing: Engineering and Technology, 7e, Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R. Schmid, Pearson.