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 Principle - Grinding Process

• Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a

grinding wheel as the cutting tool.
• It is a material cutting process which engages an abrasive
tool whose cutting elements are grains of abrasive
material known as grit.
• These grits are characterized by sharp cutting
• points, high hot hardness, and chemical stability and
wear resistance.
• The grits are held together by a suitable bonding material
to give shape of an abrasive tool.

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Mechanism of material removal in
grinding

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 Various stages of grinding with grit depth of cut
• Grinding is a combination of rubbing, ploughing
and cutting (actual chip formation)
• governed by grit geometry, work material
characteristics, grinding loop stiffness and the
grinding velocity

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Chip Formation
• Chips in this process are formed by the same mechanism of
compression and shear as other machining processes.
• As the grains or abrasives become dull, the cutting forces increase.
The increase in the cutting force causes the grains to plow and rub
rather than cut. As the plowing and rubbing increases, the grains
fracture at the cutting edge to revile a new cutting edge.

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• The importance of the grit shape can be easily
realized because it determines the grit geometry
e.g. rake and clearance angle.
• The grits do not have definite geometry and the
grit rake angle may vary from +45 to -60 or more.
• Grit with favorable geometry can produce chip in
shear mode. However, grits having large negative
rake angle or rounded cutting edge do not form
chips but may rub or make a groove by plowing
leading to lateral flow of the workpiece material.

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Effect of grinding velocity and rake angle on force
• A negative rake angle always leads to higher cutting
force.
• The difference is narrowed at a high grinding velocity
and the grinding force becomes virtually independent of
the rake angle.

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 DEFECTS IN GRINDING
 Major and inevitable defects in grinding are glazing of
grinding wheels. After the continuous use grinding
wheel becomes dull or glazed. Glazing of the wheel is a
condition in which the face or cutting edge acquires a
glass like appearance. That is, the cutting points of the
abrasives have become dull and worn down to bond.
Glazing makes the grinding face of the wheel smoother
and that stops the process of grinding.
 Sometimes grinding wheel is left ‘loaded’. In this
situation its cutting face is found being adhering with
chips of metal. The opening and pores of the wheel face
are found filled with workpiece material particles,
preventing the grinding action. Loading takes place
while grinding workpiece of softer material.

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PROBLEMS RELATED TO GRINDING
1. BALANCING:
-The high wheel speed new wheel to be balanced in special balancing
machines.
-Not balanced wheels affect the quality of the ground surface because of the
vibrations (also can produce accidents when cracked)
2.SAFETY PROBLEMS:
-Speed limit (marked on wheels) should be respected –--Cracking of the wheel
should be avoided (do not hit or drop)-Face of the operator protected against
grain dislodging
safety glasses are mandatory
-Wheel should be shielded –dust should be collected (vacuumed) and filtered
3.RESIDUAL STRESS:
-Surface of the work builds up residual stress; low chip thickness lower stress
4. USE OF COLLANTS:
-cooling & lubrication & collect dust and chips
-Sometimes, with out coolants, better finish is obtained (matter of experience)
5. GRINDING-PRECISION OPERATION: Samples with precision up to 0.25
micron

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 Dressing Of Grinding Wheel

• When the sharpness of grinding wheel becomes dull because of

glazing and loading, dulled grains and chips are removed (crushed
or fallen) with a proper dressing tool to make sharp cutting edges
and simultaneously, make recesses for chips by properly extruding
to grain cutting edges. Thus, these operations are for the dressing.
• Dressing is the process of breaking away the glazed surface so
that sharp particles are again presented to the work.

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 Truing And Dressing Of Grinding Wheel
• Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry on the grinding
wheel, whether the geometry is a special form or flat profile. Therefore,
truing produces the macro-geometry of the grinding wheel.
• Truing and dressing are commonly combined into one operation for
conventional abrasive grinding wheels, but are usually two distinctly
separate operation for super abrasive wheel.

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 Balancing Of Grinding Wheel
• Due to high rpms, unbalanced grinding wheels may have negative effects both on
quality and productivity.
• It is essential to control the vibrations induced in the machine as an effect of the
imbalance of mechanical parts and the rotating grinding wheel.
• To enable the full potential of modern tool grinding machines and to produce
efficiently according to today`s standards, it is absolutely essential to use balanced
tools.

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Grit depth of cut and wheel-workpiece contact length

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• Volume of chip produced by individual grit
depends upon the maximum grit depth of cut,
wheel workpiece contact length and grit width
of cut.

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Material removal rate, MRR
v = workpiece velocity, d = depth of cut, b = width of cut

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 Types Of Grinding Machine
• There are many forms of grinding, but the four major
industrial grinding
• Surface grinding
• Cylindrical grinding
• Centerless grinding
• Internal grinding
• Electrochemical grinding
• Belt grinder
• Bench grinder
• Tool and cutter grinder
• Gear grinder

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Major Advantages And Applications Of Grinding
Advantages
• Dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Good form and locational accuracy applicable to both
hardened and
unhardened material
Applications
• Surface finishing
• Slitting and parting
• De-scaling , De-burring
• Stock removal (abrasive milling) finishing of flat as well as
cylindrical
surface
• Grinding of tools and cutters and re-sharpening of the same.

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Grinding Wheel Materials
• Most abrasives used in industry are synthetic.
• Aluminum oxide is used in three quarters of all
grinding operations, and is primarily used to grind
ferrous metals.
• Next is silicon carbide, which is used for grinding
softer, non-ferrous metals and high density materials,
such as cemented carbide or ceramics.
• Superabrasives, namely cubic boron nitride or
"CBN“ and diamond, are used in about five percent
of grinding. Hard ferrous materials are ground with
"CBN", while non-ferrous materials and non-metals
are best ground with diamond.

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Standard Shapes Of Grinding Wheels

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 Straight Wheel: These are generally used for cylindrical, internal,
centreless and surface grinding operations. These wheels vary in size,
diameter and width of the face. All the parameters depend on the clays of
work for which the wheel is used, size and power of grinding machine
using the wheel.
 Tappered Face Straight Wheels: It is also a straight wheel but its free is
slightly tapered to
facilitate the grinding of threads an gear teeth.
 Cylindrical Wheel Ring: Cylindrical grinding wheel is shown in Figure
2.1 Type 5. It is used for surface grinding, i.e. production of flat surfaces.
Grinding takes place with the help of face of the wheel.
 Cup Wheel: It is used for grinding flat surfaces with the help of face of
grinding wheel.
 Flaring Cup Wheel: It is used in grinding of tools in tool room.
 Saucer Wheel: It is used for sharpening of circular or band saw.
 Segmented Wheel: These are normally on vertical spindle, rotary type
and reciprocating type surface grinders.
 Dish Wheel: It is also used for grinding of tools in tool room. It is
capable to grind very narrow places due to its thinners.

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 Cut off wheels

Cut off or parting wheels are self-sharpening

wheels that are thin in width and often have
radial fibres reinforcing them. They are often
used in the construction industry for cutting
reinforcement steel (rebar), protruding bolts or
anything that needs quick removal or trimming.
Most handymen would recognise an angle
grinder and the discs they use.

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 Grinding wheel flanges clamping force

The clamping force of the grinding wheel flanges is

an important safety parameter of a grinding
operation:
- it must be high enough to drive the wheel without
slippage under the most severe operating conditions
of the machine.
- it must not apply to the wheel an excessive
compression stress which could weaken the wheel.
- it must not distort the flanges.
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Selection Of Grinding Wheel
For grinding a job the right grinding wheel is to be
selected. The selection of a grinding wheel will depend on
the following factors.
• Material to be ground
• Amount of stock to be removed
• Finish required
• Area of contact
• Wheel speed
• Work speed
• Personal factor
• Method of cooling

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 Specification Of Grinding Wheel
i. Abrasives
ii. Bond
iii. Grit/grain size
iv. Grade
v. Structure of wheels

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 Specification of Grinding wheel
• Specification of a grinding wheel ordinarily means compositional
specification. Conventional abrasive grinding wheels are specified
encompassing the following parameters.
– The type of grit material
– The grit size
– The bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as wheel
hardness
– The structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the amount
of inter grit spacing
– The type of bond material
– other than these parameters, the wheel manufacturer may add
their own identification code prefixing or suffixing (or both) the
standard code.
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 Size of a Grinding Wheel
Major dimensions of a grinding wheel are the out side diameter; bore diameter; and
width of the face. In addition to the above geometry of the face of grinding wheel also
matters. It may be flat, pointed, concave, convex, etc.
 Coding of a Grinding Wheel
The Indian Standard Coding system of grinding wheel is IS : 551-1954. It provides
uniform system of coding of grinding wheels to designate their various characteristics.
It gives a general indication of the hardness and grit size of any wheel as compared with
another. Coding of a grinding wheel consists of six symbols as described below.
W : Symbol for Manufacturer’s Abrasive Type (Prefixed)
C : Name of Abrasive
30 : Grain Size
L : Grade
5 : Structure Type
R : Bond Type
17 : Manufacturer Symbol for Record (Suffix)
The sequence of codes of a grinding should be followed in the same sequence as
described above. There are six symbols and first one which is seventh, is optional. 31
Manufacturer’s Symbol
It is optional symbol and criteria of its assignment entirely depends on the
manufacturer’s choice. Two digit numbers are used for this symbol. This is to be defined and
followed by the manufacturer for his own record.
Abrasive Type
This is a alphabet symbol used to indicate the name of abrasive used ‘A’ stands
for Aluminium Oxide and ‘C’ stands for Silicon Carbide.
Grain Size
This number provides idea of grain size of abrasives. It is also called grit. This
number is decided on the basis of number of holes in one inch length of the sieve
used to filter the abrasive particals. Larger number indicates finer grain sizes. On
the basis of grain size abrasive particals can be categorized in four categories as
given below.

Grain size depends upon quantity of material to the ground required quality of
surface finish; and hardness of workpiece material. Find and very fine grain size is
used for precision grinding, however, coarse and medium grain size is used for
rough grinding. 32
 Grade
Grade of a grinding wheel is the indicative of hardness and tenacity of bond of
abrasives. It is represented by capital letters of alphabet ‘A’ to ‘Z’ as described
below.

Selection of grade depends on hardness of workpiece material, grinding speed, contact

area of grinding wheel with the workpiece, capability of grinding machine.
Grinding wheels are named as soft, hard or medium hard wheels depending on their
grade. Abrasives of hard grinding wheels get blunt quickly so these are recommended to
grind workpiece of low hardness and soft grinding wheels are recommended for hard
material workpieces.

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Structure of a Grinding Wheel
• It includes number of abrasives and number of pores in unit volume. The
distribution of abrasives and bores decides the structure of a grinding wheel.
• On the basis of structure grinding wheels are called dense or open grinding wheel.
• In case of dense grinding wheels abrasive particals are densely packed as
compared to open grinding wheel with larger porosity.
• Generally structure of grinding wheel is coded in number. Higher number
indicates open structure of grinding wheel. Structure codes are given below.

• Selection of an appropriate structure depends on hardness of workpiece material;

required quality of surface finish; and type of grinding operation. Normally open
structure wheels are recommended for rough grinding and for softer materials.
Dense structured grinding wheels are recommended for hard and brittle materials.

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Type of Bond
Bond is the binding of abrasive particals together with
the help of adhesive substance.
• Vitrified Bond (V) – Strong and Rigid, commonly
used.
• Resinoid (B) – Provides shock absorption and
elasticity. They are strong enough.
• Silicate (S) – Provides softness (grains dislodge
quickly)
• Shellac (E) – Used for making thin but strong wheels
possessing some elasticity.
• Rubber Bonds (R) – For making flexible wheels.
• Metallic Bond (M) – For diamond wheels only.
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 Grinding Wheel Wear
• Grain fracture: a portion of the grain breaks off, but
the rest of the grain remains bonded in the wheel.
• Attritious wear: dulling of the individual grains,
resulting in flat spots and rounded edges.
• Bond fracture: the individual grains are pulled out of
the bonding material.

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 Grinding Wheel Wear
• (1): the grains are initially sharp, and wear is accelerated due to grain
fracture.
• (2): characterized by attritious wear, with some grain and bond
fracture.
• (3): the grains become dull and the amount of ploughing and rubbing
increases relative to cutting.

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Standard Marking System for Aluminum-Oxide
and Silicon-Carbide Bonded Abrasives

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Standard Marking System for Cubic-Boron-
Nitride and Diamond Bonded Abrasives

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 Grinding Fluids
The Grinding fluid serves three main functions :
• Reduces Wheel wear.
• Cools the workpiece.
• Flushes away the chips.

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 Classification of grinding machine

• Bench grinding machine

• Surface grinding machine
• Cylindrical grinding machine
• Center less grinding machine
• Internal grinding machine
• Special purpose grinding machine

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On the basis of quality of grinding, it is
classified as
Rough Grinding
It involves removal of stock without any
reference to the accuracy of results. Generally,
rough grinding is followed by precision grinding.
Precision Grinding
Precision grinding removes negligible amount of
metal. It is used to produce finished
parts and accurate dimensions.
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 Bench grinder
• Two wheels of different grain sizes for roughing and
finishing operations and is secured to a workbench.

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 Surface Grinding
Surface grinding uses a rotating abrasive wheel to remove
material, creating a flat surface. It is machine basically used to grind
flat surface.
• Job is mounted to a table which moves
longitudinally as well as in transverse direction.
• Manual feed or power feed.
• Work piece is clamped to the table by operating
magnetic chuck.
• Required grade of grinding tool is fixed to spindle.
• Grinding operation is carried out be operating both
table traverse wheel and vertical feed hand wheel.

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 Types Of Surface Grinding Machine
Basically there are four different types of surface
grinding machines characterised by the movement
of their tables and the orientation of grinding
wheel spindles as follows:
• Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table
• Vertical spindle and reciprocating table
• Horizontal spindle and rotary table
• Vertical spindle and rotary table

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 Surface grinding
• In surface grinding, the spindle position is either horizontal or
vertical, and the relative motion of the work piece is achieved either
by reciprocating the work piece past the wheel or by rotating it.
• The possible combinations of spindle orientations and work piece
motions yield four types of surface grinding processes illustrated
in the figure

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Horizontal And Vertical Grinding Machines
• This machine may be similar to a milling machine used
mainly to grind flat surface. However, some types of surface
grinders are also capable of producing contour surface with
formed grinding wheel.

A: rotation of grinding wheel B: reciprocation of worktable C: transverse feed D: down feed

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 Cylindrical Grinding
• It is a process of grinding curved surfaces. Surface may be straight or
tapered.
• Work piece is mounted on two centers, one is tailstock centre and the
other is headstock centre. Head stock center may or may not revolve.

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 Cylindrical Grinding
• In this operation, the external or internal cylindrical surface of a work piece are
ground.
• In external cylindrical grinding (also center-type grinding) the work piece rotates
and reciprocates along its axis, although for large and long work parts the grinding
wheel reciprocates.
• In internal cylindrical grinding, a small wheel grinds the inside diameter of the part.
The work piece is held in a rotating chuck in the headstock and the wheel rotates at
very high rotational speed. In this operation, the work piece rotates and the grinding
wheel reciprocates.

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Internal Grinding Types

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Plunge Cut Grinding
Infeed (Plunge) Grinding is used to grind work pieces
which have projections or shoulders, multiple
diameters or other irregular shapes which preclude
the use of through feed grinding.
For example :- Grinding of crank shaft.
• Considering plunge grinding, in which the wheel
and the workpiece motions act on the same
plane, transverse grinding involves the addition of
crossfeed (transverse motion) of the workpiece
relative to the grinding wheel in a direction
perperdicular to the plane of wheel rotation.

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 Centerless Grinding Machine
• It is used to grind curved surface work piece which are long and slender.
• Work piece rests on a work-rest blade and is backed by a second wheel called as
regulating wheel.
• Grinding wheel pushes the work piece down the work-rest blade against the
regulating wheel.
• Center less grinding differs from centered grinding operations in that no spindle or
fixture is used to locate and secure the work piece.
• The work piece is secured between two rotary grinding wheels, and the speed of their
rotation relative to each other determines the rate at which material is removed from
the work piece.

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Centered grinding

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 Thread Grinding

Figure - Thread grinding by (a) traverse and (b) plunge grinding.

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 Creep Feed Grinding
Full depth and stock is removed with one or two passes at low work speed
• Very high forces are generated
• High rigidity and power Advantages
• Increased accuracy
• Efficiency
• Improve7d surface finish
• Burr reduction
• Reduced stress and fatigue

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 Electrochemical Grinding
• The wheels and work piece are electrically conductive.
• Wheels used last for many grindings - typically 90% of the metal is removed by
electrolysis and 10% from the abrasive grinding wheel.
• Capable of producing smooth edges without the burrs caused by mechanical
grinding.
• Does not produce appreciable heat that would distort workpiece.
• Decomposes the work piece and deposits them into the electrolyte solution. The
most common electrolytes are sodium chloride and sodium nitrate.

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Applications
• Grinding turbine blades
• Grinding honeycomb metals for aerospace application
• Sharpening hypodermic needles
• Machining carbide cutting-tool inserts
• ECG is used to remove surface defects from parts where
excessive material removal and residual stresses are
undesired, such as re-profiling locomotive gears

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 Special Types
 Tool and Cutter: Tool and cutter grinder and the D-bit
grinder. These usually can perform the minor function of the
drill bit grinder, or other specialist tool room grinding
operations
 Jig Grinder: Jig grinder, which as the name implies, has a
variety of uses when finishing jigs, dies, and fixtures. Its
primary function is in the realm of grinding holes and pins. It
can also be used for complex surface grinding
to finish work started on a mill.
 Gear grinder: Gear grinder, which is usually employed as
the final machining process when manufacturing a high-
precision gear. The primary function of these machines is to
remove the remaining few thousandths of an inch of material
left by other manufacturing methods (such as gashing or
hobbing).
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• DISC GRINDERS
For hand grinding operations work supported on
the rest for large wheels
• SNAGGING –rough grinding used on rough
castings
• AIM:-to do metal grinding rapidly but not
accurately.
• Two types: Pedestal type grinder
Swing type grinder

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 PARAMETERS OF GRINDING OPERATION
Normal parameters used in grinding operation are cutting speed, feed
rate and depth of cut. These parameters are described below.
1. Cutting Speed
Cutting speed is grinding wheel is the relative peripheral speed of the
wheel with respect to the workpiece. It is expressed in meter per
minute (mpm) or meter per second (mps).
The cutting speed of grinding wheel can be calculated as

where, D is diameter of grinding wheel in mm. N are the number of

revolution of
grinding wheel if N is expressed in number of revolutions per minute,
V will be in mpm,
if N is expressed in number of revolution per second, V will be in
mps.
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2. Feed Rate
Feed rate is a significant parameter in case of cylindrical grinding and surface grinding.
Feed rate is defined as longitudinal movement of the workpiece relative to axis of
grinding wheel per revolution of grinding wheel. Maximum feed rate should be upto
0.9 time of face width of grinding wheel for rough grinding and upto 0.6 times of face
width of grinding wheel for finish grinding. Feed can not be equal to or more than the
width of grinding wheel. Feed is used to calculate the total grinding time as given
below.

where T is the grinding time (min) L is the required longitudinal travel in mm. i is the
number of passes required to cover whole width S is the longitudinal feed rate
(mm/rev.). N is the rpm and K is the coefficient depending on the specified grade of
accuracy and class of surface finish for rough grinding K = 1 to 1.2 and for finish
grinding K = 1.3 to 1.5.

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3. Depth of Cut
• Depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of the metal removal in one
pass. It is measured in mm. normally depth of cut is kept ranging
0.005 to 0.04 mm. Smaller depth of cuts are set for finish and
precision grinding.
• The table given below shows recommended bonds and cutting speed
for type of a workpiece.

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SUPER FINISHING PROCESSES

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Surface roughness produced
by various processes

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 Super Finishing Processes
With material removal
– Honing, lapping and super finishing
Without (very less) material removal
– Glazing, sand blasting, tumbling, abrasive belt
grinding, polishing and buffing

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 Future topics

• Mechanism and Mechanics of grinding

• High speed grinding
• Machining and grinding under cryogenic
environment.
• Abrasive finishing processes
• Micro and Nano machining of glasses and
ceramics in ductile regime using diamond tool
and diamond grinding wheel.

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 Thank you
Contact details:
Ph No. 9678434603,
Mail id: mayuri.prod@nitjsr.ac.in

Text Book
Machining and Machine Tools,
Chattopadhayey, Wiley.
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